Circum-Mediterranean cultural heritage and medicinal plant uses in traditional animal healthcare: a field survey in eight selected areas within the RUBIA project

The global relevance of locally grounded ethnobiology

While ethnobiology is a discipline that focuses on the local, it has an outstanding, but not yet fully realized potential to address global issues. Part of this unrealized potential is that universalistic approaches often do not fully recognize culturally grounded perspectives and there are multiple challenges with scaling up place-based research. However, scalability is paramount to ensure that the intimate and context-specific diversity of human-environmental relationships and understandings are recognized in global-scale planning and policy development. Here, we identify four pathways to enable the scalability of place-based ethnobiological research from the ground up: local-to-global dialogues, aggregation of published data, multi-sited studies, and geospatial analyses. We also discuss some major challenges and consideration to encourage continuous reflexivity in these endeavours and to ensure that scalability does not contribute to unnecessarily decontextualizing, co-opting, or overwriting the epistemologies of Indigenous Peoples and local communities. As ethnobiology navigates multiple scales of time and space and seeks to increase its breadth, this study shows that the use of deliberately global approaches, when carefully nested within rich field-based and ecological and ethnographically grounded data, can contribute to: (1) upscaling case-specific insights to unveil global patterns and dynamics in the biocultural contexts of Indigenous Peoples and local communities; (2) bringing ethnobiological knowledge into resolutions that can influence global environmental research and policy agendas; and (3) enriching ethnobiology's field-based ethos with a deliberate global analytical focus.

Pharmacological Properties of Four Plant Species of the Genus Anabasis, Amaranthaceae

The genus Anabasis is a member of the family Amaranthaceae (former name: Chenopodiaceae) and includes approximately 102 genera and 1400 species. The genus Anabasis is one of the most significant families in salt marshes, semi-deserts, and other harsh environments. They are also renowned for their abundance in bioactive compounds, including sesquiterpenes, diterpenes, triterpenes, saponins, phenolic acids, flavonoids, and betalain pigments. Since ancient times, these plants have been used to treat various diseases of the gastrointestinal tract, diabetes, hypertension, and cardiovascular diseases and are used as an antirheumatic and diuretic. At the same time, the genus Anabasis is very rich in biologically active secondary metabolites that exhibit great pharmacological properties such as antioxidant, antibacterial, antiangiogenic, antiulcer, hypoglycemic, hepatoprotective, antidiabetic, etc. All of the listed pharmacological activities have been studied in practice by scientists from different countries and are presented in this review article to familiarize the entire scientific community with the results of these studies, as well as to explore the possibilities of using four plant species of the genus Anabasis as medicinal raw materials and developing medicines based on them.

Ethnobotanical Review and Dataset Compiling on Wild and Cultivated Plants Traditionally Used as Medicinal Remedies in Italy

Over the centuries, wild plants have constituted the main food ingredients and traditional medicine in rural communities. In the last decades, thousands of ethnobotanical studies have been conducted, with the aim of documenting the traditional knowledge on wild and cultivated plants both for food and therapeutic purposes. In the present work, 75 published papers related to Italian ethnobotanical knowledge on wild and cultivated plants traditionally used for medical purposes were analyzed and data on 1117 different species organized in the first dataset to target medicinal applications only. For each plant species, the Italian region of use, plant organs, mode of preparation, specific pathological group of application, citation index, and use index were listed. The different therapeutic applications were subdivided into nine main pathological groups according to the targeted human apparatus. Overall, the cited species with highest number of uses were related to the treatment of the digestive system and skin-ears-eyes-hair diseases, followed by diseases of the genito-urinary and respiratory systems. The 13 most relevant species were identified on the basis of their citation and use indexes. The present review on Italian medicinal flora aims to provide valuable information on wild and cultivated species, which are potential sources of plant-based therapeutic remedies, to preserve and reevaluate endangered traditional folk knowledge.

Medicinal Plants Used Traditionally for Skin Related Problems in the South Balkan and East Mediterranean Region—A Review

A review research was conducted to provide an overview of the ethnobotanical knowledge of medicinal plants and traditional medical practices for the treatment of skin disorders in Albania, Cyprus, Greece, and Turkey. The geographical and ecological characteristics of the Balkan Peninsula and Mediterranean Sea, along with the historical connection among those countries, gave rise to the development of a distinct flora and to the uses of common medicinal plants against various skin ailments, respectively. The review focuses on the detailed study of 128 ethnobotanical surveys conducted in these areas and the species used for skin ailments were singled out. The analysis showed that 967 taxa belonging to 418 different genera and 111 different families are used in the treatment of skin related problems. The majority of the plants belong to the families of Asteraceae (11.7%), Lamiaceae (7.4%), Rosaceae (6.7%), Plantaginaceae (5.4%), and Malvaceae (3.8%). Their usage is internal or external to treat ailments such as wounds and burns (22.1%), hemorrhoids (14.7%), boils, abscesses, and furuncles (8.2%). Beside specific skin disorders, numerous species appeared to be used for their antifungal, antimicrobial, and antiseptic activity (9.1%). Literature evaluation highlighted that, the most commonly used species are Plantago major L. (Albania, Turkey), Hypericum perforatum L. (Greece, Turkey), Sambucus nigra L. (Cyprus, Greece), Ficus carica L. (Cyprus, Turkey), Matricaria chamomilla L. (Cyprus, Greece), and Urtica dioica L. (Albania, Turkey), while many medicinal plants reported by interviewees were common in all four countries. Finally, to relate this ethnopharmacological knowledge and trace its expansion and diversification through centuries, a comparison of findings was made with the use of the species mentioned in Dioscorides’ “De Materia Medica” for skin disorders. This work constitutes the first comparative study performed with ethnobotanical data for skin ailments gathered in the South Balkan and East Mediterranean areas. Results confirm the primary hypothesis that people in Albania, Cyprus, Greece, and Turkey are closely related in terms of traditionally using folk medicinal practices. Nevertheless, more field studies conducted, especially in remote places of these regions, can help preserve the traditional medical knowledge, aiming at the discovery of new phytotherapeutics against dermatological diseases.

Dittrichia graveolens (L.) Greuter, a Rapidly Spreading Invasive Plant: Chemistry and Bioactivity

Dittrichia graveolens L. Greuter belonging to the Asteraceae family, is an aromatic herbaceous plant native to the Mediterranean region. This plant species has been extensively studied for its biological activities, including antioxidant, antitumor, antimicrobial, antifungal, anti-inflammatory, anticholinesterase, and antityrosinase, and for its peculiar metabolic profile. In particular, bioactivities are related to terpenes and flavonoids metabolites, such as borneol (40), tomentosin (189), inuviscolide (204). However, D. graveolens is also well known for causing health problems both in animals and humans. Moreover, the species is currently undergoing a dramatic northward expansion of its native range related to climate change, now including North Europe, California, and Australia. This review represents an updated overview of the 52 literature papers published in Scopus and PubMed dealing with expansion, chemistry (262 different compounds), pharmacological effects, and toxicology of D. graveolens up to October 2021. The review is intended to boost further studies to determine the molecular pathways involved in the observed activities, bioavailability, and clinical studies to explore new potential applications.

Phytochemical characterization of raw and cooked traditionally consumed alimurgic plants

In the past, wild edible alimurgic plants became an important alternative food source when poverty, wars or drought made it difficult to access crops. These plants were considered rich in highly nutritional compounds and also frequently used as food-medicine given their health-promoting properties. With the aim of improving our knowledge on the content of beneficial or detrimental compounds in relation with past local dietary and curative traditions, 12 wild food plant species were collected from two study areas selected for their very different degree of industrialization, urbanization, and conservation of local past traditions among the population: the Bologna province (Northern Italy) and the Middle Agri Valley (Southern Italy). Protein, polyphenol flavonoid and biogenic amine (both free and conjugated) contents and antioxidant activity of raw and boiled wild food plant extracts, and of cooking water were analyzed by means of spectrophotometric and high-performance liquid chromatography methods. The results demonstrated that most of the phenolic compounds were released in the cooking water which also showed the highest antioxidant activity. Seventeen different phenolic compounds were identified, of which the health-related luteolin, luteolin-7-glucoside and rutin were the most abundant (e.g., S. pratensis L. and C. intybus L.). On the other hand, biogenic amines were absent or present at very low levels in cooking water of those very same species (e.g., S. pratensis L., T. officinalis Weber, C. vesicaria subsp. taraxacifolia and C. intybus L.) of which traditionally a decoction is used for therapeutic purposes. Free and conjugated spermidine and spermine were generally the most abundant biogenic amines, while none of the known detrimental monoamines (e.g., histamine) was detected. In conclusion, the present results seem to support past local popular traditions which indicated beneficial medical properties of some wild edible plant, as well as of their cooking water.

