The interface between health sector reform and human resources in health

Comparative Study on the Satisfaction of Healthcare Service Providers with the Synergistic Development of Rural Healthcare Systems in China: Medical Alliance Counties vs. Non-Medical Alliance Counties

Introduction

This study aimed to explore whether the establishment of county medical alliances can improve satisfaction with the vertical integration of healthcare systems among rural medical and healthcare service provider managers and service providers. Our study also sought to provide recommendations for the sustainable development of vertical integration in healthcare systems.

Methods

A semi-structured interview with 30 healthcare service providers was employed in this research, and Nvivo software was utilized to analyze factors that influence vertical integration. From April to July 2021, a multi-stage random sampling method was used to select participants. The sample included two leading hospitals in medical consortia, 15 member units (healthcare service providers and medical staff), two county-level hospitals, and 15 township health centers/community healthcare service centers from non-medical consortia. Questionnaire surveys were conducted with these groups. Factor analysis was used to calculate satisfaction scores for healthcare service providers with the cross-institutional synergistic development of healthcare systems in both medical and non-medical consortia (denoted as M(IQR)). Propensity score matching was employed to reduce confounding factors between groups. The Mann-Whitney U test was used to compare satisfaction differences between groups.

Results

The overall satisfaction scores for lead-county hospital managers, member institution managers, medical staff at the lead-county hospital, and medical staff at member institutions were 4.80 (1.00), 4.17 (1.17), 4.00 (1.38), and 4.00 (1.12), respectively. Lead-county hospital managers' satisfaction with cross-institutional collaboration, development capacity enhancement, and structure and resource integration in the Medical Alliance group showed higher satisfaction than the Non-Medical Alliance. Similarly, lead-county hospital medical staff in the Medical Alliance group reported greater satisfaction with collaboration efforts, supportive environment, and development capacity enhancement. Notably, while the Medical Alliance group's satisfaction scores were higher, the differences between the two groups were not statistically significant for lead-county hospital managers and medical staff. The Medical Alliance group did show statistically significant differences in member institution managers' satisfaction with collaboration, development capacity enhancement, and structure and resource integration. Additionally, medical staff of member institutions in the Medical Alliance group reported statistically significant higher satisfaction with collaboration, supportive environment, development capacity enhancement, healthcare service integration, and human resource development.

Conclusion

To facilitate the establishment of county medical alliances, managers of leading county-level hospitals should adopt a healthcare system integration strategy. This strategy involves evolution from being a member of a single institution to a coordinator of cross-institutional vertical integration of medical and healthcare services. Additionally, revamping remuneration and appraisal systems for members of county medical alliances is necessary. This will encourage cooperation among healthcare institutions within the three-tiered system and their medical staff, ultimately facilitating the provision of integrated services.

The Economics of Shadow Economy in Health: The Case of Greek Physicians Sector

The article attempts to measure and report the extent and magnitude of shadow economy in Greek physicians’ sector. Tax evasion of self-employed doctors as well as informal payments to doctors in public health structures are identified as the two main parameters of shadow economy in this sector. This research attempts to create a standard multidimensional methodological model of approach and analysis of the shadow economy in physicians’ sector. This multidimensional model applied in Greece includes two phases of development of the research tools used. In the first phase, the level of tax evasion of self-employed doctors was assessed with a specific innovative methodology based on the following. Household expenditures for services of private doctors for the period 2011–2017 were analysed using data from the annual ‘Household Budget Survey-(HBS)’ of the Greek Statistical Authority and were compared with the financial data of the ‘Statistical Business Register-(SBR)’, which is updated with data from the Hellenic Tax Authority. In the second phase, the amount of ‘informal payments’ to doctors of the public sector was determined for the period 2011–2017. The survey made use of the HBS data on household expenditure for public care, which were compared with the revenue of public hospitals from private patients.

Structural quality of labor and delivery care in government hospitals of Ethiopia: a descriptive analysis

Background

Ethiopia has low skilled birth attendance rates coupled with low quality of care within health facilities contributing to one of the highest maternal mortality rates in Sub-Saharan Africa, at 412 deaths per 100,000 live births. There is lack of evidence on the readiness of health facilities to deliver quality labor and delivery (L&D) care. This paper describes the structural quality of routine L&D care in government hospitals of Ethiopia.

Methods

A facility-based cross-sectional study design, involving census of all government hospitals in Southern Nations Nationalities and People’s Region (SNNPR) (N = 20) was conducted in November 2016 through facility audit using a structured checklist. Data collectors verified the availability and functioning of the required items through observation and interview with the heads of labor and delivery case team. An overall mean score of structural quality was calculated considering domain scores such as general infrastructure, human resource and essential drugs, supplies, equipment and laboratory services. Summary statistics such as proportion, mean and standard deviation were computed to describe the degree of adherence of the hospitals to the standards related to structural quality of routine labor and delivery care.

Results

One third of hospitals had low readiness to provide quality routine L&D care, with only two approaching near fulfilment of all the standards. Hospitals had fulfilled 68.2% of the standards for the structural aspects of quality of L&D care. Of the facility audit criteria, the availability of essential equipment and supplies for infection prevention scored the highest (88.8%), followed by safety, comfort and woman friendliness of the environment (76.4%). Availability skilled health professionals and quality management practices scored 72.5% each, while availability of the required items of general infrastructure was 64.6%. The two critical domains with the lowest score were availability of essential drugs, supplies and equipment (52.2%); and laboratory services and safe blood supply (50%).

Conclusion

Substantial capacity gaps were observed in the hospitals challenging the provision of quality routine L&D care services, with only two thirds of required resources available. The largest gaps were in laboratory services and safe blood, and essential drugs, supplies and equipment. The results suggest the need to ensure that all public hospitals in SNNPR meet the required structure to enable the provision of quality routine L&D care with emphases on the identified gaps.

Healthcare Professionals’ Views of the Integrated County Healthcare Consortium in Zhejiang, China

Introduction:

The integrated county healthcare consortium (ICHC) is becoming an important measure to improve the capacity of primary-level medical services and to achieve grading diagnosis and treatment system in China. However, it is not clear whether health professionals are satisfied with this reform and what are the problems with it. This study aimed to understand the satisfaction of healthcare professionals to the ICHC in Zhejiang Province, China, and analyze the problems and improvement measures of the ICHC.

Methods:

A cross-sectional study was carried out in the 11 pilot counties (cities and districts) implementing the construction of the ICHC in Zhejiang in November 2019. Healthcare professionals from the leading county-level hospital, three township health centers (THCs) or community health centers (CHCs) in each ICHC were invited to participate in this survey.

Results:

A total of 3531 healthcare professionals were included, 85.92% of the participants agreed that the integration of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) and other professional public health institutions into the construction of ICHC could actively promote basic public health work. The most severe problem was the lack of financial guarantee fund input (severity score: 2.92 ± 1.76). The most crucial measure to promote the construction of the ICHC was to increase government financial input and improve the security mechanism (importance score: 4.81 ± 0.47). The satisfaction of the healthcare professionals to the ICHC was 89.41%. The satisfaction of healthcare professionals from county-level hospitals was 2.37 (95% CI: 1.760–3.238) times higher than that of healthcare professionals from the township health centers (THCs) or community health centers (CHCs). The satisfaction of health professionals with a college degree or below was 3.215 (95% CI: 1.413–6.786) times higher than that of health professionals with a master’s degree or above.

Conclusions:

Zhejiang Province has taken adequate measures to promote the construction of the ICHC. However, there are still some problems. Appropriate and effective policies should be implemented to enhance policy coordination and promote competition among ICHCs, as well as to strengthen medical service quality management and improve performance appraisal scheme.

