The role of tumor necrosis factor-α and TNF-α receptors in cerebral arteries following cerebral ischemia in rat

Protein kinase C-inhibition reduces critical weight loss and improves functional outcome after experimental subarachnoid haemorrhage

OBJECTIVES

Subarachnoid haemorrhage (SAH) carries a high burden of morbidity and mortality. One in three patients develop vasospasm, which is associated with Delayed Cerebral Ischemia. The pathophysiology includes vasoconstrictor receptor upregulation in cerebral arteries. The protein kinase C - inhibitor RO-31-7549 reduces the expression of several vasoconstrictor receptors and normalizes cerebral blood flow in experimental SAH but functional and behavioural effects are unknown. This study was undertaken to analyse functional outcomes up to 14 days after experimental SAH.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

54 male rats were randomised to experimental SAH or sham, using the pre-chiasmatic, single injection model, and subsequent treatment or vehicle. 42 remained for final analysis. The animals were euthanized on day 14 or when reaching a humane endpoint. The primary endpoint was overall survival, defined as either spontaneous mortality or when reaching a predefined humane endpoint. The secondary outcomes were differences in the rotating pole test, weight, open field test, novel object recognition and qPCR of selected inflammatory markers.

RESULTS

In the vehicle group 6/15 rats reached the humane endpoint of >20 % weight loss compared to 1/14 in the treatment group. This resulted in a significant reduced risk of early euthanasia due to >20 % weight loss of HR 0.15 (0.03-0.66, p = 0.04). Furthermore, the treatment group did significantly better on the rotating pole test, RR 0.64 (0.47-0.91, p = 0.02).

CONCLUSION

RO-31-7549 improved outcomes in terms >20 % weight loss and rotating pole performance after experimental SAH and could be investigated.

Modulation of immune genes in the mucosal-associated lymphoid tissues of cobia by Sarcodia suae extract

Rachycentron canadum (cobia) is a marine fish species of high economic value in aquaculture due to its fast growth rate and good feed conversion efficacy. Regrettably, the industry has been affected by significant setbacks from high mortality due to diseases. Consequently, an improved perception of innate immunity correlated to each mucosal-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT) in teleost fish is necessary to understand hosts' response towards infections better. The utilization of polysaccharides in seaweed to stimulate the immune system has gathered unprecedented attention. The present study examined the immunostimulatory effects of Sarcodia suae water extracts (SSWE) on in vivo gill-, gut- and skin-associated lymphoid tissues (GIALT, GALT, and SALT) via immersion and oral ingestions. The GIALT genes (TNF-α, Cox2, IL-1β, IL-6, IL-8, IL-17 A/F1-3, IL-11, IL-12, IL-15, IL-18, MHCIa, IgM, and IgT) except IL-10 recorded positive upregulations in a dose-dependent manner post 24 h immersion in SSWE, indicating the algae extract contained bioactive compounds that could stimulate the immune genes. The upregulation of IL-12, IL-15, and IL-18 in the gills and hindgut post-SSWE immersion indicated that the extract could promote Th1-related responses in the MALTs. The modulation of immune gene expressions in the feeding trial was less potent than in the SSWE immersion. These findings indicated that the SSWE stimulated robust immune responses in both the GIALT and GALT of cobia. This suggests that the SSWE could be further explored as an effective immersive stimulant for fish, enhancing their immune system against pathogens.

Understanding the role of cGAS-STING signaling in ischemic stroke: a new avenue for drug discovery

INTRODUCTION

Ischemic stroke is a significant global health challenge with limited treatment options. Neuroinflammation, driven by microglial activation, plays a critical role in stroke pathophysiology. The cyclic GMP-AMP synthase (cGAS)-stimulator of interferon genes (STING) signaling pathway has emerged as a key player in microglial activation, sterile neuroinflammation, and cell death following stroke. Understanding the interplay between this pathway and stroke pathophysiology is crucial for exploring newer therapeutics for stroke patients.

AREAS COVERED

This review discusses the pivotal role of the cGAS-STING pathway in ischemic stroke. It explores the interplay between cGAS-STING activation, neuroinflammation, microglia activation, M2 polarization, neutrophil infiltration, and cytokine release. Additionally, the authors examine its contributions to various cell death programs (pyroptosis, apoptosis, necroptosis, lysosomal cell death, autophagy, and ferroptosis). The review summarizes recent studies on targeting cGAS-STING signaling in stroke, highlighting the therapeutic potential of small molecule inhibitors and RNA-based approaches in mitigating neuroinflammation, preventing cell death, and improving patient outcomes.

EXPERT OPINION

Understanding cGAS-STING signaling in ischemic stroke offers an exciting avenue for drug discovery. Targeting this pathway holds promise for developing novel therapeutics that effectively mitigate neuroinflammation, prevent cell death, and enhance patient outcomes. Further research and development of therapeutic strategies are warranted to fully exploit the potential of this pathway as a therapeutic target for stroke.

Impaired neurogenesis with reactive astrocytosis in the hippocampus in a porcine model of acquired hydrocephalus

BACKGROUND

Hydrocephalus is a neurological disease with an incidence of 0.3-0.7 per 1000 live births in the United States. Ventriculomegaly, periventricular white matter alterations, inflammation, and gliosis are among the neuropathologies associated with this disease. We hypothesized that hippocampus structure and subgranular zone neurogenesis are altered in untreated hydrocephalus and correlate with recognition memory deficits.

METHODS

Hydrocephalus was induced by intracisternal kaolin injections in domestic juvenile pigs (43.6 ± 9.8 days). Age-matched sham controls received similar saline injections. MRI was performed to measure ventricular volume, and/or hippocampal and perirhinal sizes at 14 ± 4 days and 36 ± 8 days post-induction. Recognition memory was assessed one week before and after kaolin induction. Histology and immunohistochemistry in the hippocampus were performed at sacrifice.

RESULTS

The hippocampal width and the perirhinal cortex thickness were decreased (p < 0.05) in hydrocephalic pigs 14 ± 4 days post-induction. At sacrifice (36 ± 8 days post-induction), significant expansion of the cerebral ventricles was detected (p = 0.005) in hydrocephalic pigs compared with sham controls. The area of the dorsal hippocampus exhibited a reduction (p = 0.035) of 23.4% in the hydrocephalic pigs at sacrifice. Likewise, in hydrocephalic pigs, the percentages of neuronal precursor cells (doublecortin+ cells) and neurons decreased (p < 0.01) by 32.35%, and 19.74%, respectively, in the subgranular zone of the dorsal hippocampus. The percentage of reactive astrocytes (vimentin+) was increased (p = 0.041) by 48.7%. In contrast, microglial cells were found to decrease (p = 0.014) by 55.74% in the dorsal hippocampus in hydrocephalic pigs. There was no difference in the recognition index, a summative measure of learning and memory, one week before and after the induction of hydrocephalus.

CONCLUSION

In untreated juvenile pigs, acquired hydrocephalus caused morphological alterations, reduced neurogenesis, and increased reactive astrocytosis in the hippocampus and perirhinal cortex.

Potential antiproliferative and apoptotic effects of pilocarpine combined with TNF alpha in chronic myeloid leukemia cells

Pilocarpine is a selective M₁/M₃ agonist of muscarinic acetylcholine receptor subtypes. Muscarinic acetylcholine receptors are G protein-coupled receptors. These receptors are different drug targets. The aim of the present work was to investigate the effect of pilocarpine on the expression of M₃ muscarinic acetylcholine receptor, the AChE activity, IL-8 release response, and proliferation in K562 cells, via muscarinic receptor activation. Human chronic myeloid leukemic cell cultures were incubated with drugs. Proliferation assays were performed by BrdU assay. Expression of M₃ muscarinic acetylcholine receptor and apoptosis proteins such as bcl, bax, cyt C, and caspases was assessed with the semiquantitative Western blotting method. Pilocarpine inhibits chronic myeloid cell proliferation and M₃ muscarinic acetylcholine receptor protein expression. Pilocarpine increases caspase-8 and -9 expression levels, upregulating the proapoptotic protein Bax and downregulating the expression levels of the antiapoptotic protein Bcl-2. The apoptotic activity of pilocarpine is associated with an increase in AChE activity. M₃ muscarinic acetylcholine receptors can activate multiple signal transduction systems and mediate inhibitory effects on chronic myeloid K562 cell proliferation depending on the presence of 1% FBS conditions. This apoptotic effect of pilocarpine may be due to the concentration of pilocarpine and the increase in AChE level. Our results suggest that inhibition of cell proliferation by inducing apoptosis of pilocarpine in K562 cells may be one of the targets. M₃ selective agonist may have therapeutic potential in chronic myeloid leukemia.