Design a Database of Italian Vascular Alimurgic Flora (AlimurgITA): Preliminary Results

Despite the large number of data published in Italy on WEPs, there is no database providing a complete knowledge framework. Hence the need to design a database of the Italian alimurgic flora: AlimurgITA. Only strictly alimurgic taxa were chosen, excluding casual alien and cultivated ones. The collected data come from an archive of 358 texts (books and scientific articles) from 1918 to date, chosen with appropriate criteria. For each taxon, the part of the plant used, the method of use, the chorotype, the biological form and the regional distribution in Italy were considered. The 1103 taxa of edible flora already entered in the database equal 13.09% of Italian flora. The most widespread family is that of the Asteraceae (20.22%); the most widely used taxa are Cichorium intybus and Borago officinalis. The not homogeneous regional distribution of WEPs (maximum in the south and minimum in the north) has been interpreted. Texts published reached its peak during the 2001–2010 decade. A database for Italian WEPs is important to have a synthesis and to represent the richness and complexity of this knowledge, also in light of its potential for cultural enhancement, as well as its applications for the agri-food system.

A systematic review on the ethnoveterinary uses of mediterranean salt-tolerant plants: Exploring its potential use as fodder, nutraceuticals or phytotherapeutics in ruminant production

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Salt-tolerant plants are well adapted to the harsh conditions of the Mediterranean region, where have been used traditionally as food and medicines for human and animals. In addition, various species are currently recognized as sources of metabolites with pharmacological, cosmetical and nutraceutical interest. Nevertheless, ethnoveterinary data on salt-tolerant plants are dispersed in the literature and there are few discussions on its veterinary potential. Having in mind the rising interest on organic farming, alternatives to chemical substances in livestock production and concern for animal health and welfare practices, these plants may represent an untapped resource for animal management and veterinary purposes. In this sense, the purpose of this work is to summarize the ethnoveterinary knowledge on salt-tolerant plants described in the Mediterranean region, raising awareness to the potential of this group of plants to be used in veterinary science, targeting especially ruminants.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Literature search (2000-2020) was conducted using Web of Science and Science Direct databases. Ethnoveterinary reports (EVR) concerning salt-tolerant plants were summarized and filtered for ruminants. From the final 29 publications, EVR concerning therapeutic uses were categorized according to its ATCvet code and results analyzed.

RESULTS

A total of 221 EVR were identified from 39 plants, belonging to 21 plant families, targetting ruminants. Ten EVR (4.5%) concerned uses of salt-tolerant species as animal feed, while around 75% of therapeutic uses was represented by three categories: alimentary tract and metabolism (QA; n = 75), dermatologicals (QD; n = 53) and genitourinary system and sex hormones (QG; n = 41). Pistacia lentiscus L., Foeniculum vulgare Mill., Dittrichia viscosa (L.) Greuter, Plantago major L. and Hordeum vulgare L. were the most cited species in the latter categories.

CONCLUSIONS

The ethnoveterinary knowledge on salt-tolerant species hints some plants of veterinary pharmacological potential, but other species deserve further notice. This information should serve as a basis and, coupled with the currently available scientific data on bioactive properties and chemical composition of salt-tolerant species, inspire additional research on the exploitation of this botanical group, as sources of novel products for ruminant nutrition, health and quality of its products.

Phylogenetic relationships and DNA barcoding of nine endangered medicinal plant species endemic to Saint Katherine protectorate

A high degree of endemism has been recorded for several plant groups collectively in Saint Katherine Protectorate (SKP) in the Sinai Peninsula. Nine endangered endemic plant species in SKP were selected to test the variable abilities of three different DNA barcodes; Riboluse-1,5- Biphosphate Carboxylase/Oxygenase Large subunit (rbcL), Internal Transcribed Spacer (ITS), and the two regions of the plastid gene (ycf1) as well as Start Codon Targeted (SCoT) Polymorphism to find the phylogenetic relationships among them. The three barcodes were generally more capable of finding the genetic relationships among the plant species under study, new barcodes were introduced to the National Centre for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) for the first time through our work. The barcode sequences were efficient in finding the genetic relationships between the nine species. However, SCoT polymorphism could only cluster plant species belonging to the same genus together in one group, but it could not cluster plant species belonging to the same families except for some primers solely. RbcL was the most easily amplified and identified barcode in eight out of the nine species at the species level and the ninth barcode to the genus level. ITS identified all the species to the genus level. Finally, ycf1 identified six out of the eight species, but it could not identify two of the eight species to the genus level.

Ethno-veterinary uses of Poaceae in Punjab, Pakistan

Plant species of the Poaceae family are not only used as fodder and forage but also contribute substantially to the treatment of various health disorders, particularly in livestock. Consequently, the present study was aimed to document the therapeutic uses of Poaceae practiced by the inhabitants of the Punjab Province for the treatment of various veterinary health disorders. Semi structured interviews, group discussion and field walks were conducted to collect the data. Quantitative indices including cultural significance index (CSI), relative frequency of citations (RFC), fidelity level (FL), relative popularity level (RPL), and Jaccard Index (JI) were used for the data analysis. Traditional uses of 149 species belonging to 60 genera and 16 tribes of 5 sub families of Poaceae were recorded. Whole plants and leaves were the most consistently used parts with 40.94 and 29.53%. The plants were mainly given orally as fodder (59 reports) without processing followed by decoction (35 reports). Most of the species were employed to treat infectious diseases (25.93%), and digestive disorders (14.10%). Triticum aestivum had the highest CSI, RFC and RPL levels at 8.00, 0.96, 1.00, respectively, followed by Oryza sativa and Poa annua. Likewise, T. aestivum and Saccharum spontaneum had 100% FL and ROP. Jaccard index ranged from 12.25 to 0.37. Twelve plant species namely Chrysopogon zizanioides (anti-inflammatory), Pennisetum lanatum (improve bull fertility), Cymbopogon citratus (glandular secretion), Sorghum saccharatum and Themeda triandra (malaria), Aristida funiculate (anticancer), Koeleria argentia (skin allergies), Tetrapogon villosus (antibacterial), Cynodon radiatus (eyes infection), Sporobolus nervosa (Jaundice), Enneapogon persicus (antifungal), and Panicum repens (dysfunctional cattle organs) were reported for the first time, with novel ethnoveterinary uses. The inhabitants of the study area had a strong association with their surrounding plant diversity and possessed significant knowledge on therapeutic uses of Poaceae to treat various health disorders in animals. Plant species with maximum cultural and medicinal values could be a potential source of novel drugs to cure health disorders in animals and human as well.

Ethnoveterinary knowledge of farmers in bilingual regions of Switzerland - is there potential to extend veterinary options to reduce antimicrobial use?

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

In the pre-antibiotic era, a broad spectrum of medicinal plants was used to treat livestock. This knowledge was neglected in European veterinary medicine for decades but kept alive by farmers. Emergence of multidrug resistant bacterial strains requires a severely restricted use of antibiotics in veterinary medicine. We conducted a survey on the ethnoveterinary knowledge of farmers in the bilingual (French and German speaking) Western region of Switzerland, namely the cantons of Fribourg, Neuchâtel and Jura, and in the French speaking part of the canton of Bern.

AIM OF THE STUDY

To find out whether differences exist in plants used by farmers in French speaking and bilingual regions of Switzerland as compared to our earlier studies conducted in Switzerland. Additional focus was on plants that are used in diseases which commonly are treated with antimicrobials, on plants used in skin afflictions, and on plants used in animal species such as horses, for which the range of veterinary medicinal products is limited.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

We conducted in 2015 semistructured interviews with 62 dialog partners, mainly cattle keeping farmers but also 18 horse keeping farmers. Of these, 41 were native French (FNS) and 21 native German speakers (GNS). Detailed information about homemade herbal remedies (plant species, plant part, manufacturing process) and the corresponding use reports (target animal species, category of use, route of administration, dosage, source of knowledge, frequency of use, last time of use and farmers satisfaction) were collected.