Physician perspectives on the implications of the diagnosis-related groups for medical practice in Turkey: A qualitative study

Hospital reimbursement models might have unintended consequences for medical practice. In Turkey, a mixed reimbursement scheme, based on the diagnosis‐related group (DRG) model and global budget, was gradually introduced as part of the country's 2003 healthcare reforms. This article examines the impacts of the DRG model on medical practice in Turkey, as perceived by physicians working in public and private hospitals. This study draws on an analysis of 14 interviews with physicians. The findings reveal that the implementation of the DRG has transformed medical practice into a process of cost‐benefit optimisation which involves balancing the income and expenses of hospitals against patients' medical needs. To mitigate the negative effects of the DRG, the current model may need to be reformed, particularly to grant exemptions from the standard reimbursement structure for patients who are experiencing complications and/or multiple health conditions.

The diagnosis‐related group has transformed medical practice in Turkey into a process of optimisation.

Physicians are responsible for balancing hospital budgets against patients' medical needs under the current reimbursement model.

Limited reimbursements for most of healthcare services hinder effective medical practice.

Physicians agree upon the need to increase hospital reimbursement levels by the Social Security Institution.

Implementing a digital human resources management tool in the government health sector in Bangladesh: a policy content analysis

INTRODUCTION

In Bangladesh, to address the challenges of ensuring adequate human resources for health (HRH), the government began implementing a digital tool for HRH management in 2017. However, evidence suggests institutionalizing such tools in low-and-middle-income countries is impeded by policy aspects like implementation strategy and poor regulatory framework. Therefore, we aimed to explore factors in the current policy landscape that might facilitate and challenge the implementation of the tool in Bangladesh.

METHODS

We conducted a review of policies related to ICT implementation and human resources management in the health sector in Bangladesh using qualitative content analysis method. Ten policies have been identified, and extensive reading was done to ascertain common themes and patterns. A document analysis matrix was developed to synthesize and help interpret the findings.

RESULTS

Regarding facilitators, strong upstream level commitments were reflected in the content of policies in terms of setting out specific objectives, targets, timelines, and budget allocation. However, the lack of explicit monitoring strategy and extent of stakeholders' engagement was not well-defined, ultimately creating chances for impeding downstream implementation. In addition, effective coordination among stakeholders and different HRH and ICT policies could be strengthened.

DISCUSSION

Findings support the current discourse that national commitment plays a vital role in the integration of ICTs in health services. However, well-defined monitoring strategy and inter-ministry and intra-ministry policy coordination are crucial.

Funding of health professional education: China's 20-year process and a global comparison

CONTEXT

Funding is an essential requirement for ensuring the quality of health professional education worldwide. Adequate funding is of immense significance in training health professionals. Due to the difficulty of accessing relevant data, quantitative research of the kind is scarce.

OBJECTIVES

This study aims at analysing the trends of funding levels and funding sources for health professional institutions in China spanning the past 20 years and making a global comparison.

METHODS

We used data from Ministry of Education (MOE) of the People's Republic of China to analyse its funding level and structure of funding sources of health professional education in China during 1998-2017. When analysing funding level, we used two indicators: total funding and funding per student. We chose the United States, and analysed its funding level and structure to allow easy comparison to the situation in China. The data from a Lancet report (Lancet, 376, 2010, 1923) were also used to analyse global funding status to make an international comparison.

RESULTS

Funding levels of health professional institutions in China has increased significantly in the past 20 years, while the average annual growth rate of funding per student (4.5%) is lower than that of total funding (19.9%). In terms of the structure of funding sources, fiscal appropriation accounts for 51.1% on average, and tuition, fees and scientific research income explains 37.0%.

CONCLUSION

From 1998 to 2017, the total funding and funding per student of HPE in China increased continuously, and the total funding increased at a faster rate. The increase in funding of HPE in China is closely related to the efforts of the Chinese government and the implementation of relevant policies. Even so, funding of HPE in China is likely to remain relatively low compared to other countries.

Motivators for medical staff with a high gap in healthcare efficiency: Comparative research from Poland and Ukraine

INTRODUCTION

This article examines different motivators for medical staff in countries with a high gap in healthcare efficiency by comparing them in two healthcare systems-Polish (ie efficient) and Ukrainian (ie inefficient).

METHOD

This survey-based study applies a six-stage conceptual framework to two Polish and two Ukrainian hospitals as well as medical faculties of one university from each country. Following ethical approval, data were collected in the first quarter of 2019, using the 'Evaluation of motivators questionnaire for medical staff'.

FINDINGS

Medical staff perceived their working conditions in the inefficient healthcare system much worse than in the efficient system; however, they generally had a more optimistic outlook. Medical staff in efficient and inefficient healthcare systems has different motivational targets, including sizable differences from profession, gender, and age. These factors play an important role in developing a high-performance healthcare system. Results are illustrated in terms of motivators for medical staff.

CONCLUSION

Optimising a healthcare system requires useful reform of enablers, especially in countries with inefficient systems, including policymaking and regulatory action. Best practices must incorporate all stakeholders interested in high healthcare performance-usage of suitable practices from abroad can act as an important resource.

"Three Nooses on Our Head": The Influence of District Health Reforms on Maternal Health Service Delivery in Vietnam

BACKGROUND

The impact of reorganisation on health services delivery is a recurring issue in every healthcare system. In 2005 Vietnam reorganised the delivery of health services at the district level by splitting preventive, curative, and administrative roles. This qualitative study explored how these reforms impacted on the organisation of maternal health service delivery at district and commune levels.

METHODS

Forty-three semi-structured interviews were conducted with health staff and managers involved in the provision of maternal health services from the commune to the central level within five districts of two Northern provinces in Vietnam. The data were analysed thematically.

RESULTS

The results showed that 10 years after the reforms created three district-level entities, participants reported difficulties in management of health services at the district and commune levels in Vietnam. The reforms were largely perceived to negatively affect the efficient and effective use of clinical and other resources. At the commune level, the reforms are said to have affected the quality of supervision of the communes and their staff and increased the workload in community health centres.

CONCLUSION

The findings from this study suggest that the current organisation of district health services in Vietnam may have had unintended negative consequences. It also indicates that countries which decide to reform their systems in a manner similar to Vietnam need to pay attention to coordination between a multiplicity of agencies at the district level.

Postings and transfers in the Ghanaian health system: a study of health workforce governance

BACKGROUND

Decision-making on postings and transfers - that is, the geographic deployment of the health workforce - is a key element of health workforce governance. When poorly managed, postings and transfers result in maldistribution, absenteeism, and low morale. At stake is managing the balance between organisational (i.e., health system) and individual (i.e., staff preference) needs. The negotiation of this potential convergence or divergence of interests provides a window on practices of postings and transfers, and on the micro-practices of governance in health systems more generally. This article explores the policies and processes, and the interplay between formal and informal rules and norms which underpin postings and transfers practice in two rural districts in the Greater Accra Region of Ghana.

METHODS

Semi-structured interviews were conducted with eight district managers and 87 frontline staff from the district health administration, district hospital, polyclinic, health centres and community outreach compounds across two districts. Interviews sought to understand how the postings and transfers process works in practice, factors in frontline staff and district manager decision-making, personal experiences in being posted, and study leave as a common strategy for obtaining transfers.

RESULTS

Differential negotiation-spaces at regional and district level exist and inform postings and transfers in practice. This is in contrast to the formal cascaded rules set to govern decision-making authority for postings and transfers. Many frontline staff lack policy clarity of postings and transfers processes and thus 'test' the system through informal staff lobbying, compounding staff perception of the postings and transfers process as being unfair. District managers are also challenged with limited decision-space embedded in broader policy contexts of systemic hierarchy and resource dependence. This underscores the negotiation process as ongoing, rather than static.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings point to tensions between individual and organisational goals. This article contributes to a burgeoning literature on postings and transfers as a distinct dynamic which bridges the interactions between health systems governance and health workforce development. Importantly, this article helps to expand the notion of health systems governance beyond 'good' governance towards understanding governance as a process of negotiation.

