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Bhushan R, Martens J. Generic pharmaceuticals, regulatory aspects, bioequivalence investigation, and perception. Expert Opin Drug Saf 2024; 23:177-186. [PMID: 38221892 DOI: 10.1080/14740338.2024.2305709] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2023] [Accepted: 01/11/2024] [Indexed: 01/16/2024]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION The objective and significance of the topic is to draw attention toward regulatory aspects (and pharmacopoeias) for bioequivalence investigation, and perception for generic pharmaceuticals, especially their stereoselective bioequivalence evaluation for understanding the performance of the racemic generic products available in the market. AREAS COVERED The areas covered include bioequivalence studies (and related USP and FDA requirements) on certain generic APIs for comparison, examples of concern related to inspection of pharmaceuticals for export/import. Literature methodology includes search through USP monographs, MDPI.com, msn.com, WHO Drug Information, certain specific web links, PubMed Central®, PubMed®, NLM's advanced biomedical information services, and several pdf published in relevant journals in the field for related authentic information. EXPERT OPINION The USP, the USFDA, and the units alike internationally should enforce pharmaceutical companies to perform stereoselective investigations on generic APIs to show that their PK/PD parameters are (nearly) equal to the standards set by such units for allowing marketing of that API. This should be provided to professionals in the areas of patient care and every country should enforce such regulations at the time of export and import of generics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ravi Bhushan
- Department of Chemistry, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, Roorkee, India
| | - Jürgen Martens
- Institut für Chemie, Carl von Ossietzky Universität Oldenburg, Oldenburg, Germany
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Yoshida N. Research on the Development of Methods for Detection of Substandard and Falsified Medicines by Clarifying Their Pharmaceutical Characteristics Using Modern Technology. Biol Pharm Bull 2024; 47:878-885. [PMID: 38692863 DOI: 10.1248/bpb.b23-00749] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/03/2024]
Abstract
The existence of substandard and falsified medicines threatens people's health and causes economic losses as well as a loss of trust in medicines. As the distribution of pharmaceuticals becomes more globalized and the spread of substandard and falsified medicines continues worldwide, pharmaceutical security measures must be strengthened. To eradicate substandard and falsified medicines, our group is conducting fact-finding investigations of medicines distributed in lower middle-income countries (LMICs) and on the Internet. From the perspective of pharmaceutics, such as physical assessment of medicines, we are working to clarify the actual situation and develop methods to detect substandard and falsified medicines. We have collected substandard and falsified medicines distributed in LMICs and on the Internet and performed pharmacopoeial tests, mainly using HPLC, which is a basic analytic method. In addition to quality evaluation, we have evaluated the applicability of various analytic methods, including observation of pharmaceuticals using an electron microscope, Raman scattering analysis, near-IR spectroscopic analysis, chemical imaging, and X-ray computed tomography (CT) to detect substandard and falsified medicines, and we have clarified their limitations. We also developed a small-scale quality screening method using statistical techniques. We are engaged in the development of methods to monitor the distribution of illegal medicines and evolve research in forensic and policy science. These efforts will contribute to the eradication of substandard and falsified medicines. Herein, I describe our experience in the development of detection methods and elucidation of the pharmaceutical status of substandard and falsified medicines using novel technologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Naoko Yoshida
- AI Hospital/Macro Signal Dynamics Research and Development Center, Institute of Medical, Pharmaceutical and Health Sciences, Kanazawa University
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Ozawa S, Chen HH, Lee YF(A, Higgins CR, Yemeke TT. Characterizing Medicine Quality by Active Pharmaceutical Ingredient Levels: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis across Low- and Middle-Income Countries. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2022; 106:1778-1790. [PMID: 35895431 PMCID: PMC9209904 DOI: 10.4269/ajtmh.21-1123] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2021] [Accepted: 02/03/2022] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
Abstract
Substandard and falsified medicines are often reported jointly, making it difficult to recognize variations in medicine quality. This study characterized medicine quality based on active pharmaceutical ingredient (API) amounts reported among substandard and falsified essential medicines in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). A systematic review and meta-analysis was conducted using PubMed, supplemented by results from a previous systematic review, and the Medicine Quality Scientific Literature Surveyor. Study quality was assessed using the Medicine Quality Assessment Reporting Guidelines (MEDQUARG). Random-effects models were used to estimate the prevalence of medicines with < 50% API. Among 95,520 medicine samples from 130 studies, 12.4% (95% confidence interval [CI]: 10.2-14.6%) of essential medicines tested in LMICs were considered substandard or falsified, having failed at least one type of quality analysis. We identified 99 studies that reported API content, where 1.8% (95% CI: 0.8-2.8%) of samples reported containing < 50% of stated API. Among all failed samples (N = 9,724), 25.9% (95% CI: 19.3-32.6%) reported having < 80% API. Nearly one in seven (13.8%, 95% CI: 9.0-18.6%) failed samples were likely to be falsified based on reported API amounts of < 50%, whereas the remaining six of seven samples were likely to be substandard. Furthermore, 12.5% (95% CI: 7.7-17.3%) of failed samples reported finding 0% API. Many studies did not present a breakdown of actual API amount of each tested sample. We offer suggested improved guidelines for reporting poor-quality medicines. Consistent data on substandard and falsified medicines and medicine-specific tailored interventions are needed to ensure medicine quality throughout the supply chain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sachiko Ozawa
- Division of Practice Advancement and Clinical Education, UNC Eshelman School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina
- Department of Maternal and Child Health, UNC Gillings School of Global Public Health, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina
| | - Hui-Han Chen
- Division of Practice Advancement and Clinical Education, UNC Eshelman School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina
| | - Yi-Fang (Ashley) Lee
- Division of Practice Advancement and Clinical Education, UNC Eshelman School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina
| | - Colleen R. Higgins
- Division of Practice Advancement and Clinical Education, UNC Eshelman School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina
| | - Tatenda T. Yemeke
- Division of Practice Advancement and Clinical Education, UNC Eshelman School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina
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Tabernero P, Swamidoss I, Mayxay M, Khanthavong M, Phonlavong C, Vilayhong C, Sichanh C, Sengaloundeth S, Green MD, Newton PN. A random survey of the prevalence of falsified and substandard antibiotics in the Lao PDR. J Antimicrob Chemother 2022; 77:1770-1778. [PMID: 35137095 PMCID: PMC7614350 DOI: 10.1093/jac/dkab435] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2021] [Accepted: 10/19/2021] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES In 2012, a stratified random survey, using mystery shoppers, was conducted to investigate the availability and quality of antibiotics sold to patients in the private sector in five southern provinces of the Lao People's Democratic Republic (Laos). METHODS A total of 147 outlets were sampled in 10 districts. The active pharmaceutical ingredient (API) content measurements for 909 samples, including nine APIs (amoxicillin, ampicillin, ceftriaxone, ciprofloxacin, doxycycline, ofloxacin, sulfamethoxazole, tetracycline and trimethoprim), were determined using HPLC. RESULTS All the analysed samples contained the stated API and we found no evidence for falsification. All except one sample had all the units tested with %API values between 75% and 125% of the content stated on the label. However, we identified the presence of substandard antibiotics: 19.6% (201/1025) of samples had their units outside the 90%-110% content of the label claim and 18.3% (188/1025) of the samples had units outside the International Pharmacopoeia/United States Pharmacopoeia assay (percentage of label claim) specifications. Trimethoprim had a high number of samples [51.6% (64)] with units below the limit range, followed by ceftriaxone [42.9% (3)] and sulfamethoxazole [34.7% (43)]. Doxycycline, ofloxacin and ciprofloxacin had the highest number of samples with high API content: 43.7% (38), 14.7% (10) and 11.8% (2), respectively. Significant differences in %API were found between stated countries of manufacture and stated manufacturers. CONCLUSIONS With the global threat of antimicrobial resistance on patient outcomes, greater understanding of the role of poor-quality antibiotics is needed. Substandard antibiotics will have reduced therapeutic efficacy, impacting public health and control of bacterial infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patricia Tabernero