MiR-29c Inhibits TNF-α-Induced ROS Production and Apoptosis in Mouse Hippocampal HT22 Cell Line

Recent reports have suggested that abnormal miR-29c expression in hippocampus have been implicated in the pathophysiology of some neurodegenerative and neuropsychiatric diseases. However, the underlying effect of miR-29c in regulating hippocampal neuronal function is not clear. In this study, HT22 cells were infected with lentivirus containing miR-29c or miR-29c sponge. Cell counting kit-8 (CCK8) and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) assay kit were applied to evaluate cell viability and toxicity before and after TNF-α administration. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation and mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP) were measured with fluorescent probes. Hoechst 33258 staining and TUNEL assay were used to evaluate cell apoptosis. The expression of key mRNA/proteins (TNFR1, Bcl-2, Bax, TRADD, FADD, caspase-3, -8 and -9) in the apoptosis pathway was detected by PCR or WB. In addition, the protein expression of microtubule-associated protein-2 (MAP-2), nerve growth-associated protein 43 (GAP-43) and synapsin-1 (SYN-1) was detected by WB. As a result, we found that miR-29c overexpression could improve cell viability, attenuate LDH release, reduce ROS production and inhibit MMP depolarization in TNF-α-treated HT22 cells. Furthermore, miR-29c overexpression was found to decrease apoptotic rate, along with decreased expression of Bax, cleaved caspase-3, cleaved caspase-9, and increased expression of Bcl-2 in TNF-α-treated HT22 cells. However, miR-29c sponge exhibited an opposite effects. In addition, in TNF-α-treated HT22 cells, miR-29c overexpression could decrease the expressions of TNFR1, TRADD, FADD and cleaved caspase-8. However, in HT22 cells transfected with miR-29c sponge, TNF-α-induced the expressions of TNFR1, TRADD, FADD and cleaved caspase-8 was significantly exacerbated. At last, TNF-α-induced the decreased expression of MAP-2, GAP-43 and SYN-1 was reversed by miR-29c but exacerbated by miR-29c sponge. Overall, our study demonstrated that miR-29c protects against TNF-α-induced HT22 cells injury through alleviating ROS production and reduce neuronal apoptosis. Therefore, miR-29c might be a potential therapeutic agent for TNF-α accumulation and toxicity-related brain diseases.

Lactate attenuates astrocytic inflammation by inhibiting ubiquitination and degradation of NDRG2 under oxygen-glucose deprivation conditions

BACKGROUND

Brain lactate concentrations are enhanced in response to cerebral ischemia and promote the formation of reactive astrocytes, which are major components of the neuroinflammatory response and functional recovery, following cerebral ischemia. NDRG2 is upregulated during reactive astrocyte formation. However, its regulation and function are unclear. We studied the relationship between lactate and NDRG2 in astrocytes under conditions of ischemia or oxygen-glucose deprivation (OGD).

METHODS

We examined astrocytic NDRG2 expression after middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) using western blot and immunofluorescence staining. Under hypoxia conditions, we added exogenous L-lactate sodium (lactate) to cultured primary astrocytes to explore the effects of lactate on the ubiquitination modification of NDRG2. We profiled the transcriptomic features of NDRG2 silencing in astrocytes after 8 h of OGD conditions as well as exogenous lactate treatment by performing RNA-seq. Finally, we evaluated the molecular mechanisms of NDRG2 in regulating TNFα under OGD conditions using western blot and immunohistochemistry.

RESULTS

Reactive astrocytes strongly expressed NDRG2 in a rat model of MCAO. We also showed that lactate stabilizes astrocytic NDRG2 by inhibiting its ubiquitination. NDRG2 inhibition in astrocytes increased inflammation and upregulated immune-associated genes and signaling pathways. NDRG2 knockdown induced TNFα expression and secretion via c-Jun phosphorylation.

CONCLUSIONS

We revealed that under OGD conditions, lactate plays an important anti-inflammatory role and inhibits TNFα expression by stabilizing NDRG2, which is beneficial for neurological functional recovery. NDRG2 may be a new therapeutic target for cerebral ischemia.

Sodium formononetin-3'-sulphonate alleviates cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury in rats via suppressing endoplasmic reticulum stress-mediated apoptosis

BACKGROUND

Sodium formononetin-3'-sulphonate (Sul-F) may alleviate I/R injury in vivo with uncertain mechanism. Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress-mediated apoptosis participates in the process of cerebral ischemia-reperfusion (I/R) injury. Our aim is to figure out the effect of Sul-F on cerebral I/R injury and to verify whether it works through suppressing ER stress-mediated apoptosis.

RESULTS

The cerebral lesions of middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) model in SD rats were aggravated after 24 h of reperfusion, including impaired neurological function, increased infarct volume, intensified inflammatory response and poor cell morphology. After intervention, the edaravone (EDA, 3 mg/kg) group and Sul-F high-dose (Sul-F-H, 80 mg/kg) group significantly alleviated I/R injury via decreasing neurological score, infarct volume and the serum levels of inflammatory factors (TNF-α, IL-1β and IL-6), as well as alleviating pathological injury. Furthermore, the ER stress level and apoptosis rate were elevated in the ischemic penumbra of MCAO group, and were significantly blocked by EDA and Sul-F-H. In addition, EDA and Sul-F-H significantly down-regulated the ER stress related PERK/eIF2α/ATF4 and IRE1 signal pathways, which led to reduced cell apoptosis rate compared with the MCAO group. Furthermore, there was no difference between the EDA and Sul-F-H group in terms of therapeutic effect on cerebral I/R injury, indicating a therapeutic potential of Sul-F for ischemic stroke.

CONCLUSIONS

Sul-F-H can significantly protects against cerebral I/R injury through inhibiting ER stress-mediated apoptosis in the ischemic penumbra, which might be a novel therapeutic target for ischemic stroke.

Neuroprotective effects of nobiletin on cerebral ischemia/reperfusion injury rats by inhibiting Rho/ROCK signaling pathway

Background

Nobiletin (NOB), an active natural flavonoid component of citrus, is used in Traditional Chinese Medicine for its anti-inflammatory activity, but its efficacy in cerebral ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury remains unclear.

Methods

In a middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) rat model, MCAO rats were administered (Sham group and MCAO model group treated with an equal volume of solvent, NOB group treated with 10 or 20 mg/kg NOB) once a day for 7 days before cerebral ischemia and again after reperfusion, 2,3,5-triphenyltetrazolium chloride (TTC) staining was applied to assess the infarct area. Neurological function was evaluated by the modified neurological severity score and Morris water maze. The levels of inflammatory factors, interleukin 6 (IL-6), interleukin 1β (IL-1β) and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), were examined by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Histopathological staining evaluated neuron apoptosis in brain tissue. In an oxygen-glucose deprivation PC12 cell (OGD PC12) model, the proliferation, migration and apoptosis of OGD PC12 cells were detected by 3-(4,5-dimethyl-2-thiazolyl)-2,5-diphenyl-2-H-tetrazolium bromide (MTT) and cell migration assays and flow cytometry. The gene and protein expression levels of Ras homolog gene family, member A (Rho A), ras-related C3 botulinum toxin substrate 1 (Rac 1), Rho-associated kinase 1 (ROCK 1), ROCK 2 in the Rho/ROCK pathway were measured by Real-time PCR (RT-PCR), immunohistochemistry and western blot.

Results

In rats with cerebral I/R injury, NOB significantly decreased the infarcted area, neuron apoptosis in brain tissue and expressions of IL-6, IL-1β, and TNF-α. It also improved neurological deficits in brain tissue and enhanced learning and memory ability. Further, NOB had a protective effect on OGD PC12 cells, increasing proliferation and migration and decreasing apoptosis. The expressions of Rho A, Rac 1, ROCK 1 and ROCK 2 were high in cerebral I/R injury rats, but were downregulated by NOB in I/R injury rats' brain tissue and OGD PC12 cells.

Conclusions

Nobiletin had a neuroprotective effect in rats with cerebral I/R injury, and its potential mechanism is decreasing neuron apoptosis by inhibiting the Rho/ROCK signaling pathway. These results suggest NOB is a promising neuroprotective agent for patients with cerebral ischemia.

Estimation of genotoxicity, apoptosis and oxidative stress induction by TiO2 nanoparticles and acrylamide subacute oral coadministration in mice

Acrylamide is used in the industry and can be a by-product of high-temperature food processing which has toxic potential in various tissues, and titanium dioxide nanoparticles (TiO₂NPs) are widely used in toothpaste, sweets, food perseveration, chewing gum and medicines. Consequently, humans are daily exposed to large amounts of acrylamide and TiO₂NPs mainly through food intake. However, limited studies are available on the effect of simultaneously intake of acrylamide and TiO₂NPs on the integrity of genomic DNA and the induction of apoptosis in brain tissues. Therefore, this study estimated the influence of acrylamide coadministration on TiO₂NPs induced genomic instability and oxidative stress in the brain tissues of mice. To achieve this, mice were orally administrated acrylamide (3 mg/kg b.w) or/and TiO₂NPs (5 mg/kg b.w) for two successive weeks (5 days per week). The comet assay results showed that concurrent oral administration of acrylamide and TiO₂NPs strongly induced single- and double stranded DNA breaks, and that the level of reactive oxygen species (ROS) was also highly elevated within neural cells after simultaneous oral intake of acrylamide and TiO₂NPs compared to those observed after administration of acrylamide or/TiO₂NPs alone. Moreover, oral co-administration of acrylamide with TiO₂NPs increased apoptotic DNA damage to neurons by upregulating the expression levels of P53, TNF-α, IL-6 and Presenillin-1 genes compared to groups administered TiO₂NPs. Therefore, from these results, the present study concluded that coadministration of acrylamide renders TiO₂NPs more genotoxic and motivates apoptotic DNA damage and oxidative stress induced by TiO₂NPs in brain cells, and thus it is recommended to avoid concurrent oral acrylamide administration with TiO₂NPs.