Job Perceptions of Public Health Workforce in Rural Area of Yavatmal District, Maharashtra, India

Introduction:

Being a primary source for health care delivery, public health personnel shall be well trained and motivated as their performance has a strong impact on overall health system performance. There is large gap in knowledge about determinants of motivation in Indian set-up; so the present study was undertaken to understand the perceptions of health workforce regarding their job conditions and their expectations.

Material and methods:

Cross-sectional study was conducted in District Yavatmal, Maharashtra, India. Total participants were 940 which included 96 medical officers (MOs) and 844 allied health personnels (AHPs). Data collection was completed using structured self-administered questionnaire.

Results:

Highest number of MOs mentioned ‘good working relationship’ (93 per cent) while among AHPs highest participant consider ‘training opportunity’ (88 per cent) as ‘more important attribute’. Among MOs difference between expected and availability of study attributes was statistically significant for 14 attributes but none in favour of availability. In AHP group, significantly higher proportion of respondents felt that good working relationships, good income, superior recognizing good work were considered as more important attributes by fewer respondents but significantly greater proportion of respondents in AHP group felt that these attributes were present in the job.

Discussion and conclusions:

Findings suggested that for MOs motivating factors in job was related to the independence in working and recognition from superiors and patients while AHPs’ main motivational force seemed to be recognition and clarity of work. Training opportunity and congenial environment at workplace were common desirable attributes. There were few attributes which majority of health workforce considered as ‘mostly available attribute’ in their present job which leaves much scope for improvement in job conditions for health workforce in rural area.

Preceptoria em Medicina de Família e Comunidade: desafios e realizações em uma Atenção Primária à Saúde em construção

Resumo O fortalecimento da Atenção Primária à Saúde (APS) depende diretamente da formação de médicos especialistas em cuidados primários. Este texto tem como objetivo relatar as experiências de formação em Medicina de Família e Comunidade (MFC) no município do Rio de Janeiro entre os anos 2008 e 2016, tendo como objeto de reflexão o desenvolvimento de preceptores no âmbito da especialização médica, por meio do relato de experiência de três programas de Residência Médica em MFC (PRMFC): da Secretaria Municipal de Saúde (SMS), da Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro e da Escola Nacional de Saúde Pública. Dentro do cenário de reforma da APS no Rio de Janeiro criou-se a demanda por médicos especialistas para atuação na rede levando à ampliação dos PRM já estabelecidos e à criação do PRMFC-SMS, propiciando novos espaços de ensino em muitas unidades de saúde da rede municipal. Por caminhos distintos esses PRM avançaram na capacitação de seus preceptores, ofertando cursos e ações locais permanentes, na busca por maior qualificação profissional e melhor equilíbrio entre as responsabilidades de cuidado e de ensino. Investimentos permanentes no fortalecimento dos PRM e na capacitação de preceptores são essenciais para consolidar a reforma na APS em todo o Brasil.

Health system reform in peri-urban communities: an exploratory study of policy strategies towards healthcare worker reform in Epworth, Zimbabwe

Background

Human resources for health (HRH) remains a critical challenge, according to the Kampala Declaration and Agenda for Global Action of 2008 and the 2030 Sustainable Development Agenda. Available literature on health system reforms does not provide a detailed narrative on strategies that have been used to reform HRH challenges in peri-urban communities. This study explores such strategies implemented in Epworth, Zimbabwe, during 2009–2014, and the implications these strategies might have on other peri-urban areas.

Design

Qualitative and quantitative methods were used in an exploratory and cross-sectional design. Purposive sampling was used to select key informants, a sample of healthcare workers that participated in in-depth interviews and community members who took part in focus group discussions. Secondary data were collected through a documentary search. Qualitative data were analysed through thematic analysis. Quantitative secondary data were examined using descriptive statistics and then compared with qualitative data to reinforce analysis.

Results

The HRH reform policy strategies that were identified included ministerial intervention; policy review; and revival of the human resource for health planning, financial planning, multi-sector collaboration, and community engagement. These had some positive effects; however, desired outcomes were undermined by financial, material, human resource, and social constraints.

Conclusions

Despite constraints, the strategies helped revive the health delivery system in Epworth. In turn, this had a favourable outlook on post-2008 efforts by the Global Health Alliance towards healthcare worker reform and the 2030 Sustainable Development Agenda in peri-urban communities.

Job Satisfaction among Doctors of a Government Medical College and Hospital of Eastern India

BACKGROUND

Job satisfaction expresses the extent of congruence between an individual’s expectation of the job and the reward that the job provides.Job satisfaction among doctors is an issue that is of utmost importance because offactors like patient relationships and time pressures associated with managed care. The current study was done to determine the level of job satisfaction in doctors posted in a tertiary care hospital of eastern India and to find out the factors associated with it.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A descriptive cross sectional study was conducted among 255 doctors posted in a tertiary care hospital of eastern India. Data werecollected using a self-reported questionnaire consisting of 49 items addressing the seven domains of job satisfaction, where higher values indicated higher level of satisfaction. The average scores of items were computed to construct factor scores for each individual. Two stage cluster analysis was performed to get the proportion of satisfied doctors and binary logistic regression was used for comparison of predictors of job satisfaction.

RESULTS

The proportion of job satisfaction was found to be 59.6% and the most important factor was found to be working space. On adjustment, the odds of being satisfied were found to be higher in the older age groups, among males, doctors posted in preclinical or paraclinical departments and those staying in present setting for 5 years or more.

CONCLUSION

More than half of the doctors were found to be satisfied with their job which can help the policy makers to make necessary strategies to increase the level of satisfaction of the employees. .

Positive effects of medical staffing on readmission within 30 days after discharge: a retrospective analysis of obstetrics and gynecology data

BACKGROUND

Improving quality of care is a major healthcare goal; however, the relationship between limited resources and appropriate healthcare distribution has always been problematic. Planning for resource shortages is important for improving healthcare quality. The aim of our study was to evaluate the effects of manpower planning on improvements in quality of care by estimating the effects of medical staffing on readmission within 30 days after discharge.

METHODS

We conducted an observational study using 2011-14 National Health Claim data from 692 hospitals and 633 461 admissions. The database included information on uterine (including adnexa) procedures (195 270 cases) and cesarean deliveries (438 191 cases). The outcome variable was readmission within 30 days after discharge. A generalized estimating equation model was used to evaluate associations between readmission and medical staffing.

RESULTS

The number of doctors and the proportion of registered nurses (RNs) were significantly associated with a lower risk of readmission within 30 days (proportion of RNs, Relative Risk (RR): 0.97, P values: 0.0025; number of doctors, RR: 0.96, P values: <0.0001). The number of nurses (RNs + licensed practical nurses) was not associated with readmission within 30 days (RR: 1.01, P values: <0.0001).

CONCLUSION

Our results suggested that higher numbers of doctors and higher proportions of RNs were positively correlated with a lower risk of readmission within 30 days. Human resource planning to solve manpower shortages should carefully consider the qualitative aspects of clinical care and include long-term planning.

Health personnel retention strategies in a peri-urban community: an exploratory study on Epworth, Zimbabwe

BACKGROUND

The need to retain health personnel is a policy challenge undermining health system reform of the 21st century. The need to resolve this global health workforce crisis resulted in the First Global Forum on Human Resources for Health in 2008 from which the Kampala Declaration and Agenda for Global Action was formulated. However, whilst there have been several studies exploring the retention of health personnel towards this end, available literature does not provide a detailed narrative on strategies used in peri-urban communities. The aim of this study was to explore retention strategies implemented in a Zimbabwean peri-urban community between 2009 and 2014 and implications for peri-urban communities towards the health system reform agenda.