RESULTS

A total of 345 homemade remedies were reported, of which 240 contained only one plant species (Homemade Single Species Herbal Remedy Reports; HSHR). A total of 289 use reports (UR) were mentioned for the 240 HSHR, and they comprised 77 plant species belonging to 41 botanical families. Of these, 35 plant species were solely reported from FNS, 20 from GNS, and 22 from both. Taking into account earlier ethnoveterinary studies conducted in Switzerland only 10 (FNS) and 6 (GNS) plant species connected with 7% of FNS and GNS UR respectively were "unique" to the respective language group. The majority of the UR (219) was for treatment of cattle, while 38 UR were intended to treat horses. The most UR were for treatment of gastrointestinal and skin diseases. The most frequently mentioned plants were Linum usitatissimum L., Coffea L., Matricaria chamomilla L., Camellia sinensis (L.) Kuntze, and Quercus robur L. for gastrointestinal diseases, and Calendula officinalis L., Hypericum perforatum L. and Sanicula europaea L. for skin afflictions.

CONCLUSION

No clear differences were found between the medicinal plants used by French native speakers and German native speakers. Several of the reported plants seem to be justified to widen the spectrum of veterinary therapeutic options in gastrointestinal and dermatological disorders in cattle and horses, and to reduce, at least to a certain degree, the need for antibiotic treatments. Our findings may help to strengthen the role of medicinal plants in veterinary research and practice, and to consider them as a further measure in official strategies for lowering the use of antibiotics.

Potential of ethno-veterinary medicine in animal health care practices in the South Pacific Island countries: a review

The South Pacific island countries (SPIC) are among the most vulnerable countries in the world to economic shocks, climate change and natural disasters. Agriculture including livestock production makes important contribution to socio-economic development in the region. However, the livestock sector is marred by many livestock diseases, which are crippling the economies as well as threatening the food security of the island nations, most of which have high dependence on imports. Limited veterinary medical facilities, high cost of conventional medicine and remoteness of some rural farming communities make it difficult for farmers to treat their diseased animals. Nevertheless, the island nations are endowed with vast reserves of medicinal plants in diverse ecosystems including mangroves, rainforests and tropical dry forests. Despite the ubiquity of traditional medicine systems, most of the plant species have been used to treat human aliments in the SPIC and very few farmers utilise herbal medicine to treat their animals. This review highlights the common diseases affecting livestock production in the SPIC, threats to ethno-veterinary knowledge, and potential plant species and their efficacies to treat animal diseases and parasites. It also discusses the common methods of preparation of veterinary herbal medicine and possible ways of making the medicine available in the formal and informal markets in the region. It is envisaged that the review will stimulate further ethno-veterinary research among livestock disease management practices in the SPIC.

Ethnoveterinary remedies used in the Algerian steppe: Exploring the relationship with traditional human herbal medicine

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Ethnoveterinary medicine is vastly under-documented, especially in North Africa, where livestock care is increasingly medicalised. Despite evidence of the interdependence of ethnoveterinary practices and ethnomedicine for human care, the overlap between these two systems and the possible drivers of similarity are rarely addressed in ethnopharmacological literature. Here, we present the first quantitative comparison of remedies used to treat human and animal health among a pastoral society.

AIMS

This study aims to document the plants and other materials used in ethnoveterinary medicine among nomadic herders in the Algerian steppe. We calculate the overlap with remedies used for human health and evaluate some of the possible drivers of similarities between the two interlinked medical systems.

METHODS

The field study was conducted in spring 2018 with 201 local knowledge holders in five provinces in the central part of the Algerian steppe. Forty-six camps and ten weekly animal markets were visited. After obtaining prior informed consent, data was collected through structured interviews. Anonymous sociodemographic information was collected along with veterinary use data. Plant specimens were acquired, identified and deposited in the Botanical Laboratory Herbarium of the University of Tiaret. Ethnobotanical information was structured in use reports and therapeutic applications organised into 13 simple categories. Plants used in ethnoveterinary medicine were compared to those used in human health care using a Chi square test, and ethnoveterinary use was predicted using a generalised linear model with use for human care and plant family as predictive variables. Logistic regressions were also used to test if any specific medicinal application predicts shared use in human and veterinary medicine.

RESULTS

Sixty-six plant species from 32 botanical families and ten non-vegetable remedies were documented. Plants from the Lamiaceae, Asteraceae, Fabaceae and Apiaceae families were most commonly used. The plants most often cited by interviewees are all harvested from the wild (Echinops spinosissimus Turra, Atriplex halimus L., Artemisia campestris L., Juniperus phoenicea L. and Peganum harmala L.). Leaves are the most commonly used plant part and decoction is the most common preparation method. There are important similarities between remedies used to treat humans and other animals: two thirds of the remedies used in ethnoveterinary medicine are also used in human health care, and these represent half of the human health treatments. Use for human health and plant family both predict the use of a medicinal plant in veterinary medicine, but no correlation is found regarding specific therapeutic applications.

CONCLUSIONS

Traditional veterinary knowledge is still key to sheep and goat herders in the Algerian steppe, but a knowledge transmission gap seems to exist between older and younger generations, and ethnoveterinary practices may disappear in the near future. Treatments for human and animal care overlap to a large extent, and a causal relationship possibly exists for, at least, some of them. However, overall a smaller number of remedies are used to treat animals than humans and for less therapeutic applications. This difference in the diversity of therapeutic applications and remedies should be the object of future research.

New antimicrobial metabolites from the medicinal herb Artemisia herba-Alba

Artemisia herba-alba is widely used in traditional medicines for the treatment of several diseases. From the aerial parts organic extract of A. herba-alba, two new compounds, 1,3,8-trihydroxyeudesm-4-en-7α,11βH-12,6α-olide (1) and 5-β-​_D-​glucopyranosyloxy​-​7-methoxy-​6H-​benzopyran-​2-​one (2), respectively, together with five known metabolites: 3α,8β-dihydroxygermacr-4(15),9(10)-dien-7β,11αH,12,6α-olide (3), 1β,8α-dihydroxy-11α,13-dihydrobalchanin (4), 11-epiartapshin (5), tomenin (6) and benzoic acid, p-​(β-​_D-​glucopyranosyloxy)​-​methyl ester (7), were isolated and identified. The chemical structures were proven depending upon spectroscopic analysis, including 1 D/2D NMR as and ESI-MS. Compound 1 inhibited Gram-positive bacteria Bacillus subtilis and Staphylococcus aureus. Compounds 2 and 3 exhibited antibacterial activity against both gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria.

Ethnoveterinary contemporary knowledge of farmers in pre-alpine and alpine regions of the Swiss cantons of Bern and Lucerne compared to ancient and recent literature - Is there a tradition?

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

The term "traditional" is well established in European (human) medicine and even appears in recent European regulations on herbal medicinal products connected to a simplified registration. In contrast, a scientific discussion of a Traditional European Veterinary Herbal Medicine is still lacking in spite of a rising interest, in herbal medicine for animals in particular of veterinarians. There is only limited systematic ethnoveterinary research in Europe, with exception of the Mediterranean region, Switzerland and Austria. We conducted a survey on the ethnoveterinary knowledge of farmers in the pre-alpine and alpine regions of the Swiss cantons of Bern and Lucerne. We compared the findings with earlier studies conducted in Switzerland and with recent and past human and veterinary medicinal literature.

AIM OF THE STUDY

We wanted to know to what extent (dependent to different definition of the term "traditional") the ethnoveterinary knowledge of Swiss farmers could be considered as "traditional" in a European veterinary medicinal context.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Semistructured interviews with 44 dialog partners, mainly smallholder cattle farmers, were conducted in 2014. Detailed information about homemade herbal remedies (plant species, plant part, manufacturing process) and the corresponding use reports (target animal species, category of use, route of administration, dosage, source of knowledge, frequency of use, last time of use and farmers satisfaction) were collected. To compare our data with literature, one German book of veterinary pharmacology published in 1900, one typescript of Swiss lectures in veterinary pharmacology from 1944, four books of veterinary herbal medicine published between 1984 and 2016, and one recent publication comparing current Swiss (human) ethnomedicinal plant knowledge with modern and past literature were analyzed.