- Lao-Oxford-Mahosot Hospital-Wellcome Trust Research Unit (LOMWRU), Microbiology Laboratory, Mahosot Hospital, Vientiane, Lao PDR
- Public Health Unit, Faculty of Medicine, University of Alcalá, Alcalá de Henares, Spain
| | - Isabel Swamidoss
- Division of Parasitic Diseases and Malaria, U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Mayfong Mayxay
- Lao-Oxford-Mahosot Hospital-Wellcome Trust Research Unit (LOMWRU), Microbiology Laboratory, Mahosot Hospital, Vientiane, Lao PDR
- Centre for Tropical Medicine & Global Health, Nuf?eld Department of Medicine, Churchill Hospital, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
- Institute of Research and Education Development, University of Health Sciences, Vientiane, Lao PDR
| | | | - Chindaphone Phonlavong
- Bureau of Food and Drug Inspection (BFDI), Ministry of Health, Government of the Lao PDR, Vientiane, Lao PDR
| | - Chanthala Vilayhong
- Lao-Oxford-Mahosot Hospital-Wellcome Trust Research Unit (LOMWRU), Microbiology Laboratory, Mahosot Hospital, Vientiane, Lao PDR
| | - Chanvilay Sichanh
- Lao-Oxford-Mahosot Hospital-Wellcome Trust Research Unit (LOMWRU), Microbiology Laboratory, Mahosot Hospital, Vientiane, Lao PDR
| | - Sivong Sengaloundeth
- Food and Drug Department (FDD), Ministry of Health, Government of the Lao PDR, Vientiane, Lao PDR
| | - Michael D. Green
- Division of Parasitic Diseases and Malaria, U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Paul N. Newton
- Lao-Oxford-Mahosot Hospital-Wellcome Trust Research Unit (LOMWRU), Microbiology Laboratory, Mahosot Hospital, Vientiane, Lao PDR
- Centre for Tropical Medicine & Global Health, Nuf?eld Department of Medicine, Churchill Hospital, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
- Infectious Diseases Data Observatory, Nuf?eld Department of Medicine, Churchill Hospital, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
- Faculty of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine (LSHTM), London, UK
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Rahman MS, Yoshida N, Tsuboi H, Karmoker JR, Kabir N, Schaefermann S, Akimoto Y, Bhuiyan MA, Reza MS, Kimura K. A comprehensive analysis of selected medicines collected from private drug outlets of Dhaka city, Bangladesh in a simple random survey. Sci Rep 2022; 12:234. [PMID: 34997152 PMCID: PMC8741935 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-04309-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2021] [Accepted: 12/17/2021] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Comprehensive data are needed to prevent substandard and falsified (SF) medicines as they pose a major risk to human health. To assess the quality of selected medicines, samples were collected from random private drug outlets of Dhaka North and South City Corporation, Bangladesh. Sample analysis included visual observation of the packaging, authenticity of the samples, legitimacy and registration verification of the manufacturer, physicochemical analysis, and price. Chemical analysis of the samples was performed using a portable Raman spectroscopy and high-performance liquid chromatography according to the pharmacopoeia. Several discrepancies were noted in the visual observation of samples. Among the 189 collected samples of esomeprazole (ESM), cefixime (CFIX), and amoxicillin-clavulanic acid (CVA-AMPC), 21.2% were confirmed to be authentic, 91.3% manufacturers were confirmed legitimate, and 2.1% of all samples were unregistered. Chemical analysis of the samples revealed that 9.5% (95% CI 5.7-14.6) of samples were SFs. Falsified samples and quality variation in the same generic branded samples were both detected by Raman spectroscopic analysis. Overall, sample prices were satisfactory relative to the international reference price. This study documents the availability of poor-quality medicines, demonstrating the need for immediate attention by the national medicine regulatory authority.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohammad Sofiqur Rahman
- Medi-Quality Security Institute (MQS), Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kanazawa University, Kanazawa, 920-1192, Japan.
| | - Naoko Yoshida
- AI Hospital/Macro Signal Dynamics Research and Development Center, Institute of Medical, Pharmaceutical and Health Sciences, Kanazawa University, Kanazawa, Japan.
| | - Hirohito Tsuboi
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy and Healthcare Sciences, Kanazawa University, Kanazawa, 920-1192, Japan
| | - James Regun Karmoker
- University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, 73104, USA.,Department of Pharmacy, University of Asia Pacific, 74/A Green Road, Farmgate, Dhaka, 1205, Bangladesh
| | - Nadia Kabir
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Asia Pacific, 74/A Green Road, Farmgate, Dhaka, 1205, Bangladesh
| | - Simon Schaefermann
- Pharmaceutical Institute, Eberhard Karls University Tuebingen, Tuebingen, Germany
| | - Yoshio Akimoto
- Medi-Quality Security Institute (MQS), Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kanazawa University, Kanazawa, 920-1192, Japan
| | - Mohiuddin Ahmed Bhuiyan
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Asia Pacific, 74/A Green Road, Farmgate, Dhaka, 1205, Bangladesh
| | - Md Selim Reza
- Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, University of Dhaka, Dhaka, 1000, Bangladesh
| | - Kazuko Kimura
- Medi-Quality Security Institute (MQS), Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kanazawa University, Kanazawa, 920-1192, Japan
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Sansone A, Cuzin B, Jannini EA. Facing Counterfeit Medications in Sexual Medicine. A Systematic Scoping Review on Social Strategies and Technological Solutions. Sex Med 2021; 9:100437. [PMID: 34619517 PMCID: PMC8766274 DOI: 10.1016/j.esxm.2021.100437] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2021] [Revised: 08/13/2021] [Accepted: 08/20/2021] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction The counterfeit phenomenon is a largely under-reported issue, with potentially large burden for healthcare. The market for counterfeit drugs used in sexual medicine, most notably type 5 phosphodiesterase inhibitors (PDE5i), is rapidly growing. Aims To report the health risks associated with the use of counterfeit medications, the reasons driving their use, and the strategies enacted to contain this phenomenon. Methods A systematic scoping review of the literature regarding counterfeit PDE5i was carried between January and June 2021, then updated in August 2021. Main Outcome Measure We primarily aimed to clarify the main drivers for counterfeit PDE5i use, the health risks associated, and the currently available strategies to fight counterfeiters. Results One hundred thirty-one records were considered for the present scoping review. Production of fake PDE5i is highly lucrative and the lacking awareness of the potential health risks makes it a largely exploitable market by counterfeiters. Adulteration with other drugs, microbial contamination and unreliable dosages make counterfeit medications a cause of worry also outside of the sexual medicine scope. Several laboratory techniques have been devised to identify and quantify the presence of other compounds in counterfeit medications. Strategies aimed at improving awareness, providing antitampering packaging and producing non-falsifiable products, such as the orodispersible formulations, are also described. Clinical implications Improving our understanding of the PDE5i counterfeit phenomenon can be helpful to promote awareness of this issue and to improve patient care. Strengths & Limitations Despite the systematic approach, few clinical studies were retrieved, and data concerning the prevalence of counterfeit PDE5i use is not available on a global scale. Conclusion The counterfeit phenomenon is a steadily growing issue, with PDE5i being the most counterfeited medication with potentially large harmful effects on unaware consumers. Sansone A, Cuzin B, and Jannini EA. Facing Counterfeit Medications in Sexual Medicine. A Systematic Scoping Review on Social Strategies and Technological Solutions. Sex Med 2021;9:100437.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Sansone
- Chair of Endocrinology and Medical Sexology (ENDOSEX), Department of Systems Medicine, University of Rome Tor Vergata, Rome, Italy
| | - Béatrice Cuzin
- Division of Urology and Transplantation, Edouard Herriot Hospital, Lyon, France
| | - Emmanuele A Jannini
- Chair of Endocrinology and Medical Sexology (ENDOSEX), Department of Systems Medicine, University of Rome Tor Vergata, Rome, Italy.