METHODS

The study was carried out in Epworth, a peri-urban community in Harare, Zimbabwe. The research design was a cross-sectional survey, in which qualitative methods were used in sampling, data collection, reporting and analysis. Qualitative tools were used to collect data through in-depth interviews with purposively selected health personnel managers at 10 local clinics and sample interviews with purposively selected healthcare workers who included registered general nurses, state-certified nurses, midwives, environmental health technicians, nurse aids and community health volunteers at each clinic. Two focus group discussions were carried out with community health volunteers. Qualitative data was subjected to thematic analysis, with coding being performed manually.

RESULTS

A programme-specific strategic partnership between the government and donor community contributed towards the mobilisation of more health personnel, health facilities, worker development and remuneration. To complement this, the Ministry of Health intervened through the review and payment of salaries, support towards post-basic training and development, and protection. The local board, mission and donors contributed through the payment of top-up allowances and provision of non-monetary incentives.

CONCLUSIONS

The review of salaries, engagement of international strategic partners, payment of top-up allowances, support towards post-basic training and development, mobilisation of more health personnel, non-monetary incentives and healthcare worker protection were critical towards the retention of health personnel in the Epworth peri-urban community between 2009 and 2014.

Health workforce development in the European Union: A matrix for comparing trajectories of change in the professions

This article assesses professional development trajectories in top-, middle- and basic-level health workforce groups (doctors, nurses, care assistants) in different European Union countries using available international databases. Three theoretical strands (labour market, welfare state, and professions studies) were connected to explore ideal types and to develop a matrix for comparison. With a focus on larger EU-15 countries and four different types of healthcare systems, Germany, Italy, Sweden and the United Kingdom serve as empirical test cases. The analysis draws on selected indicators from public statistics/OECD data and micro-data from the EU Labour Force Survey. Five ideal typical trajectories of professional development were identified from the literature, which served as a matrix to compare developments in the three health workforce groups. The results reveal country-specific trajectories with uneven professional development and bring opportunities for policy interventions into view. First, there is a need for integrated health labour market monitoring systems to improve data on the skills mix of the health workforce. Second, a relevant number of health workers with fixed contracts and involuntary part-time reveals an important source for better recruitment and retention strategies. Third, a general trend towards increasing numbers while worsening working conditions was identified across our country cases. This trend hits care assistants, partly also nurses, the most. The research illustrates how public data sources may serve to create new knowledge and promote more sustainable health workforce policy.

Application of research and information to human resources policies: regional goals for the Americas

Objective Report experiences involving the use of research and information systems to support national human resources policies through benchmarking between different countries, with comparisons over time and between similar countries or regions. Method In 2007, the Pan American Health Organization (PAHO) promoted a set of goals for all the countries in the Americas to improve the situation of health human resources, using a uniform methodology and research process carried out by Observatories of Human Resources. Results The analysis focused on the progress made in relation to the main challenges in the Southern Cone countries, with a special emphasis on Brazil, noting improvements in the distribution of professionals in the regions. Conclusion These experiences showed how research and the use of information systems can stimulate the expansion of good practices in the training, retention and development of the health workforce in the Americas.

Motivation of health workers and associated factors in public hospitals of West Amhara, Northwest Ethiopia

BACKGROUND

Health professionals' motivation reflects the interaction between health professionals and their work environment. It can potentially affect the provision of health services; however, this important attribute of the workplace climate in public hospitals is not usually given serious attention to the desired level. For this reason, the authors of this study have assessed the level of motivation of health professionals and associated factors in public hospitals of West Amhara, Northwest Ethiopia.

METHODS

A facility based cross-sectional study was conducted in eight public hospitals of West Amhara from June 1 to July 30, 2013. A total of 304 health professionals were included in this study. The collected data were analyzed using SPSS software version 20. The reliability of the instrument was assessed through Cronbach's α. Factor scores were generated for the items found to represent the scales (eigenvalue greater than one in varimax rotation) used in the measurement of the variables. The scores were further analyzed using one-way analysis of variance, t-tests, Pearson's correlation, and hierarchical multiple linear regression analyses. The cut-off point for the regression analysis to determine significance was set at β (95% confidence interval, P<0.05).

RESULTS

Mean motivation scores (as the percentage of maximum scale scores) were 58.6% for the overall motivation score, 71.0% for the conscientiousness scale, 52.8% for the organizational commitment scale, 58.3% for the intrinsic motivation scale, and 64.0% for organizational burnout scale. Professional category, age, type of the hospital, nonfinancial motivators like performance evaluation and management, staffing and work schedule, staff development and promotion, availability of necessary resources, and ease of communication were found to be strong predictors of health worker motivation. Across the hospitals and professional categories, health workers' overall level of motivation with absolute level of compensation was not significantly associated with their overall level of motivation.

CONCLUSION

The strongest drivers of all motivation dimensions were found to be nonfinancial human resource management tools, so policy makers and health workforce stake holders should focus on these tools to alleviate motivation problems.

Desigualdades sociais, políticas de saúde e formação de médicos, enfermeiros e dentistas no Brasil e em Portugal

ResumoO estudo analisa a produção do conhecimento científico sobre desigualdades sociais em saúde e discute sua relação com as políticas de formação de dentistas, enfermeiros e médicos no Brasil e em Portugal. Foram identificados documentos publicados em Português, Francês, Inglês e Espanhol, entre janeiro de 2000 e dezembro de 2012, por meio da combinação de levantamento em bases de dados eletrônicas, manual e intencional da literatura cinzenta. Foram selecionados 53 documentos de um total de 1652. Os resultados mostram escassez de conhecimento para permitir a avaliação das políticas de formação de recursos humanos em saúde em geral e aquelas relativas a médicos, enfermeiros e dentistas, em particular. No Brasil, ainda são poucos os estudos que procuram entender como essa formação pode contribuir para a diminuição das desigualdades e, para Portugal, não encontramos estudos que estabeleçam uma relação direta entre a formação de recursos humanos e um eventual papel que esses poderão desempenhar no combate às desigualdades. Apesar de um grande aumento na produção científica, muitas lacunas persistem nesse campo. A produção de conhecimento e sua relação com a tomada de decisão parecem ainda ser processos separados nos dois países.

Health workforce policy and Turkey's health care reform

The health care industry is labor intensive and depends on well-trained and appropriately deployed health professionals to deliver services. This article examines the health workforce challenges in the context of Turkey's recent health reform initiative, Health Transformation Program (HTP). Reformers identified shortages, imbalances in the skills-mix, and inequities in the geographical distribution of health professionals as among the major problems. A comprehensive set of policies was implemented within the HTP framework to address these problems. The article argues that these policies addressed some of the health workforce challenges, while on the other hand exacerbating others and hence may have resulted in increasing the burden on the workforce. So far HTP's governance reforms and health human resource policy have not encouraged meaningful participation of other key stakeholders in the governance of the health care system. Without effective participation of health professionals, the next stages of HTP implementation that focus on managerial reforms such as restructuring public hospitals, improving the primary care system and implementing new initiatives on quality improvement could be very difficult.

Assessment of human resources for health programme implementation in 15 Latin American and Caribbean countries

BACKGROUND

The health systems in the Americas region are characterized by fragmentation and segmentation, which constitute an important barrier to expanding coverage, achieving integrated primary health care, and reducing inefficiency and discontinuity of care. An assessment of the human resources for health (HRH) programmes that have been implemented at the country level was developed as part of the measurement of the 20 HRH regional goals for 2007-2015, adopted in 2007 by the Pan American Sanitary Conference (CSPA).

METHODS

The exercise was a combination of academic research and the development/application of an advocacy tool involving policy makers and stakeholders to influence the decision-making in the development, implementation, or change of HRH programmes while building evidence through a structured approach based on qualitative and quantitative information and the exchange and dissemination of best practices.

RESULTS

This paper covers the methodological challenges, as well as a summary of the main findings of the study, which included 15 countries: Belize, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua and Panama in the Central America, Dominican Republic in the Caribbean, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador and Peru in the Andean sub region, and Argentina, Paraguay, and Uruguay in the South Cone. Despite the different contexts, the results showed that the programmes evaluated faced common challenges, such as lack of political support and financial unsustainability.