Chrysophanol facilitates long-term neurological recovery through limiting microglia-mediated neuroinflammation after ischemic stroke in mice

BACKGROUND

Inflammation plays an important role in ischemic brain injury and affects brain recovery and neuroplasticity. Chrysophanol (CHR), has attracted attention for its protective effects through immunomodulatory and anti-inflammatory properties. However, the effect of CHR for brain recovery and neuroplasticity is not clear. The current study aimed to investigate the effect of CHR in the chronic phase of stroke in mice, and to elucidate the underlying mechanisms.

METHODS

C57BL/6 mice were subjected to treatment with Vehicle or CHR immediately through intraperitoneal injection daily for 14 d after distal middle cerebral artery occlusion (dMCAO). Neurological deficits were monitored up to 28 days after stroke. Nissl and Golgi stain, neural plasticity, and microglia-associated inflammatory cytokines were detected. Primary cortical neuron and BV2 microglia cell lines were employed to explore the underlying mechanism in vitro.

RESULTS

Compared with Vehicle group, CHR mitigated the histological damage, facilitated the neural plasticity and improved the neurological function up to 4 weeks after stroke. In vitro, CHR promoted the complexity of neurons and the spine density by modulating microglial polarization and reducing the expression of microglia-associated inflammatory cytokines, especially IL-6. In vivo, microglia activation and inflammatory cytokines were significantly increased after dMCAO and downregulated by CHR. Further investigation showed STAT3 is the major downstream effector of IL-6 signaling.

CONCLUSIONS

CHR ameliorated microenvironment for neural plasticity and exhibited neuroprotection via arresting microglia toward pro-inflammatory phenotype and downregulation of the expressions of pro-inflammatory cytokines, especially of IL-6. IL-6-STAT3 signaling might be CHR's therapeutic target for neuroinflammatory responses after stroke.

Identification of programmed cell death-related gene signature and associated regulatory axis in cerebral ischemia/reperfusion injury

Background: Numerous studies have suggested that programmed cell death (PCD) pathways play vital roles in cerebral ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury. However, the specific mechanisms underlying cell death during cerebral I/R injury have yet to be completely clarified. There is thus a need to identify the PCD-related gene signatures and the associated regulatory axes in cerebral I/R injury, which should provide novel therapeutic targets against cerebral I/R injury.

Methods: We analyzed transcriptome signatures of brain tissue samples from mice subjected to middle cerebral artery occlusion/reperfusion (MCAO/R) and matched controls, and identified differentially expressed genes related to the three types of PCD(apoptosis, pyroptosis, and necroptosis). We next performed functional enrichment analysis and constructed PCD-related competing endogenous RNA (ceRNA) regulatory networks. We also conducted hub gene analysis to identify hub nodes and key regulatory axes.

Results: Fifteen PCD-related genes were identified. Functional enrichment analysis showed that they were particularly associated with corresponding PCD-related biological processes, inflammatory response, and reactive oxygen species metabolic processes. The apoptosis-related ceRNA regulatory network was constructed, which included 24 long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs), 41 microRNAs (miRNAs), and 4 messenger RNAs (mRNAs); the necroptosis-related ceRNA regulatory network included 16 lncRNAs, 20 miRNAs, and 6 mRNAs; and the pyroptosis-related ceRNA regulatory network included 15 lncRNAs, 18 miRNAs, and 6 mRNAs. Hub gene analysis identified hub nodes in each PCD-related ceRNA regulatory network and seven key regulatory axes in total, namely, lncRNA Malat1/miR-181a-5p/Mapt, lncRNA Malat1/miR-181b-5p/Mapt, lncRNA Neat1/miR-181a-5p/Mapt, and lncRNA Neat1/miR-181b-5p/Mapt for the apoptosis-related ceRNA regulatory network; lncRNA Neat1/miR-181a-5p/Tnf for the necroptosis-related ceRNA regulatory network; lncRNA Malat1/miR-181c-5p/Tnf for the pyroptosis-related ceRNA regulatory network; and lncRNAMalat1/miR-181a-5p for both necroptosis-related and pyroptosis-related ceRNA regulatory networks.

Conclusion: The results of this study supported the hypothesis that these PCD pathways (apoptosis, necroptosis, pyroptosis, and PANoptosis) and crosstalk among them might be involved in ischemic stroke and that the key nodes and regulatory axes identified in this study might play vital roles in regulating the above processes. This may offer new insights into the potential mechanisms underlying cell death during cerebral I/R injury and provide new therapeutic targets for neuroprotection.

The blood-brain barrier and the neurovascular unit in subarachnoid hemorrhage: molecular events and potential treatments

The response of the blood-brain barrier (BBB) following a stroke, including subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH), has been studied extensively. The main components of this reaction are endothelial cells, pericytes, and astrocytes that affect microglia, neurons, and vascular smooth muscle cells. SAH induces alterations in individual BBB cells, leading to brain homeostasis disruption. Recent experiments have uncovered many pathophysiological cascades affecting the BBB following SAH. Targeting some of these pathways is important for restoring brain function following SAH. BBB injury occurs immediately after SAH and has long-lasting consequences, but most changes in the pathophysiological cascades occur in the first few days following SAH. These changes determine the development of early brain injury as well as delayed cerebral ischemia. SAH-induced neuroprotection also plays an important role and weakens the negative impact of SAH. Supporting some of these beneficial cascades while attenuating the major pathophysiological pathways might be decisive in inhibiting the negative impact of bleeding in the subarachnoid space. In this review, we attempt a comprehensive overview of the current knowledge on the molecular and cellular changes in the BBB following SAH and their possible modulation by various drugs and substances.

Network pharmacology and molecular docking reveal the effective substances and active mechanisms of Dalbergia Odoriferain protecting against ischemic stroke

Dalbergia Odorifera (DO) has been widely used for the treatment of cardiovascular and cerebrovascular diseasesinclinical. However, the effective substances and possible mechanisms of DO are still unclear. In this study, network pharmacology and molecular docking were used toelucidate the effective substances and active mechanisms of DO in treating ischemic stroke (IS). 544 DO-related targets from 29 bioactive components and 344 IS-related targets were collected, among them, 71 overlapping common targets were got. Enrichment analysis showed that 12 components were the possible bioactive components in DO, which regulating 9 important signaling pathways in 3 biological processes including ‘oxidative stress’ (KEGG:04151, KEGG:04068, KEGG:04915), ‘inflammatory response’(KEGG:04668, KEGG:04064) and ‘vascular endothelial function regulation’(KEGG:04066, KEGG:04370). Among these, 5 bioactive components with degree≥20 among the 12 potential bioactive components were selected to be docked with the top5 core targets using AutodockVina software. According to the results of molecular docking, the binding sites of core target protein AKT1 and MOL002974, MOL002975, and MOL002914 were 9, 8, and 6, respectively, and they contained 2, 1, and 0 threonine residues, respectively. And some binding sites were consistent, which may be the reason for the similarities and differences between the docking results of the 3 core bioactive components. The results of in vitro experiments showed that OGD/R could inhibit cell survival and AKT phosphorylation which were reversed by the 3 core bioactive components. Among them, MOL002974 (butein) had a slightly better effect. Therefore, the protective effect of MOL002974 (butein) against cerebral ischemia was further evaluated in a rat model of middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) by detecting neurological score, cerebral infarction volume and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) level. The results indicated that MOL002974 (butein) could significantly improve the neurological score of rats, decrease cerebral infarction volume, and inhibit the level of LDH in the cerebral tissue and serum in a dose-dependent manner. In conclusion, network pharmacology and molecular docking predicate the possible effective substances and mechanisms of DO in treating IS. And the results are verified by the in vitro and in vivo experiments. This research reveals the possible effective substances from DO and its active mechanisms for treating IS and provides a new direction for the secondary development of DO for treating IS.

Understanding Abnormal c-JNK/p38MAPK Signaling Overactivation Involved in the Progression of Multiple Sclerosis: Possible Therapeutic Targets and Impact on Neurodegenerative Diseases

Demyelination, immune dysregulation, and neuroinflammation are the most common triggers of motor neuron disorders such as multiple sclerosis (MS). MS is a chronic demyelinating neurodegenerative disease of the central nervous system caused by abnormal immune activation, which causes myelin sheath damage. Cell signal transduction pathways are required for a variety of physiological and pathological processes in the brain. When these signaling systems become overactive, they can lead to disease progression. In various physiological conditions, abnormal mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) activation is associated with several physiological dysfunctions that cause neurodegeneration. Previous research indicates that c-JNK and p38MAPK signaling play critical roles in neuronal growth and differentiation. c-JNK/p38MAPK is a member of the MAPK family, which regulates metabolic pathways, cell proliferation, differentiation, and apoptosis that control certain neurological activities. During brain injuries, c-JNK/p38MAPK also affects neuronal elastic properties, nerve growth, and cognitive processing. This review systematically linked abnormal c-JNK/p38MAPK signaling activation to multiple neuropathological pathways in MS and related neurological dysfunctions. MS progression is linked to genetic defects, oligodendrocyte destruction, glial overactivation, and immune dysregulation. We concluded that inhibiting both the c-JNK/p38MAPK signaling pathways can promote neuroprotection and neurotrophic effects against the clinical-pathological presentation of MS and influence other neurological disorders. As a result, the potential benefits of c-JNK/p38MAPK downregulation for the development of disease-modifying treatment interventions in the future could include MS prevention and related neurocomplications.

Inhibition of PKC/MEK pathway suppresses β1-integrin and mitigates breast cancer cells proliferation

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PGE2 enhanced β1- integrin expression via EP1 receptor, PKC, MEK and NfҡB.