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Irungu BN, Koech LC, Ondicho JM, Keter LK. Quality assessment of selected co-trimoxazole suspension brands marketed in Nairobi County, Kenya. PLoS One 2021; 16:e0257625. [PMID: 34551002 PMCID: PMC8457504 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0257625] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2021] [Accepted: 09/06/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Quality of medicines in both developed and developing countries is sometimes compromised due to infiltration of counterfeit, substandard or degraded medicines into the markets. It is a public health concern as poor quality medicines endanger public health where patients are exposed to chemical toxins and/or sub-therapeutic doses. This could lead to reduced treatment efficacy and promote development of drug resistance. Co-trimoxazole, a fixed dose combination of sulfamethoxazole and trimethoprim, is a broad spectrum for bacterial diseases and is also used as a prophylaxis for opportunistic infections in HIV infected individuals. This study evaluated quality of selected co-trimoxazole suspension brands marketed in Nairobi County, Kenya. METHODS A total of 106 samples were collected, categorized into 15 brands and evaluated for active pharmaceutical ingredient content (API) and pH following United States Pharmacopeia. Assay for API was conducted using High Performance Liquid Chromatography. Results were compared with pharmacopeia references. Visual examination of labels and confirmation of retention status of the brands with Pharmacy and Poisons Board retention register was carried out. RESULTS The samples were primarily of local origin (86.7%). On October 23, 2019, retention status of six of the fifteen brands documented were no longer listed in the Pharmacy and Poisons Board retention register. Of the 106 samples tested 70.6% and 86.8% were compliant with United States Pharmacopeia (USP) specifications for pH and API respectively while 84.0% adhered to packaging and labelling requirements. CONCLUSION This study has demonstrated that majority of co-trimoxazole suspensions tested were compliant with USP requirements. Additionally, it has provided evidence of poor quality co-trimoxazole medicines that could compromise treatment of infectious diseases in children. This emphasizes the need for regular quality assurance tests to ensure only quality medicines are in the market.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beatrice Njeri Irungu
- Kenya Medical Research Institute, Centre for Traditional Medicine and Drug Research, Nairobi, Kenya
- * E-mail:
| | - Lilian C. Koech
- Kenya Medical Research Institute, Centre for Traditional Medicine and Drug Research, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Joyce M. Ondicho
- Kenya Medical Research Institute, Centre for Traditional Medicine and Drug Research, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Lucia K. Keter
- Kenya Medical Research Institute, Centre for Traditional Medicine and Drug Research, Nairobi, Kenya
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Small-scale dissolution test screening tool to select potentially substandard and falsified (SF) medicines requiring full pharmacopoeial analysis. Sci Rep 2021; 11:12145. [PMID: 34108529 PMCID: PMC8190288 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-91443-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2020] [Accepted: 05/26/2021] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to design a convenient, small-scale dissolution test for extracting potential substandard and falsified (SF) medicines that require full pharmacopoeial analysis. The probability of metronidazole samples complying with the US Pharmacopoeia (USP) dissolution test for immediate-release tablet formulations was predicted from small-scale dissolution test results using the following criteria: (1) 95% confidence interval lower limit (95% CIlow) of the average dissolution rate of any n = 3 of n = 24 units of each sample, and (2) average and minimum dissolution rates for any n = 3 of n = 24 units. Criteria values were optimized via bootstrap sampling with Thinkeye data-mining software. Compliant metronidazole samples in the USP first-stage and second-stage dissolution test showed complying probabilities of 99.7% and 81.0%, respectively, if the average dissolution rate of n = 3 units is equal to or greater than the monograph-specified amount of dissolved drug (Q; 85% of labeled content for metronidazole). The complying probabilities were 100.0% and 79.0%, respectively, if the average dissolution rate of n = 3 units is 91% or higher and the minimum dissolution rate is 87% or higher. Suitable compliance criteria for the small-scale dissolution test are: average dissolution rate of n = 3 units is Q + 6% or more and minimum dissolution rate is Q + 2% or more.
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Sakuda M, Yoshida N, Koide T, Keila T, Kimura K, Tsuboi H. Clarification of the internal structure and factors of poor dissolution of substandard roxithromycin tablets by near-infrared chemical imaging. Int J Pharm 2021; 596:120232. [PMID: 33484929 PMCID: PMC7910273 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2021.120232] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2020] [Revised: 12/23/2020] [Accepted: 12/29/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
The spread of substandard and falsified medicines has become a global problem, especially in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). Previously, we found that some tablets containing the same active ingredient had large differences in their dissolution even though their contents were comparable. In this study, we investigated the poor dissolution of roxithromycin tablets using near-infrared chemical imaging (NIR-CI) to visualize the internal tablet structure. Roxithromycin tablets collected in LMICs and the pioneer product Rulid® as a reference were cut to a flat surface for analysis. NIR spectral data were normalized, and a principal component analysis was performed to create a tablet internal structure image. For Rulid®, the differences between the spectra with high and low scores were small, and well-defined aggregation of ingredients was not observed. However, large differences in the scores were found for roxithromycin tablets manufactured in some LMICs, and non-uniformity of ingredient distribution and aggregation were observed. Additionally, some pharmaceutical excipients, such as starch or magnesium stearate, were found in certain aggregates by comparing NIR spectra. The NIR-CI results showed some excipients existed as large aggregates, which indicated that the ingredients were not evenly mixed in the roxithromycin tablet, and this contributed to its poor dissolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mirai Sakuda
- Clinical Pharmacy and Healthcare Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, Institute of Medical, Pharmaceutical and Health Sciences, Kanazawa University, Kanazawa 920-1192, Japan
| | - Naoko Yoshida
- AI Hospital/Macro Signal Dynamics Research and Development Center, Institute of Medical, Pharmaceutical and Health Sciences, Kanazawa University, Kanazawa 920-1192, Japan.
| | - Tatsuo Koide
- Division of Drugs, National Institute of Health Sciences, Kawasaki 210-9501, Japan
| | - Tep Keila
- National Health Product Quality Control Center, Ministry of Health, Phnom Penh 12110, Cambodia
| | - Kazuko Kimura
- Medi-Quality Security Institute, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kanazawa University, Kanazawa 920-1192, Japan
| | - Hirohito Tsuboi
- Clinical Pharmacy and Healthcare Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, Institute of Medical, Pharmaceutical and Health Sciences, Kanazawa University, Kanazawa 920-1192, Japan
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Rinciog C, Diamantopoulos A, Gentilini A, Bondue B, Dahlqvist C, Froidure A, Wuyts WA, Soulard S. Cost-Effectiveness Analysis of Nintedanib Versus Pirfenidone in Idiopathic Pulmonary Fibrosis in Belgium. PHARMACOECONOMICS - OPEN 2020; 4:449-458. [PMID: 31939146 PMCID: PMC7426351 DOI: 10.1007/s41669-019-00191-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Nintedanib (Ofev®) and pirfenidone (Esbriet®) are recommended by international guidelines as treatment options for idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF). OBJECTIVES To compare the cost-effectiveness of nintedanib with that of pirfenidone for the treatment of IPF from a Belgian healthcare payer perspective. METHODS The economic analysis used a Markov model that calculated outcomes over patient lifetime. Overall survival was assumed to be the same for the two comparators. Data from a network meta-analysis were used for loss of lung function, acute exacerbation events, safety and treatment discontinuation (for any reason). The health-state utility estimates in the model were calculated from EQ-5D scores collected in nintedanib studies. The assumed resource use for background care was also based on patient-level data that were categorised to fit the health states in the model and synthesised with costs and tariffs from Belgian national databases. RESULTS Treatment with nintedanib resulted in an estimated total cost of €102,315, which was less than the total cost of treatment with pirfenidone (€113,313). Given the similarities in the survival and progression outcomes obtained with nintedanib and pirfenidone, the model predicted near equivalence in total QALYs (3.353 QALYs for the nintedanib arm and 3.318 for the pirfenidone arm). Results were largely driven by model assumptions underlying mortality, acute exacerbations and treatment discontinuation. CONCLUSIONS After performing a synthesis of the most recently published evidence for IPF patients and assuming a Belgian healthcare payer perspective, we found nintedanib to be more cost-saving than pirfenidone.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Rinciog
- Symmetron Limited, 8 Devonshire Square, London, UK.