RESULTS

Information on a total of 315 homemade remedies containing one single plant species (homemade single species herbal remedy reports, HSHR) was collected from participating farmers. These HSHR were prepared from 83 plant species belonging to 46 botanical families. Plants of the families Asteraceae, Lamiaceae and Rosaceae were most frequently used. Matricaria recutita L., Calendula officinalis L., Quercus robur L., Thymus vulgaris L. and Symphytum officinale L. were the most frequently documented species. A total of 404 use reports (UR) were gathered for the 315 HSHR. The largest number of UR was for treatments of gastrointestinal disorders and metabolic dysfunctions, followed by skin alterations and sores. For more than half of the UR the source of knowledge was family, ancestors and friends, and for approximately one quarter the information was from courses and other educational events. For nearly 90% of the UR farmers mentioned at least one use during the last 10 years, and in more than 50% of the UR the last use was within the past year. Compared with recent and past literature and depending on different definitions of the term "traditional" as used for human medicine, between 43% and 84% of all 83 and between 57% and 100% of the most often mentioned 21 plant species show a "traditional" European veterinary use.

CONCLUSION

For the treatment of their animals farmers in the pre-alpine and alpine regions of the Swiss cantons of Bern and Lucerne mostly used plants which have a track record as medicinal herbs in Europe over several centuries. Almost half of the plant species had specific veterinary uses for about 120 years and even more for at least 30 years. The majority of the plant species thus fulfill the criteria of "traditional" according to several definitions and even more up to a certain degree the criteria of "traditional use" as defined in European regulations for human medicinal products. Ethnoveterinary research combined with data from historical sources may serve as a sound foundation for the development and definition of a Traditional European Veterinary Herbal Medicine maybe even with regard to the recent discussion about a simplified registration for Traditional Herbal Veterinary Medicinal Products.

Ethnobotanical uses in the Ancona district (Marche region, Central Italy)

BACKGROUND

The study is a survey of the traditional uses of plants in the Ancona district, in the Marche region, Central Italy.

METHODS

The information derives from ethnobotanical investigations conducted with an open questionnaire among the rural population in three areas of the Ancona district that are representative of the socio-economic and environmental assets of the entire district: the Mount Conero area on the Adriatic coast; the municipality of Osimo, as an inland hilly area; and the 'Gola della Rossa-Frasassi' area, in the Apennines.

RESULTS

A total of 120 informants cited 195 species. The ethnobotanical data concern medicinal (122 species), food (119), veterinary (53), superstitious/religious (61), cosmetic (30), domestic (27), dyeing (17), recreational (17), repellent (15), craft (10), and miscellaneous (29) uses, along with inclusion in local sayings and proverbs (25). The species with the greatest number of categories of use here was Sambucus nigra L. Among the other species with the greatest numbers of categories of use, there were Matricharia chamomilla L., Salvia officinalis L., Urtica dioica L., Papaver roheas L., and Rosa canina L. For each use, comparisons with national and regional literature were made.

CONCLUSIONS

Some uses are commonly known across the three areas; others are sectoral and are new for the Marche region. The survey increases our present-day knowledge of the traditional local uses of plants in the Marche region, in terms of medicinal and food uses, and of ethnobotanical aspects as a whole, which will allow many of these uses to be preserved in the future.

Trace elements in Plantago lanceolata L., a plant used for herbal and food preparations: new data and literature review

Plantago lanceolata L. is a common grassland and roadside plant, widely used in many countries in food and herbal preparations. In this study, samples of this wild plant were collected from rural, suburban/urban, and industrial environments; the concentrations of As, Cd, Co, Cu, Fe, Mn, Ni, P, Pb, V, and Zn were measured in the edible parts of the plant (leaves), in the roots, and in the soils in order to calculate the bioaccumulation and translocation factors. The data obtained were compared with literature data available. Except for samples collected near mines and smelting plants, where Cd, Pb, and Zn concentrations were up to 15 times higher, in all other cases, no differences were observed with respect to samples from rural areas, except for Pb concentration, which was 3 times higher in urban areas. In the samples collected in our study area, the metal content does not pose particular health risks; however, even within a quite restricted region like the investigated area, high metal concentrations, possibly due to the presence of particular substrates, were observed in some samples collected from areas considered "clean" and suitable for wild food plant gathering.

Optimisation of green synthesis of MnO nanoparticles via utilising response surface methodology

This study concerns the optimisation of green synthesis of manganese oxide nanoparticles (MnO NPs) with Dittrichia graveolens (L.) extract via response surface methodology (RSM). Central composite design was used to evaluate the effect of pH, time, and the extract to the metal ratio on the synthesised nanoparticles (NPs). Nine runs were designed to investigate the effect of each parameter while NPs were synthesised under different conditions. Considering the p-values (p-value < 0.05), it is indicated that the extract to the metal ratio was the most effective parameter. The synthesised NPs were characterised using UV-vis. Synthesis of the NPs by polyphenolic compounds of green reducing agent and their stabilisation by curcumin was confirmed by Fourier transform infrared spectra and the surface morphology of the spherical MnO NPs was studied by field-emission scanning electron microscopy and transmission electron microscope techniques. The present researchers claimed the optimal condition as follows: time = 56.7 min, pH = 7.2, and the extract to the metal ratio = 87.9 v/v. MnO NPs at optimum condition were then employed for degradation of industrial dyes and they showed high dye degradation activity against Rhodamine B and light green dye. The average size of the synthesised MnO NPs at optimal condition was claimed to be nearly 38 nm.

Traditional uses of medicinal plants used by Indigenous communities for veterinary practices at Bajaur Agency, Pakistan

BACKGROUND

The pastoral lifestyle of Indigenous communities of Bajaur Agency is bringing them close to natural remedies for treating their domestic animals. Several studies have been conducted across the globe describing the importance of traditional knowledge in veterinary care. Therefore, this study was planned with the aim to record knowledge on ethnoveterinary practices from the remote areas and share sit with other communities through published literature.

METHODS

Data was gathered from community members through semi-structured interviews and analyzed through informant consensus factor (Fic) to evaluate the consent of current ethnoveterinary practices among the local people.

RESULTS

In total, 73 medicinal plants were recorded under the ethnoveterinary practices. Most widely used medicinal plants with maximum use reports (URs) were Visnaga daucoides Gaertn., Foeniculum vulgare Mill., Solanum virginianum L., Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal, Glycyrrhiza glabra L., and Curcuma longa L. New medicinal values were found with confidential level of citations for species including Heracleum candicans and Glycerhiza glabra. Family Apiaceae was the utmost family with high number (7 species) of medicinal plants. Maximum number of medicinal plants (32) was used for gastric problems. High Fic was recorded for dermatological (0.97) followed by reproductive (0.93) and gastrointestinal disorders (0.92). The main route of remedies administration was oral.

CONCLUSIONS

Current study revealed that the study area has sufficient knowledge on ethnoveterinary medicinal plants. This knowledge is in the custody of nomadic grazers, herders, and aged community members. Plants with new medicinal uses need to be validated phytochemically and pharmacologically for the development of new alternative drugs for veterinary purposes.

Traditional uses of medicinal plants used by Indigenous communities for veterinary practices at Bajaur Agency, Pakistan

BACKGROUND

The pastoral lifestyle of Indigenous communities of Bajaur Agency is bringing them close to natural remedies for treating their domestic animals. Several studies have been conducted across the globe describing the importance of traditional knowledge in veterinary care. Therefore, this study was planned with the aim to record knowledge on ethnoveterinary practices from the remote areas and share sit with other communities through published literature.

METHODS

Data was gathered from community members through semi-structured interviews and analyzed through informant consensus factor (Fic) to evaluate the consent of current ethnoveterinary practices among the local people.

RESULTS

In total, 73 medicinal plants were recorded under the ethnoveterinary practices. Most widely used medicinal plants with maximum use reports (URs) were Visnaga daucoides Gaertn., Foeniculum vulgare Mill., Solanum virginianum L., Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal, Glycyrrhiza glabra L., and Curcuma longa L. New medicinal values were found with confidential level of citations for species including Heracleum candicans and Glycerhiza glabra. Family Apiaceae was the utmost family with high number (7 species) of medicinal plants. Maximum number of medicinal plants (32) was used for gastric problems. High Fic was recorded for dermatological (0.97) followed by reproductive (0.93) and gastrointestinal disorders (0.92). The main route of remedies administration was oral.

CONCLUSIONS

Current study revealed that the study area has sufficient knowledge on ethnoveterinary medicinal plants. This knowledge is in the custody of nomadic grazers, herders, and aged community members. Plants with new medicinal uses need to be validated phytochemically and pharmacologically for the development of new alternative drugs for veterinary purposes.