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FOXC2, E2F1 and survivin play a role in PGE2 mediated effect in MCF7 cells.

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PGE2 enhances breast cancer cell cycle through E2F1, FOXC2, survivin and β integrin.

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Biochemical mediators of PKC/MEK pathway could be considered as targets for breast cancer treatment.

Prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) and β1-integrin have been correlated with breast cancer, where both could enhance progression and metastasis. Protein kinase C (PKC) and MEK have played a vital role in breast cancer development. Our study was conducted to elucidate the effect of inhibition of E-prostanoid receptor 1 (EP1)/ PKC/ MEK/ β1-integrin pathway in mitigating breast cancer progression and to evaluate the role of the intermediate signals FOXC2, E2F1, NF-ҡB and survivin. MCF7 cells were treated with 17 -PT-PGE2, an EP1 agonist, for 24 h, and β1-integrin was measured. To MCF7 cells treated with 17-PT-PGE2, inhibitors of either EP1, MEK, PKC or NF-ҡB were added followed by measurement of β1-integrin gene expression and cell proliferation in each case. Addition of 17- PT-PGE2 to MCF7 cells showed enhancement of both cell proliferation, and cell cycle transition from G1 to S phase. In addition, activation of EP1 receptor increased β1-integrin expression. On the contrary, inhibition of EP1 receptor showed a decrease in the cell proliferation, β1-integrin expression and cells transition to S phase, but increased cell count in apoptotic phase. Selective inhibition of each of MEK, PKC, and NF-ҡB suppressed 17 -PT-PGE2-mediated β1-integrin expression as well as cell proliferation. Furthermore, FOXC2, phosphorylated NF-ҡB, E2F1, and survivin levels were upregulated with 17- PT-PGE2 and suppressed by MEK, PKC and NF-ҡB inhibitors. Targeting the biochemical mediators of PKC/MEK pathway may be of value in developing new chemical entities for cancer treatment.

Systematic Investigation of the Effect of Powerful Tianma Eucommia Capsule on Ischemic Stroke Using Network Pharmacology

Background

Ischemic stroke (IS) is a serious disease with a high rate of death and disability, and a growing number of people are becoming victims. Existing drugs not only have limited therapeutic effects but also have obvious side effects. Most importantly, drug resistance due to long-term or improper use of drugs is detrimental to patients. Therefore, it is urgent to find some alternative or supplementary medicines to alleviate the current embarrassment. Powerful Tianma Eucommia Capsule (PTEC) is mainly used to treat IS in China for thousands of years; however, the molecular mechanism is not clear.

Methods

Pharmacology ingredients and target genes were filtered and downloaded from websites. A pharmacology ingredient-target gene network was constructed to predict the molecular interactions between ingredients and target genes. Enrichment analysis was performed to explore the possible signal pathways. LeDock was used to simulate the interaction form between proteins and main active ingredients and to deduce key amino acid positions.

Results

Two hundred eighty-nine target genes and seventy-four pharmacological ingredients were obtained from public databases. Several key ingredients (quercetin, kaempferol, and stigmasterol) and primary core target genes (PTGS1, NCOA2, and PRSS1) were detected through ingredient-target gene network analysis. Gene Ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) enrichment analysis demonstrated that ingredients affect networks mainly in nuclear receptor activity and G protein-coupled amine receptor activity; besides, fluid shear stress and atherosclerosis, human cytomegalovirus infection, and hepatitis B signaling pathways might be the principal therapy ways. A series of presumed key amino acid sites (189ASP, 190SER, 192GLN, 57HIS, and 99TYE) were calculated in PRSS1. Six of the target genes were differentially expressed between male and female patients.

Conclusions

Seven new putative target genes (ACHE, ADRA1A, AR, CHRM3, F7, GABRA1, and PRSS1) were observed in this work. Based on the result of GO and KEGG analysis, this work will be helpful to further demonstrate the molecular mechanism of PTEC treatment of IS.

Elucidation of Abnormal Extracellular Regulated Kinase (ERK) Signaling and Associations with Syndromic and Non-syndromic Autism

Autism is a highly inherited and extremely complex disorder in which results from various cases indicate chromosome anomalies, unusual single-gene mutations, and multiplicative effects of particular gene variants, characterized primarily by impaired speech and social interaction and restricted behavior. The precise etiology of Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is currently unclear. The extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) signaling mechanism affects neurogenesis and neuronal plasticity during the development of the central nervous mechanism. In this regard, the pathway of ERK has recently gained significant interest in the pathogenesis of ASD. The mutation occurs in a few ERK components. Besides, the ERK pathway dysfunction lies in the upstream of modified translation and contributes to synapse pathology in syndromic types of autism. In this review, we highlight the ERK pathway as a target for neurodevelopmental disorder autism. In addition, we summarize the regulation of the ERK pathway with ERK inhibitors in neurological disorders. In conclusion, a better understanding of the ERK signaling pathway provides a range of therapeutic options for autism spectrum disorder.

Triblock Copolymer Nanomicelles Loaded with Curcumin Attenuates Inflammation via Inhibiting the NF-κB Pathway in the Rat Model of Cerebral Ischemia

AIM

Cerebral ischemic injury is one of the debilitating diseases showing that inflammation plays an important role in worsening ischemic damage. Therefore, studying the effects of some potential anti-inflammatory compounds can be very important in the treatment of cerebral ischemic injury.

METHODS

This study investigated anti-inflammatory effects of triblock copolymer nanomicelles loaded with curcumin (abbreviated as NC) in the brain of rats following transient cerebral ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury in stroke. After preparation of NC, their protective effects against bilateral common carotid artery occlusion (BCCAO) were explored by different techniques. Concentrations of free curcumin (C) and NC in liver, kidney, brain, and heart organs, as well as in plasma, were measured using a spectrofluorometer. Western blot analysis was then used to measure NF-κB-p65 protein expression levels. Also, ELISA assay was used to examine the level of cytokines IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α. Lipid peroxidation levels were assessed using MDA assay and H&E staining was used for histopathological examination of the hippocampus tissue sections.

RESULTS

The results showed a higher level of NC compared to C in plasma and organs including the brain, heart, and kidneys. Significant upregulation of NF-κB, IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α expressions compared to control was observed in rats after induction of I/R, which leads to an increase in inflammation. However, NC was able to downregulate significantly the level of these inflammatory cytokines compared to C. Also, the level of lipid peroxidation in pre-treated rats with 80mg/kg NC was significantly reduced.

CONCLUSION

Our findings in the current study demonstrate a therapeutic effect of NC in an animal model of cerebral ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury in stroke through the downregulation of NF-κB-p65 protein and inflammatory cytokines.

Role of pERK1/2-NFκB signaling in the neuroprotective effect of thalidomide against cerebral ischemia reperfusion injury in rats

In the present investigation, we tested the hypothesis that suppression of the phospho-extracellular signal regulated kinase (pERK1/2)-nuclear factor kappa (NFκ)-B signaling, subsequent to tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) inhibition, underlies thalidomide (TLM) mediated neuroprotection. Male Wistar rats (250-280 g) were divided into five groups: (1) sham; (2) negative control receiving TLM (5μg/1μl/site) and 3 groups of ischemia-reperfusion (IR) injury rats pretreated with: (3) vehicle (DMSO 100%); (4) TLM (5μg/1μl/site) or (5) PD98059 (0.16μg/1μl/site). IR rats were subjected to occlusion of both common carotid arteries for 45 min followed by reperfusion for 24 h. Drugs and/or vehicles were administered by unilateral intrahippocampal injection after removal of the carotid occlusion and at the beginning of the reperfusion period. IR rats exhibited significant infarct size, histopathological damage, memory impairment, motor incoordination and hyperactivity. Unilateral intra-hippocampal TLM ameliorated these behavioral deficits along with the following ex vivo hippocampal effects: (i) abrogation of the IR-evoked elevations in hippocampal TNF-α, pERK1/2, NFκB, BDNF, iNOS contents and (ii) partial restoration of the reduced anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10 and p-nNOS S852. These neurochemical effects, which were replicated by the pERK1/2 inhibitor PD98059, likely underlie the reductions in c-Fos and caspase-3 levels as well as the anti-apoptotic effect of TLM in the IR model. These results suggest a crucial anti-inflammatory role for pERK1/2 inhibition in the salutary neuronal and behavioral effects of TLM in a model of brain IR injury.

Blood Biomarkers to Predict Long-Term Mortality after Ischemic Stroke

Stroke is a major cause of disability and death globally, and prediction of mortality represents a crucial challenge. We aimed to identify blood biomarkers measured during acute ischemic stroke that could predict long-term mortality. Nine hundred and forty-one ischemic stroke patients were prospectively recruited in the Stroke-Chip study. Post-stroke mortality was evaluated during a median 4.8-year follow-up. A 14-biomarker panel was analyzed by immunoassays in blood samples obtained at hospital admission. Biomarkers were normalized and standardized using Z-scores. Multiple Cox regression models were used to identify clinical variables and biomarkers independently associated with long-term mortality and mortality due to stroke. In the multivariate analysis, the independent predictors of long-term mortality were age, female sex, hypertension, glycemia, and baseline National Institutes of Health Stroke Scale (NIHSS) score. Independent blood biomarkers predictive of long-term mortality were endostatin > quartile 2, tumor necrosis factor receptor-1 (TNF-R1) > quartile 2, and interleukin (IL)-6 > quartile 2. The risk of mortality when these three biomarkers were combined increased up to 69%. The addition of the biomarkers to clinical predictors improved the discrimination (integrative discriminative improvement (IDI) 0.022 (0.007–0.048), p < 0.001). Moreover, endostatin > quartile 3 was an independent predictor of mortality due to stroke. Altogether, endostatin, TNF-R1, and IL-6 circulating levels may aid in long-term mortality prediction after stroke.