| | | | - A Gentilini
- Symmetron Limited, 8 Devonshire Square, London, UK
| | - B Bondue
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, Erasme University Hospital, Université Libre de Bruxelles (ULB), Brussels, Belgium
| | - C Dahlqvist
- Department of Pneumology, CHU UCL Namur Site Godinne, Yvoir, Belgium
| | - A Froidure
- Department of Pneumology, Cliniques Universitaires Saint-Luc, Université Catholique de Louvain (UCLouvain), Brussels, Belgium
| | - W A Wuyts
- Unit for Interstitial Lung Diseases, Department of Respiratory Medicine, University Hospitals Leuven, Louvain, Belgium
| | - S Soulard
- Boehringer Ingelheim, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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11
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Tabernero P, Swamidoss I, Mayxay M, Khanthavong M, Phonlavong C, Vilayhong C, Yeuchaixiong S, Sichanh C, Sengaloundeth S, Green MD, Newton PN. A random survey of the prevalence of falsified and substandard antibiotics in the Lao PDR. J Antimicrob Chemother 2020; 74:2417-2425. [PMID: 31049576 PMCID: PMC6640311 DOI: 10.1093/jac/dkz164] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2018] [Revised: 03/18/2019] [Accepted: 03/24/2019] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Patricia Tabernero
- Lao-Oxford-Mahosot Hospital-Wellcome Trust Research Unit (LOMWRU), Microbiology Laboratory, Mahosot Hospital, Vientiane, Lao PDR.,Public Health Unit, Faculty of Medicine, University of Alcalá, Alcalá de Henares, Spain
| | - Isabel Swamidoss
- U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Division of Parasitic Diseases and Malaria, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Mayfong Mayxay
- Lao-Oxford-Mahosot Hospital-Wellcome Trust Research Unit (LOMWRU), Microbiology Laboratory, Mahosot Hospital, Vientiane, Lao PDR.,Centre for Tropical Medicine & Global Health, Nuffield Research Building, Churchill Hospital, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK.,Institute of Research and Education Development, University of Health Sciences, Vientiane, Lao PDR
| | | | - Chindaphone Phonlavong
- Bureau of Food and Drug Inspection (BFDI), Ministry of Health, Government of the Lao PDR, Vientiane, Lao PDR
| | - Chanthala Vilayhong
- Lao-Oxford-Mahosot Hospital-Wellcome Trust Research Unit (LOMWRU), Microbiology Laboratory, Mahosot Hospital, Vientiane, Lao PDR
| | - Sengchanh Yeuchaixiong
- Lao-Oxford-Mahosot Hospital-Wellcome Trust Research Unit (LOMWRU), Microbiology Laboratory, Mahosot Hospital, Vientiane, Lao PDR
| | - Chanvilay Sichanh
- Lao-Oxford-Mahosot Hospital-Wellcome Trust Research Unit (LOMWRU), Microbiology Laboratory, Mahosot Hospital, Vientiane, Lao PDR.,WorldWide Antimalarial Resistance Network (WWARN), Oxford, UK
| | - Sivong Sengaloundeth
- Food and Drug Department (FDD), Ministry of Health, Government of the Lao PDR, Vientiane, Lao PDR
| | - Michael D Green
- U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Division of Parasitic Diseases and Malaria, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Paul N Newton
- Lao-Oxford-Mahosot Hospital-Wellcome Trust Research Unit (LOMWRU), Microbiology Laboratory, Mahosot Hospital, Vientiane, Lao PDR.,WorldWide Antimalarial Resistance Network (WWARN), Oxford, UK.,Centre for Tropical Medicine & Global Health, Nuffield Research Building, Churchill Hospital, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK.,Infectious Diseases Data Observatory, Nuffield Research Building, Churchill Hospital, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK.,Faculty of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine (LSHTM), London, UK
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12
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Khurelbat D, Dorj G, Sunderland B, Sanjjav T, Bayarsaikhan E, Damdinjav D, Dorj G, Jigjidsuren A, Lkhagvasuren O, Erdenetsetseg B. A cross-sectional analysis of falsified, counterfeit and substandard medicines in a low-middle income country. BMC Public Health 2020; 20:743. [PMID: 32434489 PMCID: PMC7240934 DOI: 10.1186/s12889-020-08897-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2020] [Accepted: 05/11/2020] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Background High prevalence of falsified, counterfeit and substandard medicines pose a threat to public health and treatment failure. This study aimed to investigate the quality of selected essential medicines available in Mongolia. Methods A cross-sectional study collected essential medicines from pharmacy outlets in Mongolia, during June and July, 2017. These products were then submitted for pharmacopoeial analysis and registration status. Results A total of 1770 samples from 118 pharmacy entities were purchased from wholesalers in urban and rural areas. Pharmacopoeial analysis found 179 (10.1%) samples or eleven product groups were unacceptable. The prevalence of substandard locally produced medicines (n = 105, 5.9%) was higher than imported equivalents [(n = 74, 4.17%, p = 0.0001)]. Approximately one-third of all unacceptable tests were related to assay (n = 73, 30.8%) and weight variation. Of 1770 samples, 76 (4.3%) were unregistered and the prevalence of unregistered samples was 3.8% in Ulaanbaatar city and 5.8% in rural areas, respectively. Conclusions This study has indicated that falsified and substandard medicines are prevalent in Mongolia. Considerable effort is required by regulatory authorities, private manufacturers, as well as importers to increase the quality of essential medicines in Mongolia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daariimaa Khurelbat
- School of Pharmacy, Mongolian National University of Medical Sciences, S. Zorig street, Ulaanbaatar, Sukhbaatar District, 14210, Mongolia
| | - Gereltuya Dorj
- School of Pharmacy, Mongolian National University of Medical Sciences, S. Zorig street, Ulaanbaatar, Sukhbaatar District, 14210, Mongolia.
| | - Bruce Sunderland
- School of Pharmacy, Curtin University of Technology, GPO Box U1987, Perth, 6845, Western Australia
| | - Tsetsegmaa Sanjjav
- School of Pharmacy, Mongolian National University of Medical Sciences, S. Zorig street, Ulaanbaatar, Sukhbaatar District, 14210, Mongolia
| | - Enkhtuul Bayarsaikhan
- School of Pharmacy, Mongolian National University of Medical Sciences, S. Zorig street, Ulaanbaatar, Sukhbaatar District, 14210, Mongolia
| | - Davaadagva Damdinjav
- School of Pharmacy, Mongolian National University of Medical Sciences, S. Zorig street, Ulaanbaatar, Sukhbaatar District, 14210, Mongolia
| | - Gantuya Dorj
- School of Public Health, Mongolian National University of Medical Sciences, S. Zorig street, Ulaanbaatar, Sukhbaatar District, 14210, Mongolia
| | - Altantuya Jigjidsuren
- Asian Development Bank, Mongolia Resident Mission, Ulaanbaatar, Sukhbaatar District, 14210, Mongolia
| | - Oyun Lkhagvasuren
- Asian Development Bank, Mongolia Resident Mission, Ulaanbaatar, Sukhbaatar District, 14210, Mongolia
| | - Baasandorj Erdenetsetseg
- School of Pharmacy, Mongolian National University of Medical Sciences, S. Zorig street, Ulaanbaatar, Sukhbaatar District, 14210, Mongolia
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13
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Rahman MS, Yoshida N, Tsuboi H, Sokchamroeun U, Keila T, Sovannarith T, Kiet HB, Dararath E, Akimoto Y, Tanimoto T, Kimura K. A Cross-Sectional Investigation of the Quality of Selected Medicines for Noncommunicable Diseases in Private Community Drug Outlets in Cambodia during 2011-2013. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2020; 101:1018-1026. [PMID: 31516106 PMCID: PMC6838583 DOI: 10.4269/ajtmh.19-0247] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Although the issue of substandard and falsified medicines is quite well known, most research has focused on medicines used to treat communicable diseases, and relatively little research has been carried out on the quality of medicines for noncommunicable diseases (NCDs). This study was designed to assess the quality of seven widely used medicines for NCDs in Cambodia during 2011–2013. Medicines were collected from private community drug outlets in Phnom Penh (urban area), by stratified random sampling and in Battambang, Kandal, Kampong Speu, and Takeo (rural areas) by convenience sampling. Samples were subsequently analyzed by visual inspection, authenticity investigation, and pharmacopoeial analysis by high-performance liquid chromatography. Various discrepancies were observed in visual inspection of packages and medicines. Of 372 tablet/capsule samples from 64 manufacturers in 16 countries, the manufacturers confirmed 107 (28.8%) as authentic; the authenticity of other samples could not be verified. Three hundred sixty-four (97.8%) samples were registered in Cambodia. Among all samples, 23.4% (95% CI 19.2–28.0) were noncompliant in one or more of the quality tests: 12.9% (95% CI 9.7–16.7) contained an amount of active pharmaceutical ingredient outside the permitted range, including some showing extreme deviations, 14% (95% CI 10.6–17.9) failed because of content variation, and 10.8% (95% CI 7.8–14.4) failed to meet pharmacopoeial reference ranges in dissolution tests. Pharmaceutical quality appeared to be unrelated to storage conditions. Although no sample was obviously falsified, there is a high prevalence of substandard medicines for NCDs in Cambodia, indicating the need for focused regulatory action, including collaborative initiatives with manufacturers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohammad Sofiqur Rahman