Cross-Cultural Analysis of Medicinal Plants commonly used in Ethnoveterinary Practices at South Waziristan Agency and Bajaur Agency, Federally Administrated Tribal Areas (FATA), Pakistan

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

In remote areas, medicinal plants have an imperative role in curing various livestock's ailments. In Pakistan, people residing in remote areas including South Waziristan Agency and Bajaur Agency depend on traditional herbal remedies for treating their domestic animals. Medicinal plants are an important part of the medical system in these Agencies. The prime goal of the current study is to explore the ethnoveterinary practices in the two regions and discuss cross-cultural consensus on the use of medicinal plants. In this study, we have given detailed description on the ethnoveterinary usage of certain medicinal plants and their recipes. Moreover, we have also elaborated the ethnoveterinary potential of certain plants in relation to their ethnomedicinal, pharmacological and phytochemicals reports.

METHODOLOGY

Fieldwork comprised of two fields surveys conducted at South Waziristan Agency and Bajaur Agency. A total of 75 informants from South Waziristan Agency and 80 informants from Bajaur Agency were interviewed with the help of semi-structured questionnaires. Use reports (URs) were recorded for all the documented taxa. Data were quantitatively analyzed by using informant consensus factor (F_ic) index in order to find out information homogeneity provided by the informants. To analyze the cross-cultural consensus, the recorded data were tabulated as well as shown by Venn diagram.

RESULTS

Overall, 94 medicinal plant taxa were recorded in the comparative analysis. Out of these, most of the plants species (72 species) were used at Bajaur Agency than South Waziristan Agency (37 species). Cross-cultural analysis showed that only 15 medicinal plants were used in common by the indigenous communities in both Agencies, which indicates a low interregional consensus with regard to the ethnoveterinary practices of medicinal plants. Apiaceae was the dominant family in both regions by representing maximum number of plant species (11 species). Gastro intestinal complexities were common in both regions having higher F_ic values (above 90). Moreover, the current investigation reported new ethnoveterinary uses of medicinal plants from South Waziristan Agency, which were Sideroxylon mascatense, Raphanus sativus, Salix babylonica, Solanum nigrum, Sophora mollis, Taraxacum campylodes and Tulipa stellata. On the other hand from Bajaur Agency, Boerhavia erecta, Celtis australis, Chamaecyparis obtusa var. obtuse, Eryngium biehersteinianum, Gossypium arboreum, Narcissus tazetta, Opuntia littoralis, Streblus asper were reported with new ethnoveterinary uses.

CONCLUSIONS

The current study has an important contribution towards the preservation of indigenous plants' based knowledge. Several plants are carrying important ethnoveterinary uses being practiced by the local people mostly against the gastrointestinal disorders in both regions. Importantly, the cross-cultural approach has reported some new traditional uses of plants against livestock's diseases. Hence, this is an opportunity to investigate such plants phytopharmacologically and toxicologically for the discovery of new drug sources.

Ethnobotanical survey of wild food plants traditionally collected and consumed in the Middle Agri Valley (Basilicata region, southern Italy)

BACKGROUND

This research was carried out in a scarcely populated area of the Middle Agri Valley (Basilicata region, southern Italy). The aim of the study was to record local knowledge on the traditional uses of wild food plants, as well as to collect information regarding the practices (gathering, processing and cooking) and the medicinal uses related to these plants.

METHODS

Fifty-eight people still possessing traditional local knowledge (TLK), 74% women and 26% men, were interviewed between May-August 2012 and January 2013, using open and semi-structured ethnobotanical interviews. For each described plant species, the botanical family, the Italian common and folk names, the plant parts used, the culinary preparation and, when present, the medicinal use, were recorded and the relative frequency of citation index (RFC) was determined.

RESULTS

The 52 plant species mentioned by the respondents belong to 23 botanical families, with Asteraceae (12 plants) and Rosaceae (7 plants) being most frequently cited. The species with the highest RFC index is Cichorium intybus L. (0.95), followed by Sonchus spp. (S. oleraceus L., S. asper L. and S. arvensis L.) (0.76). The plant parts preferably used are leaves (22 plants), fruits (12) and stems (7). Only six wild plants were indicated as having both food use and therapeutic effect.

CONCLUSIONS

The survey conducted on the traditional use of wild food plants in the Middle Agri Valley revealed that this cultural heritage is only partially retained by the population. Over the last few decades, this knowledge has been in fact quickly disappearing along with the people and, even in the rural context of the study area, is less and less handed down to younger generations. Nevertheless, data also revealed that the use of wild plants is recently being revaluated in a way closely related to local habits and traditions.

Comparison of Lamiaceae medicinal uses in eastern Morocco and eastern Andalusia and in Ibn al-Baytar's Compendium of Simple Medicaments (13th century CE)

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Transmission of traditional knowledge over time and across culturally and historically related territories is an important topic in ethnopharmacology. Here, we contribute to this knowledge by analysing data on medicinal uses in two neighbouring areas of the Western Mediterranean in relation to a historical text that has been scarcely mentioned in historical studies despite its interest.

AIM OF THE STUDY

This paper discusses the sharing of popular knowledge on the medicinal uses of plants between eastern Morocco and eastern Andalusia (Spain), focusing on one of the most useful plant families in the Mediterranean area: Lamiaceae. Moreover, we used the classical work of Ibn al-Baytar (13th century CE) The Compendium of Simple Medicaments and Foods as a basis to contrast the possible link of this information, analysing the influence of this historical text on current popular tradition of medicinal plant use in both territories.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

For data collection, we performed ethnobotanical field research in the eastern part of Morocco, recording current medicinal uses for the Lamiaceae. In addition, we systematically reviewed the ethnobotanical literature from eastern Andalusia, developing a database. We investigated the possible historical link of the shared uses and included in this database the information from Ibn al-Baytar's Compendium. To compare the similarity and diversity of the data, we used Jaccard's similarity index.

RESULTS

Our field work provided ethnobotanical information for 14 Lamiaceae species with 95 medicinal uses, serving to treat 13 different pathological groups. Of the total uses recorded in Morocco, 30.5% were shared by eastern Andalusia and found in Ibn al-Baytar's work. There was a higher similarity when comparing current uses of the geographically close territories of eastern Morocco and eastern Andalucía (64%) than for eastern Morocco and this historical text (43%). On the other hand, coincidences between current uses in eastern Andalusia and the ones related in the Compendium are lower, 28%.

CONCLUSIONS

The coincidence of the current ethnobotanical knowledge in the two territories is high for the Lamiaceae. Probably the shared historical background, recent exchanges, information flow, and the influence of the historical herbal texts have influenced this coincidence. In this sense, there is a high plant-use overlap between Ibn al-Baytar's text and both territories: nearly half of the uses currently shared by eastern Morocco and eastern Andalusia were included in the Compendium and are related to this period of Islamic medicine, indicating a high level of preservation in the knowledge of plant usage. The study of 14 species of Lamiaceae suggests that this classical codex, which includes a high number of medicinal plants and uses, constitutes a valuable bibliographical source for comparing ancient and modern applications of plants.

Medicinal plants used by traditional healers from South-West Algeria: An ethnobotanical study

Background/Aim:

This study aimed to document and analyzes the local knowledge of medicinal plants’ use by traditional healers in South-west Algeria.

Methods:

The ethnobotanical survey was conducted in two Saharian regions of South-west of Algeria: Adrar and Bechar. In total, 22 local traditional healers were interviewed using semi-structured questionnaire and open questions. Use value (UV), fidelity level (FL), and informant consensus factor (FIC) were used to analyze the obtained data.

Results:

Our results showed that 83 medicinal plants species belonging to 38 families are used by traditional healers from South-west of Algeria to treat several ailments. Lamiaceae, Asteraceae, Apiaceae, and Fabaceae were the most dominant families with 13, 8, 6, and 4 species, respectively. Leaves were the plant parts mostly used (36%), followed by seeds (18%), aerial parts (17%) and roots (12%). Furthermore, a decoction was the major mode of preparation (49%), and oral administration was the most preferred (80%). Thymus vulgaris L. (UV = 1.045), Zingiber officinale Roscoe (UV = 0.863), Trigonella foenum-graecum L. (UV=0.590), Rosmarinus officinalis L. (UV = 0.545), and Ruta chalepensis L. (UV = 0.5) were the most frequently species used by local healers. A great informant consensus has been demonstrated for kidney (0.727), cancer (0.687), digestive (0.603), and respiratory diseases.