CONCLUSIONS

The evaluation process allowed the exchange and dissemination of practices, interventions, and programmes currently running in the region. A shared lesson was the importance of careful planning of the implementation of programmes and interventions. The similarities in the problems and challenges of HRH among the participating countries highlighted the need for a cooperation programme on the evaluation and assessment of implementation strategies in the Americas region.

Industrial relations conflict in Irish hospitals: a review of Labour Court cases

PURPOSE

The purpose of this paper is to explore the nature of industrial relations (IR), and IR conflict in the Irish healthcare sector.

DESIGN/METHODOLOGY/APPROACH

The paper is based on a thematic analysis of Labour Court cases concerning hospitals over a ten-year period.

FINDINGS

The findings of the paper indicate that the nature of IR conflict is changing in healthcare. The paper suggests that alternative manifestations of IR conflict evident in the Irish healthcare sector include: absenteeism as a form of temporary exit; and resistance. The key groups in the sector are discussed in the context of their contrasting disputes. The themes which characterise negotiations are identified as precedent, procedure and partnership.

RESEARCH LIMITATIONS/IMPLICATIONS

The research was conducted in the healthcare sector, and thus its transferability is limited. Caution is also required as the research pertains to one national setting, which despite sharing some structural similarities with other health and IR systems, is a unique context. The paper highlights the importance of recognising IR conflict in its various forms. It is further suggested that managing the process of IR conflict may be significant in furthering change agendas.

ORIGINALITY/VALUE

The value of the paper centres on the investigation of alternative manifestations of IR conflict in the healthcare sector.

Longitudinal study of rural health workforce in five counties in China: research design and baseline description

BACKGROUND

The village doctors have served rural residents for many decades in China, and their role in rural health system has been highly praised in the world; unfortunately, less attention has been paid to the health workforce during the ambitious healthcare reform in recent years. Therefore, we conducted a longitudinal study to explore the current situation and track the future evolution of the rural healthcare workforce.

METHODS

The self-administered structured Village Clinic Questionnaire and Village Doctor Questionnaire, which were modified from the official questionnaires of the Ministry of Health, were constructed after three focus groups, in-depth interviews in Hebei Province, and a pilot survey in Sichuan Province. Using a stratified multistage cluster sampling process, we gathered baseline data for a longitudinal survey of village doctors, village clinics from Changshu County, Liyang County, Yongchuan District, Mianzhu County, and Jingning County in China in 2011. Well-trained interviewers and strict procedures were employed to ensure the quality of this survey. Descriptive and correlation analyses were performed with Stata 12.0.

RESULTS

After four months of surveying, 1,982 Village Doctor Questionnaires were collected, and the response rate was 88.1%. There were 1,507 (76.0%) male and 475 (24.0%) female doctors, with an average age of 51.3 years. The majority of village doctors (58.5%) practiced both western medicine and Traditional Chinese Medicine, and 91.2% of the doctors received their education below college level. Their practice methods were not correlated with education level (P = 0.43), but closely related to the way they obtained their highest degree (that is, prior to starting work or as on-the-job training) (P < 0.01). The mean income of the village doctors was 1,817 (95% CI 1,733 to 1,900) RMB per month in 2011; only 757 (41.3%) doctors had pensions, and the self-reported expected pension was 1,965 RMB per month.

CONCLUSIONS

Village doctors in rural China are facing critical challenges, including aging, gender imbalance, low education, and a lack of social protection. This study may be beneficial for making better policies for the development of the health workforce and China's healthcare reform.

Understanding the factors influencing health-worker employment decisions in South Africa

BACKGROUND

The provision of health care in South Africa has been compromised by the loss of trained health workers (HWs) over the past 20 years. The public-sector workforce is overburdened. There is a large disparity in service levels and workloads between the private and public sectors. There is little knowledge about the nonfinancial factors that influence HWs choice of employer (public, private or nongovernmental organization) or their choice of work location (urban, rural or overseas). This area is under-researched and this paper aims to fill these gaps in the literature.

METHOD

The study utilized cross-sectional survey data gathered in 2009 in the province of KwaZulu-Natal. The HWs sample came from three public hospitals (n = 430), two private hospitals (n = 131) and one nongovernmental organization (NGO) hospital (n = 133) in urban areas, and consisted of professional nurses, staff nurses and nursing assistants.

RESULTS

HWs in the public sector reported the poorest working conditions, as indicated by participants' self-reports on stress, workloads, levels of remuneration, standard of work premises, level of human resources and frequency of in-service training. Interesting, however, HWs in the NGO sector expressed a greater desire than those in the public and private sectors to leave their current employer.

CONCLUSIONS

To minimize attrition from the overburdened public-sector workforce and the negative effects of the overall shortage of HWs, innovative efforts are required to address the causes of HWs dissatisfaction and to further identify the nonfinancial factors that influence work choices of HWs. The results highlight the importance of considering a broad range of nonfinancial incentives that encourage HWs to remain in the already overburdened public sector.

Right place of human resource management in the reform of health sector

BACKGROUND

In this paper the real role and place of human resource (HR) in health system reform will be discussed and determined within the whole system through the comprehensive Human Resource Management (HRM) model.

METHOD

Delphi survey and a questionnaire were used to 1) collect HR manager ideas and comments and 2) identify the main challenges of HRM. Then the results were discussed in an expert panel after being analyzed by content analysis method. Also, a deep focus study of recorded documents related to Health Human Resource Management was done. Then based on all achieved results, a rich picture was drawn to illustrate the right place of HRM in health sector. Finally, the authors revitalize the missed function of HRM within the health sector by drawing a holistic conceptual model.

RESULT

The most percentage of frequency about HR belongs to "Lack of reliable HR information system" (91%) and the least percentage of frequency belongs to "Low responsibility of HR" (28%). The most percentage of frequency about HR manager belongs to "Inattention to HR managers as key managers and consider them in background" (80%) and the least percentage of frequency belongs to "Lack of coordination between universities' policies" (30%). According to the conceptual framework, human resources employed in health system are viewed from two comprehensive approaches: instrumental approach and institutional.

CONCLUSION

Unlike the common belief that looks HRM through the supportive approach, it is discussed that HRM not only has an instrumental role, but also do have a driver role.

Health services reform in Bangladesh: hearing the views of health workers and their professional bodies

Background

In Bangladesh, widespread dissatisfaction with government health services did not improve during the Health and Population Sector Programme (HPSP) reforms from 1998-2003. A 2003 national household survey documented public and health service users' views and experience. Attitudes and behaviour of health workers are central to quality of health services. To investigate whether the views of health workers influenced the reforms, we surveyed local health workers and held evidence-based discussions with local service managers and professional bodies.

Methods

Some 1866 government health workers in facilities serving the household survey clusters completed a questionnaire about their views, experience, and problems as workers. Field teams discussed the findings from the household and health workers' surveys with local health service managers in five upazilas (administrative sub-districts) and with the Bangladesh Medical Association (BMA) and Bangladesh Nurses Association (BNA).

Results

Nearly one half of the health workers (45%) reported difficulties fulfilling their duties, especially doctors, women, and younger workers. They cited inadequate supplies and infrastructure, bad behaviour of patients, and administrative problems. Many, especially doctors (74%), considered they were badly treated as employees. Nearly all said lack of medicines in government facilities was due to inadequate supply, not improved during the HPSP. Two thirds of doctors and nurses complained of bad behaviour of patients. A quarter of respondents thought quality of service had improved as a result of the HPSP.

Local service managers and the BMA and BNA accepted patients had negative views and experiences, blaming inadequate resources, high patient loads, and patients' unrealistic expectations. They said doctors and nurses were demotivated by poor working conditions, unfair treatment, and lack of career progression; private and unqualified practitioners sought to please patients instead of giving medically appropriate care. The BMA considered it would be dangerous to attempt to train and register unqualified practitioners.