- Medi-Quality Security Institute, Kanazawa University, Kanazawa, Japan.,Department of Pharmacy, University of Asia Pacific, Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Naoko Yoshida
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy and Healthcare Sciences, Kanazawa University, Kanazawa, Japan
| | - Hirohito Tsuboi
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy and Healthcare Sciences, Kanazawa University, Kanazawa, Japan
| | - Uy Sokchamroeun
- National Health Product Quality Control Center, Ministry of Health, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
| | - Tep Keila
- National Health Product Quality Control Center, Ministry of Health, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
| | - Tey Sovannarith
- National Health Product Quality Control Center, Ministry of Health, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
| | - Heng Bun Kiet
- Department of Drugs and Food, Ministry of Health, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
| | - Eav Dararath
- Department of Drugs and Food, Ministry of Health, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
| | - Yoshio Akimoto
- Medi-Quality Security Institute, Kanazawa University, Kanazawa, Japan
| | - Tsuyoshi Tanimoto
- Pharmaceutical and Medical Device Regulatory Science Society of Japan, Osaka, Japan
| | - Kazuko Kimura
- Medi-Quality Security Institute, Kanazawa University, Kanazawa, Japan
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14
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Suy S, Rego S, Bory S, Chhorn S, Phou S, Prien C, Heng S, Wu S, Legido-Quigley H, Hanefeld J, Saphonn V, Khan MS. Invisible medicine sellers and their use of antibiotics: a qualitative study in Cambodia. BMJ Glob Health 2019; 4:e001787. [PMID: 31637030 PMCID: PMC6768357 DOI: 10.1136/bmjgh-2019-001787] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2019] [Revised: 08/09/2019] [Accepted: 08/18/2019] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Global attention to antimicrobial resistance has increased interest in tackling the widespread inappropriate dispensing of antibiotics by informal, for-profit healthcare providers (HCPs). We provide new evidence on an understudied group of informal HCPs: invisible medicine sellers (IMS) who operate without any marked facility. We investigated factors that influence community decisions on which HCPs to purchase medicines from, focusing on reasons for using IMS, and compared different HCPs' knowledge of antibiotic use. METHODS We conducted community focus group discussions (FGDs) in seven purposively selected villages representing high and low informal HCPs use in two peri-urban districts in Phnom Penh, Cambodia. Using information from the FGDs to identify HCPs that sell medicines, we interviewed 35 participants: 21 HCPs (including five IMS) and 14 key informants, including government HCPs and village leaders. We adopted an interpretative approach and conducted a thematic analysis. RESULTS Community members typically knew of several formal and informal HCPs selling medicines nearby, and IMS were common, as were doctors that sell medicines covertly. Two factors were most salient in influencing the choice of HCP for medicine purchasing. The first was trust in the effectiveness of medicines provided, judged by the speed of symptomatic relief. This pushed HCPs to provide several medicines, including antibiotics, at the first consultation. The second was the convenience offered by IMS and other informal HCPs: supplying medicines when other facilities are closed, accepting delayed payments, providing incomplete courses of medication and selling human antibiotics for animal use. CONCLUSION This first study focusing on IMS indicates that it is important, but challenging, for public health agencies to engage with them to reduce inappropriate use of antibiotics. Although public health facilities must fill some gaps that informal HCPs are currently addressing, such as access to medicines at night, reducing demand for unnecessary antibiotics is also critical.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sovanthida Suy
- Department of Public Health, University of Health Sciences, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
| | - Sonia Rego
- Faculty of Public Health & Policy, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, UK
| | - Sothavireak Bory
- Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Health Sciences, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
| | | | - Socheata Phou
- Department of Public Health, University of Health Sciences, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
| | - Chanra Prien
- Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Health Sciences, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
| | | | - Shishi Wu
- Saw Swee Hock School of Public Health, National University of Singapore, Singapore
| | - Helena Legido-Quigley
- Faculty of Public Health & Policy, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, UK
- Saw Swee Hock School of Public Health, National University of Singapore, Singapore
| | - Johanna Hanefeld
- Faculty of Public Health & Policy, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, UK
| | | | - Mishal S Khan
- Faculty of Public Health & Policy, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, UK
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15
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A Cross-Sectional Investigation for Verification of Globalization of Falsified Medicines in Cambodia, Indicated by Tablets of Sildenafil Citrate. PHARMACY 2019; 7:pharmacy7030111. [PMID: 31405055 PMCID: PMC6789723 DOI: 10.3390/pharmacy7030111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2019] [Revised: 08/06/2019] [Accepted: 08/08/2019] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Medicine falsification is a global issue. Viagra, an erectile dysfunction therapeutic (EDT) medicine consisting primarily of sildenafil citrate, is the most commonly falsified medicine worldwide. Recently falsified EDTs have been reported multiple times in developing countries. The globalization of falsified EDTs has become a concern. In the present study, we selected sildenafil citrate tablets as an indicator and examined samples from a developing country, Cambodia, to investigate the availability of falsified sildenafil tablets in Cambodia and verify the current globalization status of falsified medicines from the standpoint of a developing country. Six samples of the originator Viagra, and 68 samples of generic sildenafil products were purchased from private drug outlets and wholesalers in Phnom Penh, Svay Rieng, and Battambang. The samples’ manufacturers were contacted to authenticate the samples. The quantities and dissolution rates of active ingredients were measured by a high-performance liquid chromatography system with photodiode array. Five generic samples were strongly suspected to be falsified medicines because of their extremely low quality; however, there was little distribution and no falsified medicine alleged to be produced by the originator of Viagra, which charges high prices. That finding indicates that falsification reflects local economic circumstances.
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16
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Islam MR, Yoshida N, Kimura K, Uwatoko C, Rahman MS, Kumada S, Endo J, Ito K, Tanimoto T, Zin T, Tsuboi H. An Investigation into the Quality of Medicines in Yangon, Myanmar. PHARMACY 2018; 6:pharmacy6030096. [PMID: 30200266 PMCID: PMC6164148 DOI: 10.3390/pharmacy6030096] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2018] [Revised: 08/23/2018] [Accepted: 08/24/2018] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Many poor-quality medicines are supplied to patients mainly in developing countries. No systematic survey on counterfeit medicines has been conducted in Myanmar since 1999. The purpose of this study was to investigate the current situation of substandard or counterfeit medicines in Myanmar. Samples of oral medicines, cefuroxime axetil (CXM), donepezil hydrochloride (DN) and omeprazole (OM), and injections, ceftriaxone sodium (CTRX), and gentamicin sulfate (GM), were collected from pharmacies, hospitals, and wholesalers in Yangon, Myanmar in 2014. Authenticity and quality were verified. There were 221 (94%) foreign medicines among 235 collected samples. Five samples of GM and 1 DN sample were not registered with the Food and Drug Administration, Myanmar. In quality analysis, 36 samples out of 177 (20.3%) did not pass quantity tests, 27 samples out of 176 (15.3%) did not pass content uniformity tests, and 23 out of 128 samples (18.0%) did not pass dissolution tests. Three of the unregistered GM samples failed in both identification and microbial assay tests. Counterfeit GM is being sold in Yangon. Also, the quality of OM is a matter of concern. Poor-quality medicines were frequently found among the products of a few manufacturers. Regular surveys to monitor counterfeit and substandard medicines in Myanmar are recommended.