Conclusion:

This study revealed rich ethnomedicinal knowledge in South-west Algeria. The reported species with high UV, FL, and FIC could be of great interest for further pharmacological studies.

Uses of plants, animal and mineral substances in Mediterranean ethno-veterinary practices for the care of small ruminants

ETHNO-PHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

The cultural heritage of Sardinian shepherds is rapidly vanishing and survives in the memory of elderly people. The objective of our study was not only to report the usage of plants and their preparation for administration but also the use of other remedies of different origin arising from traditional ethno-veterinary knowledge, as Sardinian shepherds were used to employ plants, animals, minerals and combinations of several substances to prepare remedies for prophylaxis or therapy on their animals.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The work was carried out in rural areas of the island of Sardinia (Italy) by interviewing shepherds and filling questionnaires in order to record ethno-veterinary practices traditionally used for animal health care.

RESULTS

Ethno-veterinary remedies traditionally utilised for treatments of small ruminants against ecto-and endo-parasites, gastrointestinal diseases, viral and bacterial diseases, wounds, sprains and bruises were identified. Non herbal remedies outnumbered the herbal ones, as usually plant species were mainly used for the care of cattle and equines. A total of 150 ethno-veterinary uses were documented for the treatment of 33 animal conditions, a detailed account of the formulations and their administration to sheep and goats was provided. Herbal remedies involved the use of twenty two spontaneous species and seven cultivated species.

CONCLUSIONS

This study identifies remedies used in ethno-veterinary practices for small ruminants care in Sardinia, the second major Mediterranean island which has agro-pastoral activities dating back to Neolithic. Moreover, the danger of losing oral traditions, and the increasing attention towards traditional remedies as potential sources of natural products for improving animal health and welfare, support the interest of our survey.

Ethnopharmacological assessment of medicinal plants used against livestock infections by the people living around Indus River

The present study was aimed to document detailed ethnopharmacological knowledge of medicinal plants against livestock infections of an unexplored remote region of Pakistan. Semistructured questionnaires were used for data collection. Total 43 plants belonging to 26 families were found to be used in ethnoveterinary practices. Seeds (29%) were found to be the most frequent plant part used followed by leaves (22%). Ethnoveterinary recipes were mostly prepared in the form of decoction and powdering. Informant consensus factor (Fic) results revealed high consensus for gastrointestinal (0.81), mastitis (0.82), and dermatological infections (0.80). Curcuma longa ranked first with highest fidelity level (FL) value (66%) followed by Trachyspermum ammi that ranked second (58%). Preference ranking (PR) results showed that Zingiber officinale, Punica granatum, Triticum aestivum, Gossypium hirsutum, and Withania coagulans were the most preferred species for the treatment of diarrhea. Direct matrix ranking (DMR) results showed that Morus alba, Melia azedarach, Withania coagulans, Cassia fistula, Azadirachta indica, and Tamarix aphylla were the multipurpose species of the region. We invite the attention of pharmacologists and chemists for further exploration of plants having high Fic, FL, and PR values in the present study. Conservation strategies should be adopted for the protection of multipurpose plant species.

Wild food plants traditionally consumed in the area of Bologna (Emilia Romagna region, Italy)

BACKGROUND

This research was performed in an area belonging to the province of the city of Bologna (Emilia-Romagna region, Northern Italy). The purpose of the present survey was to record the local knowledge concerning traditional uses of wild food plants and related practices, such as gathering, processing, cooking, therapeutic uses, with the aim of preserving an important part of the local cultural heritage.

METHODS

Thirty-nine people still retaining Traditional Local Knowledge (TLK) were interviewed between March-April 2012 and September-October 2013 by means of open and semi-structured ethnobotanical interviews. For each plant species mentioned, we recorded the botanical family, the English common name, the Italian common and/or folk names, the parts of the plant used, the culinary preparation, and the medicinal usage. The relative frequency of citation index (RFC), a tool that measures the local cultural importance of a plant species, was also included.

RESULTS

The folk plants mentioned by the respondents belonged to 33 botanical families, of which the Rosaceae (14 plants) and the Asteraceae (9 plants) were the most representative. The species with the highest RFC index (0.77) were Crepis vesicaria subsp. taraxacifolia (Thuill) Thell and Taraxacum officinale Weber. Eleven folk plants were indicated as having therapeutic effects. T. officinale Weber, C. vesicaria subsp. taraxacifolia (Thuill) Thell and Sonchus spp., which are used as food, were reported to be depurative, blood cleaning, refreshing, diuretic and laxative. The most commonly used species was Urtica spp, which was also the most frequently cited for medicinal uses.

CONCLUSIONS

The present survey documented the wild food plant traditional knowledge of an area belonging to the province of the city of Bologna (Emilia-Romagna region, Northern Italy). The general perception obtained is that on one side the TLK related to wild food plants has strongly been eroded, mainly due to immigration and urbanization phenomena, whereas on the other side these plants are revaluated today because they are perceived as healthy and also because they represent the preservation of biodiversity and a way of getting back to nature.

Ethnoveterinary plants of Ankober District, North Shewa Zone, Amhara Region, Ethiopia

BACKGROUND

Traditional herbal preparations for addressing veterinary problems have been applied in Ankober District, Ethiopia, for generations. However, the millennia-old ethnoveterinary knowledge of the community, and the plants are subjected to loss without being scientifically documented due to anthropogenic and environmental threats. Hence, this study aims at providing a comprehensive documentation on ethnoveterinary plant knowledge of the people in order to preserve the fast-eroding knowledge and resources of the area.

METHODS

Semi-structured interviews, focus group discussions, participant observation and walk-in-the-woods methods were used to gather ethnoveterinary data. Informant Consensus Factor (ICF) and Fidelity level (FL) values were calculated using quantitative approaches so as to check the level of informants' agreement on plant use and healing potential of ethnoveterinary medicinal plant species, respectively. Indigenous knowledge on use of medicinal plants for ethnoveterinary purposes among different informant groups was compared using One-way ANOVA and t-tests.

RESULTS

A total of 51 plant species representing 50 genera and 35 botanical families used in the treatment of 33 different ailments were identified. Medicinal plant species belonging to families Asteraceae, Asclepiadaceae, Euphorbiaceae and Ranunculaceae were reported to be of frequent use in the local ethnoveterinary medical system. Roots (65%, 33 species) were most often utilized for remedy preparation. Highest ICF values were recorded for gastro-intestinal (0.71) ailments depicting best agreement on knowledge of medicinal plants used to treat ailments in this category. Embelia schimperi Vatke showed highest fidelity level value (90%) to treat gastro-intestinal diseases showing conformity of knowledge on this species' healing potential. Significant difference (P<0.05) was observed in average number of therapeutic plants reported by senior members of the community than younger groups. Embelia schimperi Vatke and Rubus steudnerii Schweinf. were the most-preferred species to treat diarrhoea.

CONCLUSION

The study indicated that indigenous knowledge on ethnoveterinary medicinal plant use is still rich and active in the District. Species with recorded highest consensus for curative role are a useful pool for further phytochemical and pharmacological validation for better utilization. Declining wild medicinal flora of the area calls for implementation of a coordinated complementary in situ and ex situ conservation strategy.

Ethnopharmacological study of medicinal plants used in the treatment of CNS disorders in Sinai Peninsula, Egypt

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

To provide ethnopharmacological information on the use of medicinal plants for central nervous system (CNS) disorders in the Sinai Peninsula region (Egypt). To collect, analyze and evaluate the ethnobotanical knowledge about these medicinal plants in the Sinai Peninsula region with 61,000 km (2) and 379,000 inhabitants.

METHODOLOGY

Field work was concluded between March 2006 and May 2011, using semi-structured questionnaire with 700 informants (mean age: 59; 100% men) from 117 settlements of 17 Bedouin tribes. Transects walks in wild herbal plant collection areas and bibliographical review on the collected plants were also conducted. The Interview/ Inhabitant index (I/P), relative importance value of the species and informant consensus factor (FIC) were calculated.

RESULTS

More than 300 species were traditionally used in folk medicine in the Sinai Peninsula; 101 of these species belonging to 40 families were reported as useful in different CNS disorders. Only 5 species are endemic of the studied area. All different part plants were used, leaves and aerial parts being the most frequent. Most of the remedies were prepared as infusion or decoction, while oral administration was the most common way to be used. Gastrointestinal (67.3%) and respiratory disorders (42.57%) were also reported as frequently treated by Bedouins with herbal remedies.