A Network Pharmacology Approach to Investigate the Active Compounds and Mechanisms of Musk for Ischemic Stroke

Objectives

This study aims to study the material basis and effective mechanism of musk for ischemic stroke (IS) based on the network pharmacology approach.

Methods

We collected the chemical components and target gene of musk from the BATMAN-TCM analytical platform and identified ischemic stroke-related targets from the following databases: DisGeNET, NCBI-Gene, HPO, OMIM, DrugBank, and TTD. The targets of musk and IS were uploaded to the String database to construct the protein-protein interaction (PPI) network, and then, the key targets were analyzed by topological methods. At last, the function biological process and signaling pathways of key targets were carried out by Gene Ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathway enrichment analysis and cluster analysis by using the Database for Annotation, Visualization, and Integrated Discovery (DAVID) server and Metascape platform.

Results

A total of 29 active compounds involving 1081 predicted targets were identified in musk and there were 1104 IS-related targets. And 88 key targets of musk for IS were obtained including AKT1, MAPK1/3, TP53, TNF, SRC, FOS, CASP3, JUN, NOS3, and IL1B. The GO and KEGG enrichment analysis suggested that these key targets are mainly involved in multiple pathways which participated in TNF signaling pathway, estrogen signaling pathway, prolactin signaling pathway, neurotrophin signaling pathway, T-cell receptor signaling pathway, cAMP signaling pathway, FoxO signaling pathway, and HIF1 signaling pathway.

Conclusion

This study revealed that the effective mechanisms of musk against IS would be associated with the regulation of apoptosis, inflammatory response, and gene transcription.

Butorphanol protects PC12 cells against OGD/R-induced inflammation and apoptosis

The aim of the present study was to examine the effects of butorphanol on neural injury in an oxygen glucose deprivation/reoxygenation (OGD/R) model using PC12 cells, and to investigate whether mitochondrial apoptosis was involved in these effects. To establish the OGD/R model, PC12 cells were cultured under hypoxia and low glucose conditions. Expression levels of inflammatory cytokines were evaluated by detecting the levels of tumor necrosis factor-α, interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-6 and monocyte chemoattractant protein-1. Oxidative stress was evaluated by measuring the levels of reactive oxygen species, lactate dehydrogenase activity and myeloperoxidase concentration. Apoptosis, protein expression and cell viability were determined by flow cytometry, western blotting and by using a Cell Counting Kit-8, respectively. Compared with the control group, cell viability, expression of inflammatory factors and oxidative stress were all decreased in the OGD/R group. All the above changes could be mitigated by treatment with butorphanol. In addition, butorphanol treatment resulted in a significant upregulation of Bax, and downregulation of Bcl-2, activated caspase-3, caspase-9 and poly ADP-ribose polymerase, increased the expression of X-linked inhibitor of apoptosis protein and enhanced ATP activity. To conclude, these results suggested that the protective effects of butorphanol are associated with the inhibition of OGD/R-induced inflammation and apoptosis injury, and may be partially associated with the inhibition of mitochondrial apoptosis.

Occludin degradation makes brain microvascular endothelial cells more vulnerable to reperfusion injury in vitro

Intracerebral hemorrhage is the most dangerous complication in tPA thrombolytic therapy for ischemic stroke, which occurs as a consequence of endothelial cell death at the blood-brain barrier (BBB) during thrombolytic reperfusion. We have previously shown that cerebral ischemia-induced rapid occludin degradation and BBB disruption. Here we demonstrated an important role of occludin degradation in facilitating the evolution of ischemic endothelial cells toward death. Cultured brain microvascular endothelial cells (bEnd.3 cells) were exposed to oxygen-glucose deprivation (OGD) or incubated with occludin siRNA or occludin AAV to achieve an occludin deficiency or over-expression status before exposing to reoxygenation (R) or TNF-α treatment. Cell death was assessed by measuring lactate dehydrogenase release, TUNEL staining, and flow cytometry analysis. Inhibition of OGD-induced occludin degradation with SB-3CT or over-expression of occludin with occludin AAV both significantly attenuated OGD/R-induced apoptosis and pyroptosis in bEnd.3 cells. Consistently, knockdown of occludin with siRNA potentiated TNF-α-induced apoptosis, supporting an important role of occludin integrity in endothelial cell survival. Similar results were observed for pyroptosis, in which occludin knockdown with siRNA led to a significant augmentation of cytokines secretion, inflammasome activation, and pyroptosis occurrence in TNF-α-treated bEnd.3 cells. Lastly, up-regulation of c-Yes, PI3K/AKT, and ERK concurrently occurred with occludin degradation after OGD/R or TNF-α treatment, and the level of these proteins were further increased when inhibition of occludin degradation or over-expression of occludin. These data indicate that occludin degradation inflicted during ischemia makes BBB endothelial cells more vulnerable to reperfusion-associated stress stimuli.

Phytochemicals against TNFα-Mediated Neuroinflammatory Diseases

Tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) is a well-known pro-inflammatory cytokine responsible for the modulation of the immune system. TNF-α plays a critical role in almost every type of inflammatory disorder, including central nervous system (CNS) diseases. Although TNF-α is a well-studied component of inflammatory responses, its functioning in diverse cell types is still unclear. TNF-α functions through its two main receptors: tumor necrosis factor receptor 1 and 2 (TNFR1, TNFR2), also known as p55 and p75, respectively. Normally, the functions of soluble TNF-α-induced TNFR1 activation are reported to be pro-inflammatory and apoptotic. While TNF-α mediated TNFR2 activation has a dual role. Several synthetic drugs used as inhibitors of TNF-α for diverse inflammatory diseases possess serious adverse effects, which make patients and researchers turn their focus toward natural medicines, phytochemicals in particular. Phytochemicals targeting TNF-α can significantly improve disease conditions involving TNF-α with fewer side effects. Here, we reviewed known TNF-α inhibitors, as well as lately studied phytochemicals, with a role in inhibiting TNF-α itself, and TNF-α-mediated signaling in inflammatory diseases focusing mainly on CNS disorders.

Ischemia and reperfusion injury in superficial inferior epigastric artery-based vascularized lymph node flaps

Vascularized lymph node transfer (VLNT) is a promising treatment modality for lymphedema; however, how lymphatic tissue responds to ischemia has not been well defined. This study investigates the cellular changes that occur in lymph nodes in response to ischemia and reperfusion. Lymph node containing superficial epigastric artery-based groin flaps were isolated in Prox-1 EGFP rats which permits real time identification of lymphatic tissue by green fluorescence during flap dissection. Flaps were subjected to ischemia for either 1, 2, 4, or 8 hours, by temporarily occluding the vascular pedicle. Flaps were harvested after 0 hours, 24 hours, or 5 days of reperfusion. Using EGFP signal guidance, lymph nodes were isolated from the flaps and tissue morphology, cell apoptosis, and inflammatory cytokines were quantified and analyzed via histology, immunostaining, and rtPCR. There was a significant increase in collagen deposition and tissue fibrosis in lymph nodes after 4 and 8 hours of ischemia compared to 1 and 2 hours, as assessed by picrosirius red staining. Cell apoptosis significantly increased after 4 hours of ischemia in all harvest times. In tissue subject to 4 hours of ischemia, longer reperfusion periods were associated with increased rates of CD3+ and CD45+ cell apoptosis. rtPCR analysis demonstrated significantly increased expression of CXCL1/GRO-α with 2 hours of ischemia and increased PECAM-1 and TNF-α expression with 1 hour of ischemia. Significant cell death and changes in tissue morphology do not occur until after 4 hours of ischemia; however, analysis of inflammatory biomarkers suggests that ischemia reperfusion injury can occur with as little as 2 hours of ischemia.

Protective Role of Astrocyte-Derived Exosomal microRNA-361 in Cerebral Ischemic-Reperfusion Injury by Regulating the AMPK/mTOR Signaling Pathway and Targeting CTSB

BACKGROUND

Evidence has shown that microRNAs (miRNAs) are implicated in ischemic diseases. Therefore, the aim of the present study was to identify the functions of astrocyte (ATC)-derived exosomal miR-361 on cerebral ischemic-reperfusion (I/R) injury.

METHODS

A rat model of cerebral I/R injury was initially established, followed by injection of ATC-derived exosomes. Next, the protective function of ATC-derived exosomes in rats with cerebral I/R injury was evaluated, and then the effect of miR-361 on rats with cerebral I/R injury was evaluated by changing miR-361 expression in exosomes. PC12 cells that underwent oxygen-glucose deprivation/reoxygenation were used to simulate I/R in vitro. The effect of ATC-derived exosomal miR-361 on the viability and apoptosis of OGD/R-treated PC12 cells was also assessed. The bioinformatic analysis predicted the targeted gene of miR-361.