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Affiliation(s)
- Md Rafiqul Islam
- Institute of Medical, Pharmaceutical and Health Sciences, Kanazawa University, Kanazawa 920-1192, Japan.
| | - Naoko Yoshida
- Institute of Medical, Pharmaceutical and Health Sciences, Kanazawa University, Kanazawa 920-1192, Japan.
| | - Kazuko Kimura
- Institute of Medical, Pharmaceutical and Health Sciences, Kanazawa University, Kanazawa 920-1192, Japan.
| | - Chisana Uwatoko
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Science, Doshisha Women's College, Kyoto 610-0395, Japan.
| | - Mohammad Sofiqur Rahman
- Institute of Medical, Pharmaceutical and Health Sciences, Kanazawa University, Kanazawa 920-1192, Japan.
| | - Shoma Kumada
- Institute of Medical, Pharmaceutical and Health Sciences, Kanazawa University, Kanazawa 920-1192, Japan.
| | - Jamie Endo
- Institute of Medical, Pharmaceutical and Health Sciences, Kanazawa University, Kanazawa 920-1192, Japan.
| | - Kana Ito
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Science, Doshisha Women's College, Kyoto 610-0395, Japan.
| | - Tsuyoshi Tanimoto
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Science, Doshisha Women's College, Kyoto 610-0395, Japan.
| | - Theingi Zin
- Department of Food and Drug Administration, Naypyidaw 15000, Myanmar.
| | - Hirohito Tsuboi
- Institute of Medical, Pharmaceutical and Health Sciences, Kanazawa University, Kanazawa 920-1192, Japan.
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17
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Ozawa S, Evans DR, Bessias S, Haynie DG, Yemeke TT, Laing SK, Herrington JE. Prevalence and Estimated Economic Burden of Substandard and Falsified Medicines in Low- and Middle-Income Countries: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. JAMA Netw Open 2018; 1:e181662. [PMID: 30646106 PMCID: PMC6324280 DOI: 10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2018.1662] [Citation(s) in RCA: 157] [Impact Index Per Article: 26.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
IMPORTANCE Substandard and falsified medicines burden health systems by diverting resources to ineffective or harmful therapies, causing medical complications and prolonging illnesses. However, the prevalence and economic impact of poor-quality medicines is unclear. OBJECTIVE To conduct a systematic review and meta-analysis to assess the prevalence and estimated economic burden of substandard and falsified essential medicines in low- and middle-income countries. DATA SOURCES Five databases (PubMed, EconLit, Global Health, Embase, and Scopus) were searched from inception until November 3, 2017. STUDY SELECTION Publications were assessed to determine whether they examined medicine quality and the prevalence and/or economic burden of substandard and falsified medicines in low- and middle-income countries. Studies with a sample size of 50 or more were included in the meta-analysis. DATA EXTRACTION AND SYNTHESIS The study is registered in PROSPERO and reported via the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analyses (PRISMA) reporting guidelines. Study quality was assessed using an adapted Medicine Quality Assessment Reporting Guidelines scoring metric. Multiple reviewers conducted the data extraction and quality assessment independently. MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES Prevalence and/or estimated economic impact of substandard and falsified medicines. RESULTS Two hundred sixty-five studies that estimated the prevalence of poor-quality essential medicines in low- and middle-income countries were identified. Among 96 studies that tested 50 samples or more (67 839 total drug samples), overall prevalence of poor-quality medicines was 13.6% (95% CI, 11.0%-16.3%), with regional prevalence of 18.7% in Africa (95% CI, 12.9%-24.5%) and 13.7% in Asia (95% CI, 8.2%-19.1%). Of studies included in the meta-analysis, 19.1% (95% CI, 15.0%-23.3%) of antimalarials and 12.4% (95% CI, 7.1%-17.7%) of antibiotics were substandard or falsified. Eight approximations of the economic impact, focused primarily on market size, with poor or undisclosed methods in estimation were identified, ranging from $10 billion to $200 billion. CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE Poor-quality essential medicines are a substantial and understudied problem. Methodological standards for prevalence and rigorous economic studies estimating the burden beyond market size are needed to accurately assess the scope of the issue and inform efforts to address it. Global collaborative efforts are needed to improve supply-chain management, surveillance, and regulatory capacity in low- and middle-income countries to reduce the threat of poor-quality medicines. TRIAL REGISTRATION PROSPERO Identifier: CRD42017080266.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sachiko Ozawa
- Department of Maternal and Child Health, Gillings School of Global Public Health, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill
- Division of Practice Advancement and Clinical Education, Eshelman School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill
| | - Daniel R. Evans
- Division of Practice Advancement and Clinical Education, Eshelman School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill
| | - Sophia Bessias
- Enterprise Analytics and Data Sciences, University of North Carolina Health Care, Chapel Hill
| | | | - Tatenda T. Yemeke
- Division of Practice Advancement and Clinical Education, Eshelman School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill
| | - Sarah K. Laing
- Division of Practice Advancement and Clinical Education, Eshelman School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill
| | - James E. Herrington
- Department of Health Behavior, Gillings School of Global Public Health, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill
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18
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Drug Quality in South Africa: A Field Test. J Pharm Sci 2018; 107:2720-2730. [PMID: 29936204 DOI: 10.1016/j.xphs.2018.06.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2018] [Revised: 06/04/2018] [Accepted: 06/12/2018] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
To assess drug quality and pharmaceutical care in South Africa, "mystery" (i.e., anonymous) customers collected 316 samples from July to September 2016. Solid dosage forms containing amoxicillin alone or in combination with clavulanic acid as well as analgesics containing paracetamol alone or in combination with other drugs were sampled in a randomized fashion from the formal market (pharmacies) and by convenient sampling from the informal market. Visual inspection, uniformity of dosage units, and dissolution testing were performed to evaluate adherence to pharmacopoeial quality standards and to identify counterfeit, degraded, or substandard drugs. Although no counterfeited products were identified, only 55.4% (173/312) of samples were able to fulfill all pharmacopeial requirements for quality. Most of the 139 samples that failed were unable to pass the visual inspection due to inappropriate labeling and packaging. In addition, several substandard products were identified: 17 (5.4%) samples failed dissolution testing and 15 (4.8%) failed the content uniformity test. To improve drug quality and the quality of pharmaceutical care, better education of pharmaceutical professionals and monitoring of the pharmaceutical supply chain in South Africa are needed. Further field studies are necessary to evaluate risks and quality issues for other drug classes and distribution channels.