Conclusions

The continuing dissatisfaction of health workers may have undermined the effectiveness of the HPSP. Presenting the views of the public and service users to health managers helped to focus discussions about quality of services. It is important to involve health workers in health services reforms.

The Rwanda Field Epidemiology and Laboratory Training Program: training skilled disease detectives

Rwanda still suffers from communicable diseases which frequently lead to epidemics. In addition to other health workforce needs, Rwanda also lacks a public health workforce that can operate multi-disease surveillance and response systems at the national and sub-national levels.In 2009 and 2010 the Rwanda Ministry of Health and its partners from the Government of Rwanda (GOR) as well as the United States (US) Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, the African Field Epidemiology Network, and other partners embarked on a series of activities to develop a public health workforce that would be trained to operate disease surveillance and response systems at the national and district levels. The Rwanda Field Epidemiology and Laboratory Training Program (RFELTP) is a 2-year public health leadership development training program that provides applied epidemiology and public health laboratory training while the trainees provide public health service to the Ministry of Health. RFELTP is hosted at the National University of Rwanda School of Public Health for the didactic training. RFELTP is funded by GOR, the US Presidents Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief and the World Bank; it is managed by a multi-sectoral steering committee headed by the Minister of Health. The first RFELTP cohort has 15 residents who were recruited from key health programs in GOR. Over the first year of implementation, these 15 residents have conducted a variety of field investigations and responded to several outbreaks. RFELTP has also trained 145 frontline health workers through its two-week applied short courses. In the future, RFELTP plans to develop a veterinary track to address public health issues at the animal-human interface.

Motivation and job satisfaction among medical and nursing staff in a Cyprus public general hospital

BACKGROUND

The objective of this study was to investigate how medical and nursing staff of the Nicosia General Hospital is affected by specific motivation factors, and the association between job satisfaction and motivation. Furthermore, to determine the motivational drive of socio-demographic and job related factors in terms of improving work performance.

METHODS

A previously developed and validated instrument addressing four work-related motivators (job attributes, remuneration, co-workers and achievements) was used. Two categories of health care professionals, medical doctors and dentists (N = 67) and nurses (N = 219) participated and motivation and job satisfaction was compared across socio-demographic and occupational variables.

RESULTS

The survey revealed that achievements was ranked first among the four main motivators, followed by remuneration, co-workers and job attributes. The factor remuneration revealed statistically significant differences according to gender, and hospital sector, with female doctors and nurses and accident and emergency (A+E) outpatient doctors reporting greater mean scores (p < 0.005). The medical staff showed statistically significantly lower job satisfaction compared to the nursing staff. Surgical sector nurses and those >55 years of age reported higher job satisfaction when compared to the other groups.

CONCLUSIONS

The results are in agreement with the literature which focuses attention to management approaches employing both monetary and non-monetary incentives to motivate health care professionals. Health care professionals tend to be motivated more by intrinsic factors, implying that this should be a target for effective employee motivation. Strategies based on the survey's results to enhance employee motivation are suggested.

Motivational determinants among physicians in Lahore, Pakistan

Introduction

Human resource crises in developing countries have been identified as a critical aspect of poor quality and low accessibility in health care. Worker motivation is an important facet of this issue. Specifically, motivation among physicians, who are an important bridge between health systems and patients, should be considered. This study aimed to identify the determinants of job motivation among physicians, a neglected perspective, especially in developing countries.

Methods

A stratified random sample of 360 physicians was selected from public primary, public secondary and public and private tertiary health facilities in the Lahore district, Pakistan. Pretested, semi-structured, self-administered questionnaires were used. For the descriptive part of this study, physicians were asked to report their 5 most important work motivators and demotivators within the context of their current jobs and in general. Responses were coded according to emergent themes and frequencies calculated. Of the 30 factors identified, 10 were classified as intrinsic, 16 as organizational and 4 as socio-cultural.

Results

Intrinsic and socio-cultural factors like serving people, respect and career growth were important motivators. Conversely, demotivators across setups were mostly organizational, especially in current jobs. Among these, less pay was reported the most frequently. Fewer opportunities for higher qualifications was a demotivator among primary and secondary physicians. Less personal safety and poor working conditions were important in the public sector, particularly among female physicians. Among private tertiary physicians financial incentives other than pay and good working conditions were motivators in current jobs. Socio-cultural and intrinsic factors like less personal and social time and the inability to financially support oneself and family were more important among male physicians.

Conclusion

Motivational determinants differed across different levels of care, sectors and genders. Nonetheless, the important motivators across setups in this study were mostly intrinsic and socio-cultural, which are difficult to affect while the demotivators were largely organizational. Many can be addressed even at the facility level such as less personal safety and poor working conditions. Thus, in resource limited settings a good strategic starting point could be small scale changes that may markedly improve physicians' motivation and subsequently the quality of health care.

Hospital management autonomy in Chile: the challenges for human resources in health

In Latin America, some health sector reforms have included steps to the implementation of autonomous hospitals. In Chile, the health system is implementing a reform that introduces a network of self-managed institutions. These organizations will be high complexity centers that involve greater technical diversity, cost centers and mechanisms to evaluate users' satisfaction. For human resources in health, the implementation of these centers creates challenges in the planning of service provision and a change from the traditional management style of the teams to one based on networks. These challenges include the estimation of gaps in medical specialists and in other professions in the health sector. In order to be successful with self-management, Chile needs to establish universal and local policies that address training and the organization of health service provisioning in these institutions.

An analysis of the factors influencing networkability in the health-care sector

In most industries of economy, the production structures evolved into activities characterized by a high division of labour between the business partners combined with specialization, the standardization of service components and extensive networking. In the health-care sector, the first signs of a similar development are beginning to crystallize. As a consequence, networkability, the ability to link up with other players on the basis of commonly agreed standards for the joint provisioning of patient-centred and cost-efficient health services will emerge to a key concept for future health service delivery. As not only technical but mainly organizational and behavioural issues are actually determining networkability of health-care organizations, a holistic model for analysis is needed. In this paper, the main variables leading to an increase in this networkability are identified and compiled into a comprehensible procedure model for health-care practitioners.

Human resources and the quality of emergency obstetric care in developing countries: a systematic review of the literature

BACKGROUND

This paper reports on a systematic literature review exploring the importance of human resources in the quality of emergency obstetric care and thus in the reduction of maternal deaths.

METHODS

A systematic search of two electronic databases (ISI Web of Science and MEDLINE) was conducted, based on the following key words "quality obstetric* care" OR "pregnancy complications OR emergency obstetric* care OR maternal mortality" AND "quality health care OR quality care" AND "developing countries. Relevant papers were analysed according to three customary components of emergency obstetric care: structure, process and results.

RESULTS

This review leads to three main conclusions: (1) staff shortages are a major obstacle to providing good quality EmOC; (2) women are often dissatisfied with the care they receive during childbirth; and (3) the technical quality of EmOC has not been adequately studied. The first two conclusions provide lessons to consider when formulating EmOC policies, while the third point is an area where more knowledge is needed.

Human resources for health at the district level in Indonesia: the smoke and mirrors of decentralization

BACKGROUND

In 2001 Indonesia embarked on a rapid decentralization of government finances and functions to district governments. One of the results is that government has less information about its most valuable resource, the people who provide the services. The objective of the work reported here is to determine the stock of human resources for health in 15 districts, their service status and primary place of work. It also assesses the effect of decentralization on management of human resources and the implications for the future.

METHODS

We enumerated all health care providers (doctors, nurses and midwives), including information on their employment status and primary place of work, in each of 15 districts in Java. Data were collected by three teams, one for each province.