RESULTS

It was found that I/R was damaging to the brain nerves of rats, while ATC-derived exosomal miR-361 relieved nerve damage caused by I/R. Furthermore, the in vitro experiments demonstrated that ATC-derived exosomal miR-361 increased OGD/R-inhibited PC12 cell activity and suppressed cell apoptosis. Bioinformatics predicted that miR-361 targeted cathepsin B (CTSB). CTSB upregulation blocked the protective roles of miR-361. In addition, miR-361 was found to downregulate the AMPK / mTOR signaling pathway by targeting CTSB.

CONCLUSION

The present study demonstrated that ATC-derived exosomal miR-361 alleviates nerve damage in rats with cerebral I/R injury by targeting CTSB and downregulating the AMPK/mTOR pathway. This may offer novel insights into treatment for I/R injury.

Neuroinflammation: friend and foe for ischemic stroke

Stroke, the third leading cause of death and disability worldwide, is undergoing a change in perspective with the emergence of new ideas on neurodegeneration. The concept that stroke is a disorder solely of blood vessels has been expanded to include the effects of a detrimental interaction between glia, neurons, vascular cells, and matrix components, which is collectively referred to as the neurovascular unit. Following the acute stroke, the majority of which are ischemic, there is secondary neuroinflammation that both promotes further injury, resulting in cell death, but conversely plays a beneficial role, by promoting recovery. The proinflammatory signals from immune mediators rapidly activate resident cells and influence infiltration of a wide range of inflammatory cells (neutrophils, monocytes/macrophages, different subtypes of T cells, and other inflammatory cells) into the ischemic region exacerbating brain damage. In this review, we discuss how neuroinflammation has both beneficial as well as detrimental roles and recent therapeutic strategies to combat pathological responses. Here, we also focus on time-dependent entry of immune cells to the ischemic area and the impact of other pathological mediators, including oxidative stress, excitotoxicity, matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs), high-mobility group box 1 (HMGB1), arachidonic acid metabolites, mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), and post-translational modifications that could potentially perpetuate ischemic brain damage after the acute injury. Understanding the time-dependent role of inflammatory factors could help in developing new diagnostic, prognostic, and therapeutic neuroprotective strategies for post-stroke inflammation.

Cell Type-Specific Roles of NF-κB Linking Inflammation and Thrombosis

The transcription factor NF-κB is a central mediator of inflammation with multiple links to thrombotic processes. In this review, we focus on the role of NF-κB signaling in cell types within the vasculature and the circulation that are involved in thrombo-inflammatory processes. All these cells express NF-κB, which mediates important functions in cellular interactions, cell survival and differentiation, as well as expression of cytokines, chemokines, and coagulation factors. Even platelets, as anucleated cells, contain NF-κB family members and their corresponding signaling molecules, which are involved in platelet activation, as well as secondary feedback circuits. The response of endothelial cells to inflammation and NF-κB activation is characterized by the induction of adhesion molecules promoting binding and transmigration of leukocytes, while simultaneously increasing their thrombogenic potential. Paracrine signaling from endothelial cells activates NF-κB in vascular smooth muscle cells and causes a phenotypic switch to a “synthetic” state associated with a decrease in contractile proteins. Monocytes react to inflammatory situations with enforced expression of tissue factor and after differentiation to macrophages with altered polarization. Neutrophils respond with an extension of their life span—and upon full activation they can expel their DNA thereby forming so-called neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs), which exert antibacterial functions, but also induce a strong coagulatory response. This may cause formation of microthrombi that are important for the immobilization of pathogens, a process designated as immunothrombosis. However, deregulation of the complex cellular links between inflammation and thrombosis by unrestrained NET formation or the loss of the endothelial layer due to mechanical rupture or erosion can result in rapid activation and aggregation of platelets and the manifestation of thrombo-inflammatory diseases. Sepsis is an important example of such a disorder caused by a dysregulated host response to infection finally leading to severe coagulopathies. NF-κB is critically involved in these pathophysiological processes as it induces both inflammatory and thrombotic responses.

Overexpression of Egr2 and Egr4 protects rat brains against ischemic stroke by downregulating JNK signaling pathway

OBJECTIVE

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of Egr2 and Egr4 upregulation on ischemic stroke recovery of rats.

METHODS

In this study, Sprague Dawley (SD) rats assigned at random into control, sham and MCAO (middle cerebral artery occlusion) group were treated accordingly to build MCAO models. The neurological severity scores (NSS) test was applied to assess rats' behavior. Triphenyltetrazolium chloride (TTC) staining reflected infarct areas while Nissl staining revealed the number of neurons. Levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines (interleukin [IL]-1β, IL-6 and tumor necrosis factor [TNF]-α) were judged by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) in brain and serum tissues. We applied western blot to check the expression of Egr2, Egr4 and JNK/c-JUN (c-Jun N-terminal kinase) pathway. Further grouping of rats were based on various transfection, requiring control, sham, MCAO, MCAO + Egr2 cDNA (complementary DNA), MCAO + Egr4 cDNA, MCAO + Egr2 cDNA + Egr4 cDNA group to observe difference in MCAO recovery and JNK/c-JUN-pathway-related protein expression.

RESULTS

Under successful modeling of MCAO, western blot results suggested down-regulation of Egr2 and Egr4 and overexpression of pro-inflammatory cytokines. The JNK/c-JUN pathway was activated. On upregulation of Egr2 and Egr4 in infarct areas, neurological function of SD rats recovered along with repressed JNK/c-JUN pathway activation and increased neuron number.

CONCLUSION

Upregulation of Egr2 and Egr4 could demote the activation of JNK/c-JUN pathway and the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines in MCAO rats, so that Egr2 and Egr4 might be potential targets for ischemic stroke in future.

Intra-cerebral cannabidiol infusion-induced neuroprotection is partly associated with the TNF-α/TNFR1/NF-кB pathway in transient focal cerebral ischaemia

BACKGROUND

Stroke is a neurological disease, which, in addition to high mortality, imposes many financial and mental burdens on families and the society. The main objective of this study was to investigate the effect of cannabidiol (CBD) on one of the major inflammatory pathways in cerebral ischaemia.

METHOD

Using stereotaxic surgery, the cannula was implanted into the right lateral ventricle of rats. CBD (50, 100, and 200 ng/rat; i.c.v.) was administrated for five consecutive days. After pretreatment, the rats were subjected to 60 min of right middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO). After 24 h, neurological deficits score, infarct volume, brain oedema, and blood-brain barrier (BBB) permeability in total, core, and penumbra areas were assessed. The expression of tumour necrosis factor alfa (TNF-α), tumour necrosis factor receptor 1 (TNFR1), and nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-кB) in the mentioned regions was also studied.

RESULTS

Administration of CBD (100 and 200 ng/rat) caused a significant reduction in infarction, brain oedema, and BBB permeability compared with the vehicle-received group. Down-regulation of TNF-α, TNFR1, and NF-кB expression was also observed by CBD.

CONCLUSION

The results achieved in this study support the idea that CBD has a cerebroprotective effect (partly through suppression of TNF-α, TNFR1, and NF-кB) on ischaemic injury.

ABBREVIATIONS

CBD, cannabidiol; ANOVA, analysis of variance; PVDF, polyvinylidene difluoride; SDS-PAGE, sodium dodecyl sulphate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis; SEM, standard error of mean.

Marked expression of TNF receptors in human peritendinous tissues including in nerve fascicles with axonal damage - Studies on tendinopathy and tennis elbow

BACKGROUND

The peritendinous connective tissues can have importance in chronic tendon pain. Recently cytokine TNF-α has been suggested to be involved in tendinopathic processes. It is not known how TNF-α and its receptors TNFR1 and TNFR2 are expressed in peritendinous tissues.

METHODS

The objective for this study was to immunohistochemically evaluate the expression patterns of these in the peritendinous tissue located between the plantaris and Achilles tendons and the one located superficially to the extensor origin at the elbow region for patients with tendinopathy/tennis elbow.

RESULTS

The nerve fascicles were of two types, one type being homogenously stained for the nerve markers βIII-tubulin and neurofilament and the other showing deficits for these suggesting features of axonal damage. Much more distinct TNFR1/TNFR2 immunoreactions were seen for the latter nerve fascicles. TNFR1 was seen in axons, TNFR2 mainly in Schwann cells. TNFR1 and particularly TNFR2 were seen in walls of parts of blood vessels. The dispersed cells showed frequently TNFR1 and TNFR2 immunoreactivity.

DISCUSSION

These findings suggest that TNF-α can be related to degenerative events but also attempts for healing concerning the nerve structures. The marked expression of the TNF-α system in the peritendinous tissue suggests an impact of TNF-α in tendinopathy/tennis elbow.

Thiamet G mediates neuroprotection in experimental stroke by modulating microglia/macrophage polarization and inhibiting NF-κB p65 signaling

Inflammatory responses are accountable for secondary injury induced by acute ischemic stroke (AIS). Previous studies indicated that O-GlcNAc modification (O-GlcNAcylation) is involved in the pathology of AIS, and increase of O-GlcNAcylation by glucosamine attenuated the brain damage after ischemia/reperfusion. Inhibition of β-N-acetylglucosaminidase (OGA) with thiamet G (TMG) is an alternative option for accumulating O-GlcNAcylated proteins. In this study, we investigate the neuroprotective effect of TMG in a mouse model of experimental stroke. Our results indicate that TMG administration either before or after middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) surgery dramatically reduced infarct volume compared with that in untreated controls. TMG treatment ameliorated the neurological deficits and improved clinical outcomes in neurobehavioral tests by modulating the expression of pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines. Additionally, TMG administration reduced the number of Iba1+ cells in MCAO mice, decreased expression of the M1 markers, and increased expression of the M2 markers in vivo. In vitro, M1 polarization of BV2 cells was inhibited by TMG treatment. Moreover, TMG decreased the expression of iNOS and COX2 mainly by suppressing NF-κB p65 signaling. These results suggest that TMG exerts a neuroprotective effect and could be useful as an anti-inflammatory agent for ischemic stroke therapy.