CONCLUSIONS

Only a few species were found where the traditional use is supported by pharmacological studies (Acacia nilotica, Achillea fragrantissima, Ajuga iva or Mentha longifolia). No bibliographical references in the scientific literature were found for 22 species (21.78%); finally, several studies were published with different pharmacological activities than those provided by Bedouins.

Medical Ethnobotany in Europe: From Field Ethnography to a More Culturally Sensitive Evidence-Based CAM?

European folk medicine has a long and vibrant history, enriched with the various documented uses of local and imported plants and plant products that are often unique to specific cultures or environments. In this paper, we consider the medicoethnobotanical field studies conducted in Europe over the past two decades. We contend that these studies represent an important foundation for understanding local small-scale uses of CAM natural products and allow us to assess the potential for expansion of these into the global market. Moreover, we discuss how field studies of this nature can provide useful information to the allopathic medical community as they seek to reconcile existing and emerging CAM therapies with conventional biomedicine. This is of great importance not only for phytopharmacovigilance and managing risk of herb-drug interactions in mainstream patients that use CAM, but also for educating the medical community about ethnomedical systems and practices so that they can better serve growing migrant populations. Across Europe, the general status of this traditional medical knowledge is at risk due to acculturation trends and the urgency to document and conserve this knowledge is evident in the majority of the studies reviewed.

Plant ethnoveterinary practices in two pyrenean territories of catalonia (iberian peninsula) and in two areas of the balearic islands and comparison with ethnobotanical uses in human medicine

This paper presents the results of an ethnobotanical study centred in veterinarian uses in two Catalan Pyrenean regions (Alt Empordà -AE- and High River Ter Valley -AT-, Iberian peninsula) and two Balearic Islands areas (Formentera -FO- and northeastern Mallorca -MA-). In the areas studied, 97 plant species have been claimed to be useful for veterinary purposes. A total of 306 veterinary use reports have been gathered and analysed. The ten most reported plants are Tanacetum parthenium (24 use reports), Parietaria officinalis (15), Ranunculus parnassifolius (14), Meum athamanticum (13), Olea europaea (13), Quercus ilex (12), Ruta chalepensis (12), Sambucus nigra (10) and Thymus vulgaris (10). According to comprehensive reviews, a high number of novelties for plant ethnoveterinary are contributed: 34 species and one subspecies, 11 genera, and three families have not been reported in previous works in this field, and 21 species had only been mentioned once. Several ethnoveterinary uses are coincidental with those in human medicine. Although ethnoveterinary practices are less relevant than in the past in the territories considered, as in all industrialised countries, the knowledge on plant properties and applications is still rich and constitutes a large pool of evidence for phytotherapy, both in domestic animals and humans.

Ethnobotany of medicinal plants used in Eastern Mallorca (Balearic Islands, Mediterranean Sea)

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

This paper represents the first large-scale ethnobotanical study in the island of Mallorca, and provides significant information on pharmaceutical plant uses, built up from interviews with native people from this touristic hotspot, demonstrating its ethnopharmacological importance.

AIM OF THE STUDY

To collect, analyse and evaluate the ethnobotanical knowledge concerning medicinal plants in a north-eastern Mallorcan area (municipalities of Artà, Capdepera and Son Servera; 298 km2, 31,764 inhabitants).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We performed semi-structured interviews with 42 informants (mean age 77; 40% women, 60% men), identified the plant taxa reported and analysed the results, comparing them with those found in the current Mallorcan ethnobotanical information and in other territories.

RESULTS

The informants reported data on 121 human medicinal plants representing 64 botanical families. Around 45 medicinal uses reported, concerning 37 species, have not or have very rarely been cited as medicinal. An index of medicinal importance is proposed.

CONCLUSIONS

All efforts addressed to compiling ethnobotanical information in industrialised or touristised areas such as Eastern Mallorca are still valuable. New possibilities can be explored to give practical value to Mallorcan ethnobotanical data in the frame of considering traditional plant knowledge as part of the islanders’ lifestyle and healthy habits.

Traditional food and herbal uses of wild plants in the ancient South-Slavic diaspora of Mundimitar/Montemitro (Southern Italy)

BACKGROUND

In Europe, only a limited number of cross-cultural comparative field studies or meta-analyses have been focused on the dynamics through which folk plant knowledge changes over space and time, while a few studies have contributed to the understanding of how plant uses change among newcomers. Nevertheless, ethnic minority groups and/or linguistic "isles" in Southern and Eastern Europe may provide wonderful arenas for understanding the various factors that influence changes in plant uses.

METHODS

A field ethnobotanical study was carried out in Mundimitar (Montemitro in Italian), a village of approx. 450 inhabitants, located in the Molise region of South-Eastern Italy. Mundimitar is a South-Slavic community, composed of the descendants of people who migrated to the area during the first half of the 14th century, probably from the lower Neretva valley (Dalmatia and Herzegovina regions). Eighteen key informants (average age: 63.7) were selected using the snowball sampling technique and participated in in-depth interviews regarding their Traditional Knowledge (TK) of the local flora.

RESULTS

Although TK on wild plants is eroded in Montemitro among the youngest generations, fifty-seven taxa (including two cultivated species, which were included due to their unusual uses) were quoted by the study participants. Half of the taxa have correspondence in the Croatian and Herzegovinian folk botanical nomenclature, and the other half with South-Italian folk plant names. A remarkable link to the wild vegetable uses recorded in Dalmatia is evident. A comparison of the collected data with the previous ethnobotanical data of the Molise region and of the entire Italian Peninsula pointed out a few uses that have not been recorded in Italy thus far: the culinary use of boiled black bryony (Tamus communis) shoots in sauces and also on pasta; the use of squirting cucumber ( Ecballium elaterium) juice for treating malaria in humans; the aerial parts of the elderberry tree ( Sambucus nigra) for treating erysipelas in pigs; the aerial parts of pellitory ( Parietaria judaica) in decoctions for treating haemorrhoids.

CONCLUSIONS

The fact that half of the most salient species documented in our case study - widely available both in Molise and in Dalmatia and Herzegovina - retain a Slavic name could indicate that they may have also been used in Dalmatia and Herzegovina before the migration took place. However, given the occurrence of several South-Italian plant names and uses, also a remarkable acculturation process affected the Slavic community of Montemitro during these last centuries. Future directions of research should try to simultaneously compare current ethnobotanical knowledge of both migrated communities and their counterparts in the areas of origin.

Challenges in developing medicinal plant databases for sharing ethnopharmacological knowledge

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Major research contributions in ethnopharmacology have generated vast amount of data associated with medicinal plants. Computerized databases facilitate data management and analysis making coherent information available to researchers, planners and other users. Web-based databases also facilitate knowledge transmission and feed the circle of information exchange between the ethnopharmacological studies and public audience. However, despite the development of many medicinal plant databases, a lack of uniformity is still discernible. Therefore, it calls for defining a common standard to achieve the common objectives of ethnopharmacology.

AIM OF THE STUDY

The aim of the study is to review the diversity of approaches in storing ethnopharmacological information in databases and to provide some minimal standards for these databases.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Survey for articles on medicinal plant databases was done on the Internet by using selective keywords. Grey literatures and printed materials were also searched for information. Listed resources were critically analyzed for their approaches in content type, focus area and software technology.

RESULTS

Necessity for rapid incorporation of traditional knowledge by compiling primary data has been felt. While citation collection is common approach for information compilation, it could not fully assimilate local literatures which reflect traditional knowledge. Need for defining standards for systematic evaluation, checking quality and authenticity of the data is felt. Databases focussing on thematic areas, viz., traditional medicine system, regional aspect, disease and phytochemical information are analyzed. Issues pertaining to data standard, data linking and unique identification need to be addressed in addition to general issues like lack of update and sustainability. In the background of the present study, suggestions have been made on some minimum standards for development of medicinal plant database.

CONCLUSION

In spite of variations in approaches, existence of many overlapping features indicates redundancy of resources and efforts. As the development of global data in a single database may not be possible in view of the culture-specific differences, efforts can be given to specific regional areas. Existing scenario calls for collaborative approach for defining a common standard in medicinal plant database for knowledge sharing and scientific advancement.