RESULTS

Provider density (number of doctors, nurses and midwives/1000 population) was low by international standards--11 out of 15 districts had provider densities less than 1.0. Approximately half of all three professional groups were permanent public servants. Contractual employment was also important for both nurses and midwives. The private sector as the primary source of employment is most important for doctors (37% overall) and increasingly so for midwives (10%). For those employed in the public sector, two-thirds of doctors and nurses work in health centres, while most midwives are located at village-level health facilities.

CONCLUSION

In the health system established after Independence, the facilities established were staffed through a period of obligatory service for all new graduates in medicine, nursing and midwifery. The last elements of that staffing system ended in 2007 and the government has not been able to replace it. The private sector is expanding and, despite the fact that it will be of increasing importance in the coming decades, government information about providers in private practice is decreasing. Despite the promise of decentralization to increase sectoral "decision space" at the district level, the central government now has control over essentially all public sector health staff at the district level, marking a return to the situation of 20 years ago. At the same time, Indonesia has changed dramatically. The challenge now is to envision a new health system that takes account of these changes. Envisioning the new system is a crucial first step for development of a human resources policy which, in turn, will require more information about health care providers, public and private, and increased capacity for human resource planning.

[Regulation for contractual practice]

The use of contractualisation has greatly developed over the last years in the field of health care, with results that are often promising, but also with failures and sometime virulent criticism. Thus it has become more and more necessary to regulate contractual practices. In the framework of its mission of general administration, that is to say, protection of the general interest, it falls to the Ministry of Health to put in place this regulation. Several tools are available. Certain, such as standard contracts and master agreements, although useful, do not remain specific and ad hoc. On the other hand, the politics of contractualisation, fitting well in the general politics of Health Care, form, without doubt, the most globalised tool, since they allow contractualisation to be replaced in the management of the total health case system, and thus to be seen as a potential contribution in the framework of performance improvement. The conditions for success are not, however, automatically united. One must ensure that the mechanisms exist which bring about regulatory tools, and which ensure that the participants use correctly the framework defined by the Ministry of Health.

Meeting the need for emergency obstetric care in Mozambique: work performance and histories of medical doctors and assistant medical officers trained for surgery

OBJECTIVE

Nonphysicians in Mozambique have been performing major surgery for more than 20 years, with documented outcomes equivalent to those of specialists. The purpose of this study was to make an inventory of all government hospitals so as to document obstetric surgery performed by 'técnicos de cirurgia' (TCs) and to elucidate their retention at district level.

DESIGN

Cross-sectional study of surgical procedures during 2002; longitudinal study of TCs and doctors graduating in 1987, 1988 and 1996.

SETTING

All 34 hospitals with an operating theatre in Mozambique.

POPULATION

Records of 12,178 major surgical obstetric operations were examined, and 59 medical officers and 34 TCs were interviewed.

METHODS

Analysis of all surgical registers during 2002 in all government rural, provincial, general and central hospitals in Mozambique. TCs and doctors who had graduated in the specified years were traced and interviewed; health ministry records were reviewed to confirm assignments.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Proportion of major obstetric surgeries performed by TCs. Proportion of TCs and medical doctors still at rural/district level at 7 years after graduation.

RESULTS

Major obstetric surgery is conducted by nonphysicians in 57% of the 12,178 operations scrutinised. In district hospitals, they conducted 92% of 3246 operations. Retention of TCs and medical doctors at district hospital level differed markedly: after 7 years, 88% of the TCs remained in post compared with none of the medical doctors.

CONCLUSION

Nonphysicians, trained in surgery, do most of the emergency obstetric surgery in Mozambique, and almost all of that performed in district hospitals. Nonphysicians, compared with physicians, stay longer in rural areas. After 7 years, around 90% of nonphysicians are still working in district hospitals, while almost no physicians remain there.

Tuberculosis and HIV Infection: The Global Setting

Tuberculosis (TB) and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection make each other's control significantly more difficult. Coordination in addressing this "cursed duet" is insufficient at both global and national levels. However, global policy for TB/HIV coordination has been set, and there is consensus around this policy from both the TB and HIV control communities. The policy aims to provide all necessary care for the prevention and management of HIV-associated TB, but its implementation is hindered by real technical difficulties and shortages of resources. All major global-level institutions involved in HIV care and prevention must include TB control as part of their corporate policy. Country-level decision makers need to work together to expand both TB and HIV services, and civil society and community representatives need to hold those responsible accountable for their delivery. The TB and HIV communities should join forces to address the health-sector weaknesses that confront them both.

Reversing the trend of weak policy implementation in the Kenyan health sector?--a study of budget allocation and spending of health resources versus set priorities

Background

Policy implementation in the context of health systems is generally difficult and the Kenyan health sector situation is not an exception. In 2005, a new health sector strategic plan that outlines the vision and the policy direction of the health sector was launched and during the same year the health sector was allocated a substantial budget increment. On basis of these indications of a willingness to improve the health care system among policy makers, the objective of this study was to assess whether there was a change in policy implementation during 2005 in Kenya.

Methodology

Budget allocations and actual expenditures compared to set policy objectives in the Kenyan health sector was studied. Three data sources were used: budget estimates, interviews with key stakeholders in the health sector and government and donor documentation.

Results

Budget allocations and actual expenditures in part go against policy objectives. Failures to use a significant proportion of available funds, reallocation of funds between line items and weak procurements systems at the local level and delays in disbursement of funds at the central level create gaps between policy objectives and policy implementation. Some of the discrepancy seems to be due to a mismatch between responsibilities and capabilities at different levels of the system.

Conclusion

We found no evidence that the trend of weak policy implementation in the Kenyan health sector was reversed during 2005 but ongoing efforts towards hastening release of funds to the districts might help solving the issue of low absorption capacity at the district level. It is important, however, to work with clear definitions of roles and responsibilities and well-functioning communications between different levels of the system.

Strategic management of the health workforce in developing countries: what have we learned?

The study of the health workforce has gained in prominence in recent years, as the dynamic interconnections between human resource issues and health system effectiveness have come into sharper focus. This paper reviews lessons relating to strategic management challenges emerging from the growing literature in this area. Workforce issues are strategic: they affect overall system performance as well as the feasibility and sustainability of health reforms. Viewing workforce issues strategically forces health authorities to confront the yawning gaps between policy and implementation in many developing countries. Lessons emerge in four areas. One concerns imbalances in workforce structure, whether from a functional specialization, geographical or facility lens. These imbalances pose a strategic challenge in that authorities must attempt to steer workforce distribution over time using a limited range of policy tools. A second group of lessons concerns the difficulties of central-level steering of the health workforce, often critically weak due to the lack of proper information systems and the complexities of public sector decentralization and service commercialization trends affecting the grassroots.A third cluster examines worker capacity and motivation, often shaped in developing countries as much by the informal norms and incentives as by formal attempts to support workers or to hold them accountable. Finally, a range of reforms centering on service contracting and improvements to human resource management are emerging. Since these have as a necessary (but not sufficient) condition some flexibility in personnel practices, recent trends towards the sharing of such functions with local authorities are promising. The paper identifies a number of current lines of productive research, focusing on the relationship between health policy reforms and the local institutional environments in which the workforce, both public and private, is deployed.

Health sector reforms and human resources for health in Uganda and Bangladesh: mechanisms of effect

BACKGROUND

Despite the expanding literature on how reforms may affect health workers and which reactions they may provoke, little research has been conducted on the mechanisms of effect through which health sector reforms either promote or discourage health worker performance. This paper seeks to trace these mechanisms and examines the contextual framework of reform objectives in Uganda and Bangladesh, and health workers' responses to the changes in their working environments by taking a 'realistic evaluation' approach.

METHODS

The study findings were generated by triangulating both qualitative and quantitative methods of data collection and analysis among policy technocrats, health managers and groups of health providers. Quantitative surveys were conducted with over 700 individual health workers in both Bangladesh and Uganda and supplemented with qualitative data obtained from focus group discussions and key interviews with professional cadres, health managers and key institutions involved in the design, implementation and evaluation of the reforms of interest.