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19
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Rahman MS, Yoshida N, Sugiura S, Tsuboi H, Keila T, Kiet HB, Zin T, Tanimoto T, Kimura K. Quality of omeprazole purchased via the Internet and personally imported into Japan: comparison with products sampled in other Asian countries. Trop Med Int Health 2018; 23:263-269. [PMID: 29314458 DOI: 10.1111/tmi.13028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To evaluate the quality of omeprazole personally imported into Japan via the Internet and to compare the quality of these samples with previously collected samples from two other Asian countries. METHODS The samples were evaluated by observation, authenticity investigation and pharmacopoeial quality analysis. Quality comparison of some selected samples was carried out by dissolution profiling, Raman spectroscopy and principle component analysis (PCA). RESULTS Observation of the Internet sites and samples revealed some discrepancies including the delivery of a wrong sample and the selling of omeprazole without a prescription, although it is a prescription medicine. Among the 28 samples analysed, all passed the identification test, 26 (93%) passed the quantity and content uniformity tests and all passed the dissolution test. Dissolution profiling confirmed that all the personally imported omeprazole samples remained intact in the acid medium. On the other hand, six samples from two of the same manufacturers, previously collected during surveys in Cambodia and Myanmar, frequently showed premature omeprazole release in acid. Raman spectroscopy and PCA showed significant variation between omeprazole formulations in personally imported samples and the samples from Cambodia and Myanmar. CONCLUSIONS Our results indicate that the pharmaceutical quality of omeprazole purchased through the Internet was sufficient, as determined by pharmacopeial tests. However, omeprazole formulations distributed in different market segments by the same manufacturers were of diverse quality. Measures are needed to ensure consistent quality of products and to prevent entry of substandard products into the legitimate supply chain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohammad Sofiqur Rahman
- Drug Management and Policy, Kanazawa University, Kanazawa, Japan.,Department of Pharmacy, University of Asia Pacific, Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Naoko Yoshida
- Drug Management and Policy, Kanazawa University, Kanazawa, Japan
| | - Sakura Sugiura
- Drug Management and Policy, Kanazawa University, Kanazawa, Japan
| | - Hirohito Tsuboi
- Drug Management and Policy, Kanazawa University, Kanazawa, Japan
| | - Tep Keila
- National Health Product Quality Control Center, Ministry of Health, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
| | - Heng Bun Kiet
- Department of Drugs and Food, Ministry of Health, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
| | - Theingi Zin
- Department of Food and Drug Administration, Ministry of Health and Sports, Nay Pyi Taw, Myanmar
| | - Tsuyoshi Tanimoto
- Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Doshisha Women's University, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Kazuko Kimura
- Drug Management and Policy, Kanazawa University, Kanazawa, Japan.,Medi-Quality Security Institute, Kanazawa University, Kanazawa, Japan
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20
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Zellweger RM, Carrique-Mas J, Limmathurotsakul D, Day NPJ, Thwaites GE, Baker S. A current perspective on antimicrobial resistance in Southeast Asia. J Antimicrob Chemother 2017; 72:2963-2972. [PMID: 28961709 PMCID: PMC5890732 DOI: 10.1093/jac/dkx260] [Citation(s) in RCA: 112] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Southeast Asia, a vibrant region that has recently undergone unprecedented economic development, is regarded as a global hotspot for the emergence and spread of antimicrobial resistance (AMR). Understanding AMR in Southeast Asia is crucial for assessing how to control AMR on an international scale. Here we (i) describe the current AMR situation in Southeast Asia, (ii) explore the mechanisms that make Southeast Asia a focal region for the emergence of AMR, and (iii) propose ways in which Southeast Asia could contribute to a global solution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raphaël M Zellweger
- The Hospital for Tropical Diseases, Wellcome Trust Major Overseas Programme, Oxford University Clinical Research Unit, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
| | - Juan Carrique-Mas
- The Hospital for Tropical Diseases, Wellcome Trust Major Overseas Programme, Oxford University Clinical Research Unit, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
- Centre for Tropical Medicine and Global Health, Nuffield Department of Clinical Medicine, Oxford University, UK
| | - Direk Limmathurotsakul
- Centre for Tropical Medicine and Global Health, Nuffield Department of Clinical Medicine, Oxford University, UK
- Mahidol-Oxford Tropical Medicine Research Unit (MORU), Faculty of Tropical Medicine, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Nicholas P. J Day
- Centre for Tropical Medicine and Global Health, Nuffield Department of Clinical Medicine, Oxford University, UK
- Mahidol-Oxford Tropical Medicine Research Unit (MORU), Faculty of Tropical Medicine, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Guy E Thwaites
- The Hospital for Tropical Diseases, Wellcome Trust Major Overseas Programme, Oxford University Clinical Research Unit, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
- Centre for Tropical Medicine and Global Health, Nuffield Department of Clinical Medicine, Oxford University, UK
| | - Stephen Baker
- The Hospital for Tropical Diseases, Wellcome Trust Major Overseas Programme, Oxford University Clinical Research Unit, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
- Centre for Tropical Medicine and Global Health, Nuffield Department of Clinical Medicine, Oxford University, UK
- The London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, UK
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21
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Kakio T, Yoshida N, Macha S, Moriguchi K, Hiroshima T, Ikeda Y, Tsuboi H, Kimura K. Classification and Visualization of Physical and Chemical Properties of Falsified Medicines with Handheld Raman Spectroscopy and X-Ray Computed Tomography. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2017; 97:684-689. [PMID: 28722604 PMCID: PMC5590587 DOI: 10.4269/ajtmh.16-0971] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2016] [Accepted: 05/09/2017] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
Abstract
Analytical methods for the detection of substandard and falsified medical products (SFs) are important for public health and patient safety. Research to understand how the physical and chemical properties of SFs can be most effectively applied to distinguish the SFs from authentic products has not yet been investigated enough. Here, we investigated the usefulness of two analytical methods, handheld Raman spectroscopy (handheld Raman) and X-ray computed tomography (X-ray CT), for detecting SFs among oral solid antihypertensive pharmaceutical products containing candesartan cilexetil as an active pharmaceutical ingredient (API). X-ray CT visualized at least two different types of falsified tablets, one containing many cracks and voids and the other containing aggregates with high electron density, such as from the presence of the heavy elements. Generic products that purported to contain equivalent amounts of API to the authentic products were discriminated from the authentic products by the handheld Raman and the different physical structure on X-ray CT. Approach to investigate both the chemical and physical properties with handheld Raman and X-ray CT, respectively, promise the accurate discrimination of the SFs, even if their visual appearance is similar with authentic products. We present a decision tree for investigating the authenticity of samples purporting to be authentic commercial tablets. Our results indicate that the combination approach of visual observation, handheld Raman and X-ray CT is a powerful strategy for nondestructive discrimination of suspect samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tomoko Kakio
- Analytical Development, Pharmaceutical Sciences, Takeda Pharmaceutical Company, Ltd., Osaka, Japan
| | - Naoko Yoshida
- Drug Management and Policy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Institute of Medical, Pharmaceutical and Health Sciences, Kanazawa University, Kanazawa, Japan
| | - Susan Macha
- Global Product Protection, Takeda Pharmaceuticals U.S.A., Inc., Deerfield, Illinois
| | - Kazunobu Moriguchi
- Analytical Development, Pharmaceutical Sciences, Takeda Pharmaceutical Company, Ltd., Osaka, Japan
| | - Takashi Hiroshima
- Analytical Development, Pharmaceutical Sciences, Takeda Pharmaceutical Company, Ltd., Osaka, Japan
| | - Yukihiro Ikeda
- Analytical Development, Pharmaceutical Sciences, Takeda Pharmaceutical Company, Ltd., Osaka, Japan
| | - Hirohito Tsuboi
- Drug Management and Policy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Institute of Medical, Pharmaceutical and Health Sciences, Kanazawa University, Kanazawa, Japan
| | - Kazuko Kimura
- Drug Management and Policy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Institute of Medical, Pharmaceutical and Health Sciences, Kanazawa University, Kanazawa, Japan
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22
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Koczwara A, Dressman J. Poor-Quality and Counterfeit Drugs: A Systematic Assessment of Prevalence and Risks Based on Data Published From 2007 to 2016. J Pharm Sci 2017; 106:2921-2929. [PMID: 28549909 DOI: 10.1016/j.xphs.2017.05.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2017] [Revised: 05/15/2017] [Accepted: 05/16/2017] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Counterfeit drugs can hurt patients and harm the pharmaceutical industry. In 2006, the International Medical Products Anti-Counterfeiting Taskforce expressed a need to generate more and better data to calculate a worldwide prevalence of counterfeiting. This review analyzes field test data that were published in the time frame January 2007 to December 2016, were accessible via Pubmed, and which addressed the prevalence of counterfeit drugs. Based on the 41 studies identified, it is still not possible to make a reliable statement about the prevalence of counterfeit drugs due to the heterogeneity of the results. To make further progress in this area, both the quantity and quality of documented field tests should be increased. Without a differentiated analysis considering therapeutic class, source, and country of counterfeit drugs, it will remain difficult to identify the root causes of market infiltration and useful points of attack to combat them. Studies with high sample power and randomized sampling, packaging inspection, and detailed chemical analysis will be necessary to correctly identify (especially professional) counterfeit samples. The classification system presented in this review should help to calculate not only the prevalence of counterfeit drugs but also the risks to the patient associated with different types of counterfeited medicines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andreas Koczwara
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Technology, Goethe University Frankfurt am Main, Frankfurt am Main, Hessen, Germany
| | - Jennifer Dressman
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Technology, Goethe University Frankfurt am Main, Frankfurt am Main, Hessen, Germany.