The Relationship between Plants Used to Sustain Finches (Fringillidae) and Uses for Human Medicine in Southeast Spain

We analyzed plants that are traditionally used by wild bird hunters and breeders to capture and promote captive breeding of Fringillidae (finches or songbirds) in the province of Alicante, Spain. The majority of plants used in songbird breeding have medicinal properties in traditional human medicine (48 different uses); thus, another main goal was to show their relationships with human medical uses. We compiled a list of 97 plant species from 31 botanical families that are used to attract finches and identified 11 different use categories for these plants in finch keeping. The most common uses were for trapping birds and as a source of food for birds in captivity. Cannabis sativa has the greatest cultural importance index (CI = 1.158), and Phalaris canariensis (annual canary grass or alpist) was the most common species used to attract Fringillidae and was used by all informants (n = 158). Most of the 97 species are wild plants and mainly belong to the families Compositae, Gramineae, Cruciferae, and Rosaceae and also have medicinal properties for humans. In the study area, the intensification of agriculture and abandonment of traditional management practices have caused the population of many songbirds to decline, as well as the loss of popular ethnographic knowledge.

Knowledge of ethnoveterinary medicine in the Province of Granada, Andalusia, Spain

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

This paper constitutes an important contribution to the knowledge of biological resources used in ethnoveterinary practices (EVPs) in southern Europe, a territory with a clear lack of information on the subject.

AIM OF THE STUDY

To catalogue, analyze, and disseminate the knowledge of plant and animal use in ethnoveterinary practices in the province of Granada. Data have been analyzed to highlight the similarities between ethnoveterinary practices and human ethnopharmacology for the same study area.

METHODOLOGY

Information was gathered through open and semi-structured interviews with local people, mainly elderly shepherds and farmers, in the western part of the province. The primary data have been supplemented with information on EVPs from previous ethnobotanical works for the province. Data were gathered using the same field methods.

RESULTS

A total of 88 ethnoveterinary uses are documented for the treatment of 24 animal conditions. Of these, 82 uses involve 60 different plant species. Over three-quarters of these plants are also used for some human conditions in the same study area. Moreover, 6 animal species were catalogued for 6 other ethnoveterinary uses; four of these species were also used for similar conditions in humans. Ritual and health-prevention practices are also discussed.

CONCLUSIONS

EVPs in southern Spain involve a high number of species and conditions and are strongly linked to folk tradition (i.e. how local people understand certain conditions and their treatment, sometimes in a ritual manner). Unfortunately, some evidence of their slow disappearance has been found.

Toxic Plants Used in Ethnoveterinary Medicine in Italy

This study was conducted to document the use of toxic or potentially toxic plants for the treatment of ailments in livestock and pets in ethnoveterinary practice in Italy. More than 250 of the entities used (81% for curative purposes) can be toxic unless dosed appropriately. Many (55%) are dietary supplements. The list included 186 species (45%) for internal and 175 (55%) for external use, many used in places where animals are kept. The species belong to 71 families, among which the Fabaceae predominate. The purpose of the study was to provide information that can be validated and associated with correct determination, permitting even potentially dangerous plants to be used in veterinary practice.

Anti-Inflammatory Potential of Ethanolic Leaf Extract of Eupatorium adenophorum Spreng. Through Alteration in Production of TNF-α, ROS and Expression of Certain Genes

Search for a novel anti-inflammatory agent from a herbal source, such as Eupatorium adenophorum Spreng., a plant from the Eastern Himalayas, is of prime interest in the present investigation. Inflammation causes tissue destruction and development of diseases such as asthma, rheumatoid arthritis, and so forth. The ethanolic leaf extract of E. adenophorum (EEA) was administered intravenously and in other cases topically at the site of delayed type hypersensitivity (DTH) reaction in mouse foot paw induced with dinitrofluorobenzene. EEA can effectively inhibit DTH reaction and bring back normalcy to the paw much earlier than the controls. Efficacy of EEA on regulatory mechanisms for inflammation has also been considered. Intravenous administration of EEA increased the number of CD4⁺ T cells in spleen and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α in serum of DTH mice. Initially it was difficult to reconcile with the anti-inflammatory role of EEA and simultaneous induction of TNF-α, an established pro-inflammatory cytokine. EEA induces higher expression of TNF-α gene and amount of the cytokine in serum. We discussed the other role of TNF-α, its involvement in repairing tissue damage incurred in course of inflammatory reaction. EEA also induces TGF-β encoding a cytokine involved in tissue repair mechanism. EEA inhibits expression of another pro-inflammatory cytokine gene IL-1β and downregulates cycloxygenase 2 (COX2) gene responsible for metabolism of inflammatory mediators like prostaglandins. Furthermore, anti-inflammatory role of EEA is also revealed through its inhibition of hydroxyl radical generation. Notably EEA does not necessarily affect the expression of other inflammation-related genes such as IL-6, IL-10 and IKK. The present study reports and analyzes for the first time the anti-inflammatory property of the leaf extract of E. adenophorum.

Ethnoveterinary treatments by dromedary camel herders in the Suleiman Mountainous Region in Pakistan: an observation and questionnaire study

BACKGROUND

The Suleiman mountainous region is an important cradle of animal domestication and the habitat of many indigenous livestock breeds. The dromedary camel is a highly appreciated and valued animal and represents an important genetic resource. Camel herders, living in remote areas, have developed their own ways to treat diseases in camels, based on a long time of experience.

METHODS

Information about the diseases and the ethnoveterinary practices performed was collected from a total of 90 herders and healers by interviews and participant observations.

RESULTS

The respondents classified the diseased in major and minor fractions. Clinical signs were given in detail. Mange followed by trypanosomosis and orf were considered the most prevalent diseases, and also caused the greatest economic losses. Orf was regarded the most complex disease. The season was considered to have great influence on the occurrence of the diseases. A variety of different treatments were described, such as medicinal plants, cauterization, odorant/fly repellents, pesticides, larvicides, cold drink, yogurt and supportive therapy (hot food, hot drink).

CONCLUSIONS

There is paramount need to document and validate the indigenous knowledge about animal agriculture in general and ethnoveterinary practices in particular. This knowledge is rapidly disappearing and represents a cultural heritage as well as a valuable resource for attaining food security and sovereignty.

Ellagitannins from Tuberaria lignosa as entry inhibitors of HIV

Screening of plants from the Iberian Peninsula for anti-human immunodeficiency virus (-HIV) activity revealed that aqueous extract of Tuberaria lignosa gave positive results. Following an activity-guided procedure, the crude extract was counterextracted, and the subsequent fractions obtained tested for their anti-HIV activity in vitro. The bioassay-guided fractionation of the extract afforded an ellagitannin enriched fraction (EEF) isolated for the first time from this species. This EEF exhibited antiviral activity against HIV in MT-2 infected cells, with an IC(50) value of 2.33mug/ml (selectivity index greater than 21). Inhibition of HIV infection by EEF appears to be mediated by CD4 down-regulation, the main receptor for HIV entry. CXCR4 and CCR5 receptors were not affected by EEF, explaining why EEF is able to inhibit R5 and X4 infections.

Animals to heal animals: ethnoveterinary practices in semiarid region, northeastern Brazil

BACKGROUND

Animal-based remedies constitute an integral part of Traditional Medicine and this is true in Brazil as well both in rural and urban areas of the country. Due to its long history, zootherapy has in fact become an integral part of folk medicine in the country. The use of these natural resources for medical purposes, however, is not restricted to human diseases treatment, being also widely used for the treatment of animal illnesses. Ethnoveterinary is a science that involves the popular practical knowledge used to treat and prevent animal diseases. This study documents ethnoveterinary practices in one local semi-arid region in Northeast Brazil and discusses the findings in the surveyed area.

METHODS

Information was obtained through the use of semi-structured questionnaires. A total of 20 respondents (09 men and 11 women) provided information on animal species and body parts used as medicine, information concerning the illnesses to which the remedies were prescribed were also obtained.

RESULTS AND CONCLUSION

Eleven animal species were used in the treatment of 11 diseases in the surveyed area. The species inventoried comprise 3 taxonomic categories: mammals (05), reptiles (04) and birds (02). The obtained results proves that the use of animals or their derived products as therapeutic resources to the treatment of animal diseases represent a common practice and is culturally important in the studied area. It is evident that the popular knowledge about the ethnoveterinary practices is, frequently, passed through generations. We also noticed that, besides the cultural aspects, the socio-economic context permeates the use of zootherapics, since these practices constitute an alternative to the medicines acquired in veterinarian pharmacies, which have a high cost.