RESULTS

The reforms in both countries affected the workforce through various mechanisms. In Bangladesh, the effects of the unification efforts resulted in a power struggle and general mistrust between the two former workforce tracts, family planning and health. However positive effects of the reforms were felt regarding the changes in payment schemes. Ugandan findings show how the workforce responded to a strong and rapidly implemented system of decentralisation where the power of new local authorities was influenced by resource constraints and nepotism in recruitment. On the other hand, closer ties to local authorities provided the opportunity to gain insight into the operational constraints originating from higher levels that health staff were dealing with.

CONCLUSION

Findings from the study suggest that a) reform planners should use the proposed dynamic responses model to help design reform objectives that encourage positive responses among health workers b) the role of context has been underestimated and it is necessary to address broader systemic problems before initiating reform processes, c) reform programs need to incorporate active implementation research systems to learn the contextual dynamics and responses as well as have inbuilt program capacity for corrective measures d) health workers are key stakeholders in any reform process and should participate at all stages and e) some effects of reforms on the health workforce operate indirectly through levels of satisfaction voiced by communities utilising the services.

Learning from health system reforms: lessons from Burkina Faso

OBJECTIVES

Burkina Faso has implemented a macroeconomic adjustment programme (MAP) along with an ambitious reform of the health care system. Our aim was (1) to verify whether MAPs led to a reduction in health resources, and (2) to analyze the consequences of health policies implemented.

METHOD

Cross-sectional and retrospective study, spanning the years 1983-2003. The macro aspect is based upon documents from national and international sources, a database of secondary socioeconomic data, and interviews of key informants working in upper management. Household and health facility surveys were conducted in three regions covering 53 communities.

RESULTS

Within the reforms, the health sector benefited from an important flow of resources. There were significant increases in public expenditures, health care staff, the number of primary care facilities and the availability of generic drugs. However, health facilities in the public sector remain underused and major inequities subsist. Access to health care is constrained by the population's ability to pay. Health expenditures impoverish households, creating new poor and impoverishing the already poor.

CONCLUSIONS

The success of reforms depends largely on the extent to which they remove financial barriers to access to services. The experience of Burkina Faso also reveals the need for fundamental changes that will motivate staff, improve productivity, and ensure good quality services. Integrating health development policies with strategic plans for poverty reduction can provide new opportunities for African countries to redesign their health systems within this type of perspective.

Tuberculosis control in the era of HIV

Without HIV, the tuberculosis (TB) epidemic would now be in decline almost everywhere. However, instead of looking forward to the demise of TB, countries that are badly affected by HIV are struggling against a rising tide of HIV-infected patients with TB. As a consequence, global TB control policies have had to be revised and control of TB now demands increased investment. This paper assesses what is being done to address the issue and what remains to be done.

Human resources for emergency obstetric care in northern Tanzania: distribution of quantity or quality?

BACKGROUND

Health care agencies report that the major limiting factor for implementing effective health policies and reforms worldwide is a lack of qualified human resources. Although many agencies have adopted policy development and clinical practice guidelines, the human resources necessary to carry out these policies towards actual reform are not yet in place.

OBJECTIVES

The goal of this article is to evaluate the current status of human resources quality, availability and distribution in Northern Tanzania in order to provide emergency obstetric care services to specific districts in this area. The article also discusses the usefulness of distribution indicators for describing equity in the decision-making process.

METHODS

We conducted a quantitative facility survey in six districts of Northern Tanzania. We collected data from all 129 facilities that provide delivery services in the study area. The data includes information on the emergency obstetric care indicators, as described by the WHO/UNICEF/UFPA guidelines for monitoring the provision of obstetric care. The inventory also includes information on the numbers of qualified health personnel at the basic and comprehensive emergency obstetric care level. We analysed the distribution and workload of the available human resources in a wider policy context with a particular focus on equity, use and quality, by means of descriptive statistics and the Spearman's correlation test.

RESULTS

We determined that there are adequate human resources allocated for health care provision in Tanzania, according to national standards. Compared to similar countries however, Tanzania has a very low availability of health care staff. Most qualified staff are concentrated in a few centralized locations, while those remaining are inequitably and inefficiently distributed in rural areas and lower-level services. Rural districts have restricted access to government-run health care, because these facilities are understaffed. In fact, voluntary agency facilities in these districts have more staff than the government facilities. There is a statistical correlation between availability of qualified human resources and use of services, but the availability of qualified human resources does not automatically translate into higher availability of qualified emergency obstetric care services.

CONCLUSION

National guidelines for human resources for health care in Tanzania require focused revisions in order to reflect the quality indicators more adequately when monitoring and setting criteria for HR distribution. Availability of qualified personnel as well as institutional management and capacity determine the quality of emergency obstetric care services and personnel. The current wide distribution of staff of inadequate quality should be reconsidered. The use of distribution indicators alone is not useful to properly monitor equity. This article suggests increasing access to high-quality health care instead of distributing low-quality services widely.

Educational and labor wastage of doctors in Mexico: towards the construction of a common methodology

BACKGROUND: This paper addresses the problem of wastage of the qualified labor force, which takes place both during the education process and when trained personnel try to find jobs in the local market. METHODS: Secondary sources were used, mainly the Statistical yearbooks of the National Association of Universities and Higher Education Institutions (ANUIES in Spanish). Also, the 2000 Population Census was used to estimate the different sources of labor market wastage. The formulas were modified to estimate educational and labor wastage rates. RESULTS: Out of every 1000 students who started a medical training in 1996, over 20% were not able to finish the training by 2000. Furthermore, out of every 1000 graduates, 31% were not able to find a remunerated position in the labor market that would enable them to put into practice the abilities and capacities obtained at school. Important differences can be observed between generalists and specialists, as well as between men and women. In the case of specialists and men, lower wastage rates can be observed as compared to the wastage rates of generalists and women. A large percentage of women dedicate themselves exclusively to household duties, which in labor terms represents a wastage of their capacity to participate in the production of formal health services. CONCLUSION: Women are becoming a majority in most medical schools, yet their participation in the labor market does not reflect the same trend. Among men, policies should be formulated to incorporate doctors in the specific health field for which they were trained. Regarding women, specific policies should target those who are dedicated full-time to household activities in order to create the possibility of having them occupy a remunerated job if they are willing to do so. Reducing wastage at both the educational and labor levels should improve the capacity of social investment, thereby increasing the capacity of the health system as a whole to provide services, particularly to those populations who are most in need.

The health workforce crisis in TB control: a report from high-burden countries

BACKGROUND: Human resources (HR) constraints have been reported as one of the main barriers to achieving the 2005 global tuberculosis (TB) control targets in 18 of the 22 TB high-burden countries (HBCs); consequently we try to assess the current HR available for TB control in HBCs. METHODS: A standard questionnaire designed to collect information on staff numbers, skills, training activities and current staff shortages at different health service levels was sent to national TB control programme managers in all HBCs. RESULTS: Nineteen HBCs (86%) replied, and 17 (77%) followed the questionnaire format to provide data. Complete information on staff numbers at all service levels was available from nine countries and data on skill levels and training were complete in six countries. Data showed considerable variations in staff numbers, proportions of trained staff, length of courses and quality of training activities. Eleven HBCs had developed training materials, many used implementation guidelines for training and only three used participatory educational methods. Two countries reported shortages of staff at district health facility level, whereas 14 reported shortages at central level. There was no apparent association between reported staff numbers (and skills) and the country's TB burden or current case detection rates (CDR). CONCLUSION: There were few readily available data on HR for TB control in HBCs, particularly in the larger ones. The great variations in staff numbers and the poor association between information on workforce, proportion of trained staff, and length and quality of courses suggested a lack of valid information and/or poor data reliability. There is urgent need to support HBCs to develop a comprehensive HR strategy involving short-term and long-term HR development plans and strengthening their HR planning and management capabilities.