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23
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Rahman MS, Yoshida N, Tsuboi H, Keila T, Sovannarith T, Kiet HB, Dararth E, Zin T, Tanimoto T, Kimura K. Erroneous formulation of delayed-release omeprazole capsules: alert for importing countries. BMC Pharmacol Toxicol 2017; 18:31. [PMID: 28468688 PMCID: PMC5415780 DOI: 10.1186/s40360-017-0138-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/26/2016] [Accepted: 04/27/2017] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Poor drug quality is a matter of serious concern, especially in countries where drug regulation and law enforcement are constrained by limited resources. This study was carried out to investigate the cause of quality failure of omeprazole in Cambodia in 2010 and Myanmar in 2014. Methods We conducted pharmacopoeial quantity, content uniformity and dissolution tests of 156 samples of omeprazole capsules collected in Cambodia in 2010 and Myanmar in 2014. High failure rates were found, especially in dissolution testing, and detailed investigation of several unacceptable samples was carried out by means of in-vitro dissolution profiling, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and X-ray computed tomography (X-ray CT) to identify the cause of failure. Results Dissolution profiling with and without the acid stage showed that acid caused premature omeprazole release, indicating that the enteric coating of the omeprazole granules was ineffective. SEM examination of two failed samples revealed cracked and broken granules mixed with apparently intact omeprazole granules in the capsule. X-ray CT examination indicated that some granules of failed samples completely lacked enteric coating, and others had incomplete and non-uniform enteric coating or malformation. Conclusions Omeprazole capsules collected in Myanmar and Cambodia showed high failure rates in pharmacopoeial tests, especially dissolution tests. Some samples were found to have ineffective or absent enteric coating of the granules, resulting in premature dissolution and degradation in acidic conditions. This is a potentially serious public health issue that needs to be addressed by regulatory authorities in Cambodia and Myanmar, possibly through a collaborative initiative with manufacturers.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Naoko Yoshida
- Drug Management and Policy, Kanazawa University, Kanazawa, Japan
| | - Hirohito Tsuboi
- Drug Management and Policy, Kanazawa University, Kanazawa, Japan
| | - Tep Keila
- National Health Product Quality Control Center, Ministry of Health, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
| | - Tey Sovannarith
- National Health Product Quality Control Center, Ministry of Health, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
| | - Heng Bun Kiet
- Department of Drugs and Food, Ministry of Health, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
| | - Eav Dararth
- Department of Drugs and Food, Ministry of Health, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
| | - Theingi Zin
- Department of Food and Drug Administration, Ministry of Health and Sports, Naypyidaw, Myanmar
| | - Tsuyoshi Tanimoto
- Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Doshisha Women's University, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Kazuko Kimura
- Drug Management and Policy, Kanazawa University, Kanazawa, Japan
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24
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Rinciog C, Watkins M, Chang S, Maher TM, LeReun C, Esser D, Diamantopoulos A. A Cost-Effectiveness Analysis of Nintedanib in Idiopathic Pulmonary Fibrosis in the UK. PHARMACOECONOMICS 2017; 35:479-491. [PMID: 28039616 PMCID: PMC5357477 DOI: 10.1007/s40273-016-0480-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND International guidelines recommend nintedanib (OFEV®) as an option for the treatment of idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF). OBJECTIVE The objective of this study was to assess the cost effectiveness of nintedanib versus pirfenidone, N-acetylcysteine and best supportive care (BSC) for the treatment of IPF from a UK payer's perspective. METHODS A Markov model was designed to capture the changes in the condition of adults with IPF. Efficacy outcomes included mortality, lung function decline and acute exacerbations. Treatment safety (serious adverse events) and tolerability (overall discontinuation) were also considered. The baseline risk of these events was derived from patient-level data from the placebo arms of nintedanib clinical trials (TOMORROW, INPULSIS-1, INPULSIS-2). A network meta-analysis (NMA) was conducted to estimate the relative effectiveness of the comparator treatments. Quality of life and healthcare resource use data from the clinical trials were also incorporated in the economic model. RESULTS Nintedanib showed statistically significant differences against placebo on acute exacerbation events avoided and lung function decline. In the cost-effectiveness analysis, the results were split between two treatments with relative low costs and modest effectiveness (BSC and N-acetylcysteine) and two that showed improved effectiveness (lung function) and higher costs (nintedanib and pirfenidone). All comparators were assumed to have similar projected survival and the difference in quality-adjusted life-years (QALYs) was driven by the acute exacerbations and lung function estimates. In the base-case deterministic pairwise comparison with pirfenidone, nintedanib was found to have fewer acute exacerbations and resulted in less costs and more QALYs gained. CONCLUSIONS Compared with BSC (placebo), nintedanib and pirfenidone were the only treatments to show statistical significance in the efficacy parameters. We found substantial uncertainty in the overall cost-effectiveness results between nintedanib and pirfenidone. N-Acetylcysteine was largely similar to BSC but with a worse survival profile. INPULSIS-1 and INPULSIS-2 ClinicalTrials.gov numbers, NCT01335464 and NCT01335477.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - M Watkins
- Boehringer Ingelheim Limited, Bracknell, UK
| | - S Chang
- Symmetron Limited, Elstree, UK
| | - T M Maher
- NIHR Biomedical Research Unit Royal Brompton Hospital, London, UK
- Fibrosis Research Group, National Heart and Lung Institute, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - C LeReun
- , Sainte-Anne, Guadeloupe, France
| | - D Esser
- Boehringer Ingelheim GmbH, Ingelheim, Germany
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25
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Hamilton WL, Doyle C, Halliwell-Ewen M, Lambert G. Public health interventions to protect against falsified medicines: a systematic review of international, national and local policies. Health Policy Plan 2016; 31:1448-1466. [PMID: 27311827 DOI: 10.1093/heapol/czw062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 04/17/2016] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Falsified medicines are deliberately fraudulent drugs that pose a direct risk to patient health and undermine healthcare systems, causing global morbidity and mortality. OBJECTIVE To produce an overview of anti-falsifying public health interventions deployed at international, national and local scales in low and middle income countries (LMIC). DATA SOURCES We conducted a systematic search of the PubMed, Web of Science, Embase and Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials databases for healthcare or pharmaceutical policies relevant to reducing the burden of falsified medicines in LMIC. RESULTS Our initial search identified 660 unique studies, of which 203 met title/abstract inclusion criteria and were categorised according to their primary focus: international; national; local pharmacy; internet pharmacy; drug analysis tools. Eighty-four were included in the qualitative synthesis, along with 108 articles and website links retrieved through secondary searches. DISCUSSION On the international stage, we discuss the need for accessible pharmacovigilance (PV) global reporting systems, international leadership and funding incorporating multiple stakeholders (healthcare, pharmaceutical, law enforcement) and multilateral trade agreements that emphasise public health. On the national level, we explore the importance of establishing adequate medicine regulatory authorities and PV capacity, with drug screening along the supply chain. This requires interdepartmental coordination, drug certification and criminal justice legislation and enforcement that recognise the severity of medicine falsification. Local healthcare professionals can receive training on medicine quality assessments, drug registration and pharmacological testing equipment. Finally, we discuss novel technologies for drug analysis which allow rapid identification of fake medicines in low-resource settings. Innovative point-of-purchase systems like mobile phone verification allow consumers to check the authenticity of their medicines. CONCLUSIONS Combining anti-falsifying strategies targeting different levels of the pharmaceutical supply chain provides multiple barriers of protection from falsified medicines. This requires the political will to drive policy implementation; otherwise, people around the world remain at risk.
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Affiliation(s)
- William L Hamilton
- University of Cambridge School of Clinical Medicine, Addenbrooke's Hospital, Hills Road, Cambridge CB2 0SP, UK .,Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute, Wellcome Genome Campus, Hinxton, Cambridge, CB10 1SA, UK
| | - Cormac Doyle
- University of Cambridge School of Clinical Medicine, Addenbrooke's Hospital, Hills Road, Cambridge CB2 0SP, UK
| | - Mycroft Halliwell-Ewen
- University of Cambridge School of Clinical Medicine, Addenbrooke's Hospital, Hills Road, Cambridge CB2 0SP, UK
| | - Gabriel Lambert
- University of Cambridge School of Clinical Medicine, Addenbrooke's Hospital, Hills Road, Cambridge CB2 0SP, UK
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