Multi-Targeting Andrographolide, a Novel NF-κB Inhibitor, as a Potential Therapeutic Agent for Stroke

A key focus in the field of drug discovery has been motivated by the neuroprotection of natural compounds. Cerebral ischemia is a multifaceted pathological process with a series of mechanisms, and a perspective for the development of neuroprotectants from traditional herbal medicine or natural products is a promising treatment for this disease. Natural compounds with the effects of anti-oxidation, anti-inflammation, anti-apoptosis, and neurofunctional regulation exhibit therapeutic effects on experimental ischemic brain injury. Conferring to the pharmacological mechanisms underlying neuroprotection, a study found that androgapholide, a diterpene lactone compound, exhibits varying degrees of neuroprotective activities in both in vitro and in vivo experimental models of stroke. The neuroprotective mechanisms of andrographolide are suggested as: (I) increasing nuclear factor E2-related factor 2-heme oxygenase (Nrf2-HO-1) expression through p38-mitogen activated protein kinase (MAPK) regulation, (II) inducing cerebral endothelial cells (CEC) apoptosis and caspase-3 activation, (III) down regulating Bax, inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), and (IV) inhibiting hydroxyl radical (OH⁻) formation, and activating transcription factor NF-κB signaling pathways. Recently, several researchers have also been trying to unveil the principal mechanisms involved in the neuroprotective effects of andrographolide. Therefore, this review aims to summarize an overview on the neuroprotective effects of andrographolide and exemplifies the essential mechanisms involved. This paper can provide information that andrographolide drug discovery may be a promising strategy for the development of a novel class of neuroprotective drug.

Orientin Attenuates Cerebral Ischemia/Reperfusion Injury in Rat Model through the AQP-4 and TLR4/NF-κB/TNF-α Signaling Pathway

BACKGROUND

Orientin has been reported to have extensive pharmaceutical effects of antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antithrombosis, antiapoptosis, and so on. In the present study, we tried to investigate the protective effects of orientin on cerebral ischemia-reperfusion (I/R) injury and explored the possible mechanisms.

METHODS

Middle cerebral artery occlusion rat model was established and then treated with low, middle, and high concentrations of orientin, respectively, with edaravone as a positive control. The treatment effect of orientin was evaluated by measuring the neurological deficit score, cerebral infarction, brain edema, oxidative stress, excitatory amino acids release, the expression levels of aquaporin-4 (AQP-4), and related inflammatory molecules using different methods including immunohistochemistry, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, real-time PCR, and western blot. Moreover, morphological and structural changes were also observed by hematoxylin-eosin staining and transmission electron microscope.

RESULTS

Orientin provided a significant reduction on neurological deficits, cerebral infarction, cerebral edema, oxidative damage, and neurotoxicity of excitatory amino acids compared to model group (P < .05) in a dose-dependent manner. In addition, orientin substantially downregulated AQP-4 and inflammatory factors expression (P < .05) and improved cell morphology and structure in rats following I/R injury.

CONCLUSION

Orientin was able to mediate noticeable protection against cerebral I/R injury through the attenuation of oxidative stress and neurotoxicity of amino acids and inhibiting the upregulation of AQP-4 and inflammatory cytokines.

The extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 pathway in neurological diseases: A potential therapeutic target (Review)

Signaling pathways are critical modulators of a variety of physiological and pathological processes, and the abnormal activation of some signaling pathways can contribute to disease progression in various conditions. As a result, signaling pathways have emerged as an important tool through which the occurrence and development of diseases can be studied, which may then lead to the development of novel drugs. Accumulating evidence supports a key role for extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 (ERK1/2) signaling in the embryonic development of the central nervous system (CNS) and in the regulation of adult brain function. ERK1/2, one of the most well characterized members of the mitogen-activated protein kinase family, regulates a range of processes, from metabolism, motility and inflammation, to cell death and survival. In the nervous system, ERK1/2 regulates synaptic plasticity, brain development and repair as well as memory formation. ERK1/2 is also a potent effector of neuronal death and neuroinflammation in many CNS diseases. This review summarizes recent findings in neurobiological ERK1/2 research, with a special emphasis on findings that clarify our understanding of the processes that regulate the plethora of isoform-specific ERK functions under physiological and pathological conditions. Finally, we suggest some potential therapeutic strategies associated with agents acting on the ERK1/2 signaling to prevent or treat neurological diseases.

The Ying and Yang of Adenosine A1 and A2A Receptors on ERK1/2 Activation in a Rat Model of Global Cerebral Ischemia Reperfusion Injury

Adenosine impacts cerebral ischemia reperfusion (IR) through the inhibitory A₁ and the excitatory A₂ receptors. The present study aimed at investigating the contrasting role of pERK1/2 in mediating adenosine A₁R (protective) versus A_2AR (deleterious) effects in IR. Male Wistar rats subjected to bilateral carotid occlusion (45 min) followed by reperfusion (24 h) exhibited increased pERK1/2 activity, downstream from DAG pathway, along with increases in hippocampal glutamate, c-Fos, NF-κB, TNF-α, iNOS, TBARS, cytochrome c, caspase-3, BDNF, Nrf2, and IL-10 contents. Further, hippocampal microglial reactivity, glial TNF-α, and BDNF expression were observed. Although unilateral intrahippocampal injection of either the A₁R agonist CHA or the A_2AR agonist CGS21680 increased pERK1/2, only CHA mitigated histopathological and behavioral deficits along with reducing glutamate, microglial activation, c-Fos, TNF-α, iNOS, TBARS, cytochrome c and caspase-3 and elevating Nrf2 and IL-10 levels in IR rats. These results yield insight into the double-faceted nature of pERK1/2 in mediating protective and deleterious effects of A₁R and A_2AR signaling, respectively, against IR injury.

α-Aminoadipic acid protects against retinal disruption through attenuating Müller cell gliosis in a rat model of acute ocular hypertension

OBJECTIVE

Ocular hypertension is an important risk factor for glaucoma. The purpose of this study was to investigate the gliotoxic effects of α-aminoadipic acid (AAA) in a rat model of AOH and its underlying mechanisms.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

In the rat model of acute ocular hypertension (AOH), intraocular pressure was increased to 110 mmHg for 60 minutes. Animals were divided into four groups: sham operation (Ctrl), AOH, AOH + phosphate-buffered saline (PBS), and AOH + AAA. Cell apoptosis in the ganglion cell layer was detected with the terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase-mediated uridine 5'-triphosphate-biotin nick end labeling (TUNEL) assay, and retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) immunostained with Thy-1 were counted. Müller cell activation was detected using immunostaining with glutamine synthetase and glial fibrillary acidic protein. Tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) was examined using Western blot.

RESULTS

In the rat model of AOH, cell apoptosis was induced in the ganglion cell layer and the number of RGCs was decreased. Müller cell gliosis in the retinas of rats was induced, and retinal protein levels of TNF-α were increased. Intravitreal treatment of AAA versus PBS control attenuated these retinal abnormalities to show protective effects in the rat model of AOH.

CONCLUSION

In the retinas of the rat model of AOH, AAA treatment attenuated retinal apoptosis in the ganglion cell layer and preserved the number of RGCs, likely through the attenuation of Müller cell gliosis and suppression of TNF-α induction. Our observations suggest that AAA might be a potential therapeutic target in glaucoma.

Anti-Inflammatory Effects of Traditional Chinese Medicines against Ischemic Injury in In Vivo Models of Cerebral Ischemia

Inflammation plays a crucial role in the pathophysiology of acute ischemic stroke. In the ischemic cascade, resident microglia are rapidly activated in the brain parenchyma and subsequently trigger inflammatory mediator release, which facilitates leukocyte-endothelial cell interactions in inflammation. Activated leukocytes invade the endothelial cell junctions and destroy the blood-brain barrier integrity, leading to brain edema. Toll-like receptors (TLRs) stimulation in microglia/macrophages through the activation of intercellular signaling pathways secretes various proinflammatory cytokines and enzymes and then aggravates cerebral ischemic injury. The secreted cytokines activate the proinflammatory transcription factors, which subsequently regulate cytokine expression, leading to the amplification of the inflammatory response and exacerbation of the secondary brain injury. Traditional Chinese medicines (TCMs), including TCM-derived active compounds, Chinese herbs, and TCM formulations, exert neuroprotective effects against inflammatory responses by downregulating the following: ischemia-induced microglial activation, microglia/macrophage-mediated cytokine production, proinflammatory enzyme production, intercellular adhesion molecule-1, matrix metalloproteinases, TLR expression, and deleterious transcription factor activation. TCMs also aid in upregulating anti-inflammatory cytokine expression and neuroprotective transcription factor activation in the ischemic lesion in the inflammatory cascade during the acute phase of cerebral ischemia. Thus, TCMs exert potent anti-inflammatory properties in ischemic stroke and warrant further investigation.

Anti-inflammation Effects of Oxysophoridine on Cerebral Ischemia-Reperfusion Injury in Mice

Oxysophoridine (OSR) is a bioactive alkaloid extracted from the Sophora alopecuroides Linn. Our aim is to explore the potential anti-inflammation mechanism of OSR in cerebral ischemic injury. Mice were intraperitoneally pretreated with OSR (62.5, 125, and 250 mg/kg) or nimodipine (Nim) (6 mg/kg) for 7 days followed by cerebral ischemia. The inflammatory-related cytokines in cerebral ischemic hemisphere tissue were determined by immunohistochemistry staining, Western blot and enzyme-like immunosorbent assay (ELISA). OSR-treated groups observably suppressed the nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB), intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1), inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2). OSR-treated group (250 mg/kg) markedly reduced the inflammatory-related protein prostaglandin E2 (PGE2), tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), interleukin-1β (IL-1β), interleukin-6 (IL-6), and interleukin-8 (IL-8). Meanwhile, it dramatically increased the interleukin-10 (IL-10). Our study revealed that OSR protected neurons from ischemia-induced injury in mice by downregulating the proinflammatory cytokines and blocking the NF-κB pathway.

The role of tumour necrosis factor alpha and soluble tumour necrosis factor alpha receptors in the symptomatology of schizophrenia

Background Immunological mechanisms may be responsible for the development and maintenance of schizophrenia symptoms. Aim The aim of this study is to measure tumour necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), soluble tumour necrosis factor-alpha receptor I (sTNF-αRI), and soluble tumour necrosis factor-alpha receptor II (sTNF-αRII) levels in patients with schizophrenia and healthy individuals, and to determine their relationship with the symptoms of schizophrenia. Methods Serum TNF-α, sTNF-αRI and sTNF-αRII levels were measured. The Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale (PANSS) was administered for patients with schizophrenia (n = 35), and the results were compared with healthy controls (n = 30). Hierarchical regression analyses were undertaken to predict the levels of TNF-α, sTNF-αRI and sTNF-αRII. Results No significant difference was observed in TNF-α levels, but sTNF-αRI and sTNF-αRII levels were lower in patients with schizophrenia. Serum sTNF-αRI and sTNF-αRII levels were found to be negatively correlated with the negative subscale score of the PANSS, and sTNF-αRI levels were also negatively correlated with the total score of the PANSS. Smoking, gender, body mass index were not correlated with TNF-α and sTNF-α receptor levels. Conclusions These results suggest that there may be a change in anti-inflammatory response in patients with schizophrenia due to sTNF-αRI and sTNF-αRII levels. The study also supports low levels of TNF activity in schizophrenia patients with negative symptoms.

The Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase (MAPK) Signaling Pathway as a Discovery Target in Stroke

Protein kinases are critical modulators of a variety of intracellular and extracellular signal transduction pathways, and abnormal phosphorylation events can contribute to disease progression in a variety of diseases. As a result, protein kinases have emerged as important new drug targets for small molecule therapeutics. The mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling pathway transmits signals from the cell membrane to the nucleus in response to a variety of different stimuli. Because this pathway controls a broad spectrum of cellular processes, including growth, inflammation, and stress responses, it is accepted as a therapeutic target for cancer and peripheral inflammatory disorders. There is also increasing evidence that MAPK is an important regulator of ischemic and hemorrhagic cerebral vascular disease, raising the possibility that it might be a drug discovery target for stroke. In this review, we discuss the MAPK signaling pathway in association with its activation in stroke-induced brain injury.

Role of adenosine A2A receptor in cerebral ischemia reperfusion injury: Signaling to phosphorylated extracellular signal-regulated protein kinase (pERK1/2)

Following brain ischemia reperfusion (IR), the dramatic increase in adenosine activates A2AR to induce further neuronal damage. Noteworthy, A2A antagonists have proven efficacious in halting IR injury, however, the detailed downstream signaling remains elusive. To this end, the present study aimed to investigate the possible involvement of phospho-extracellular signal-regulated kinase (pERK1/2) pathway in mediating protection afforded by the central A2A blockade. Male Wistar rats (250-270 g) subjected to bilateral carotid occlusion for 45 min followed by a 24-h reperfusion period showed increased infarct size corroborating histopathological damage, memory impairment and motor incoordination as well as increased locomotor activity. Those events were mitigated by the unilateral intrahippocampal administration of the selective A2A antagonist SCH58261 via a decrease in pERK1/2 downstream from diacyl glycerol (DAG) signaling. Consequent to pERK1/2 inhibition, reduced hippocampal microglial activation, glial tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) and brain-derived neurotropic factor (BDNF) expression, glutamate (Glu), inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) were evident in animals receiving SCH58261. Additionally, the anti-inflammatory cytokine interleukin-10 (IL-10) increased following nuclear factor (erythroid-derived 2)-like 2 (Nrf-2). Taken all together, these events suppressed apoptotic pathways via a reduction in cytochrome c (Cyt. c) as well as caspase-3 supporting a crucial role for pERK1/2 inhibition in consequent reduction of inflammatory and excitotoxic cascades as well as correction of the redox imbalance.

Cell Therapy for Intracranial Aneurysms: A Review

One in five patients undergoing endovascular coiling (the current standard of care for treating intracranial aneurysms) experience a recurrence of the aneurysm as a result of improper healing. Recurrence remains the only major drawback of the coiling treatment and has been the focus of many studies over the last two decades. Cell therapy, a novel treatment modality in which therapeutic cells are introduced to the site of the injury to promote tissue regeneration, has opened up new possibilities for treating aneurysms. The healing response that ensues aneurysm embolization includes several cellular processes that can be targeted with cell therapy to prevent the aneurysm from recurring. Ten preclinical studies involving cell therapy to treat aneurysms were published between 1999 and 2014. In this review, we summarize the results of these studies and discuss advances, shortcomings, and the future of cell therapy for intracranial aneurysms.

Increased levels of tumour necrosis factor alpha (TNFα) but not transforming growth factor-beta 1 (TGFβ1) are associated with the severity of congenital hydrocephalus in the hyh mouse

AIMS

Here, we tested the hypothesis that glial responses via the production of cytokines such as transforming growth factor-beta 1 (TGFβ1) and tumour necrosis factor alpha (TNFα), which play important roles in neurodegenerative diseases, are correlated with the severity of congenital hydrocephalus in the hyh mouse model. We also searched for evidence of this association in human cases of primary hydrocephalus.

METHODS

Hyh mice, which exhibit either severe or compensated long-lasting forms of hydrocephalus, were examined and compared with wild-type mice. TGFβ1, TNFα and TNFαR1 mRNA levels were quantified using real-time PCR. TNFα and TNFαR1 were immunolocalized in the brain tissues of hyh mice and four hydrocephalic human foetuses relative to astroglial and microglial reactions.

RESULTS

The TGFβ1 mRNA levels were not significantly different between hyh mice exhibiting severe or compensated hydrocephalus and normal mice. In contrast, severely hydrocephalic mice exhibited four- and two-fold increases in the mean levels of TNFα and TNFαR1, respectively, compared with normal mice. In the hyh mouse, TNFα and TNFαR1 immunoreactivity was preferentially detected in astrocytes that form a particular periventricular reaction characteristic of hydrocephalus. However, these proteins were rarely detected in microglia, which did not appear to be activated. TNFα immunoreactivity was also detected in the glial reaction in the small group of human foetuses exhibiting hydrocephalus that were examined.

CONCLUSIONS

In the hyh mouse model of congenital hydrocephalus, TNFα and TNFαR1 appear to be associated with the severity of the disease, probably mediating the astrocyte reaction, neurodegenerative processes and ischaemia.

Sulforaphane exerts neuroprotective effects via suppression of the inflammatory response in a rat model of focal cerebral ischemia

Inflammatory damage plays an important role in cerebral ischemic pathogenesis and may represent a promising target for treatment. Sulforaphane exerts protective effects in a rat model of focal cerebral ischemia/reperfusion injury by alleviating brain edema. However, the possible mechanisms of sulforaphane after cerebral ischemia/reperfusion injury have not been fully elucidated. Therefore, in the present study, we investigated the effect of sulforaphane on inflammatory reaction and the potential molecular mechanisms in cerebral ischemia rats. We found that sulforaphane significantly attenuated the blood-brain barrier (BBB) disruption; decreased the levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α and interleukin (IL)-1β; reduced the nitric oxide (NO) levels and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) activity; inhibited the expression of iNOS and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2). In addition, sulforaphane inhibits the expression of p-NF-κB p65 after focal cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury. Taken together, our results suggest that sulforaphane suppresses the inflammatory response via inhibiting the NF-κB signaling pathway in a rat model of focal cerebral ischemia, and sulforaphane may be a potential therapeutic agent for the treatment of cerebral ischemia injury.

Role of tumor necrosis factor alpha in the pathogenesis of atrial fibrillation: A novel potential therapeutic target?

Atrial fibrillation (AF) is the most common sustained arrhythmia in clinical practice and a major cause of morbidity and mortality. Although the fundamental mechanisms underlying AF remain incompletely understood, atrial remodeling, including structural, electrical, contractile, and autonomic remodeling, has been demonstrated to contribute to the substrate for AF maintenance. Accumulating evidence shows that tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) plays exceedingly important roles in atrial remodeling. This article reviews recent advances in the roles of TNF-α in the pathogenesis of AF, elucidates the related mechanisms, and exploits its potential usefulness as a novel therapeutic target.