Transcriptional profiling of methyl jasmonate-induced defense responses in bilberry (Vaccinium myrtillus L.)

Mycorrhiza-induced resistance in citrus against Tetranychus urticae is plant species dependent and inversely correlated to basal immunity

BACKGROUND

Mycorrhizal plants show enhanced resistance to biotic stresses, but few studies have addressed mycorrhiza-induced resistance (MIR) against biotic challenges in woody plants, particularly citrus. Here we present a comparative study of two citrus species, Citrus aurantium, which is resistant to Tetranychus urticae, and Citrus reshni, which is highly susceptible to T. urticae. Although both mycorrhizal species are protected in locally infested leaves, they show very distinct responses to MIR.

RESULTS

Previous studies have indicated that C. aurantium is insensitive to MIR in systemic tissues and MIR-triggered antixenosis. Conversely, C. reshni is highly responsive to MIR which triggers local, systemic and indirect defense, and antixenosis against the pest. Transcriptional, hormonal and inhibition assays in C. reshni indicated the regulation of jasmonic acid (JA)- and abscisic acid-dependent responses in MIR. The phytohormone jasmonic acid isoleucine (JA-Ile) and the JA biosynthesis gene LOX2 are primed at early timepoints. Evidence indicates a metabolic flux from phenylpropanoids to specific flavones that are primed at 24 h post infestation (hpi). MIR also triggers the priming of naringenin in mycorrhizal C. reshni, which shows a strong correlation with several flavones and JA-Ile that over-accumulate in mycorrhizal plants. Treatment with an inhibitor of phenylpropanoid biosynthesis C4H enzyme impaired resistance and reduced the symbiosis, demonstrating that phenylpropanoids and derivatives mediate MIR in C. reshni.

CONCLUSION

MIR's effectiveness is inversely correlated to basal immunity in different citrus species, and provides multifaceted protection against T. urticae in susceptible C. reshni, activating rapid local and systemic defenses that are mainly regulated by the accumulation of specific flavones and priming of JA-dependent responses. © 2024 The Authors. Pest Management Science published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry.

Revisiting the role and mechanism of ELF3 in circadian clock modulation

The gene encoding EARLY FLOWERING3 (ELF3) is necessary for photoperiodic flowering and the normal regulation of circadian rhythms. It provides important information at the cellular level to uncover the biological mechanisms that improve plant growth and development. ELF3 interactions with transcription factors such as BROTHER OF LUX ARRHYTHMO (BOA), LIGHT-REGULATED WD1 (LWD1), PHYTOCHROME-INTERACTING FACTOR 4 (PIF4), PHYTOCHROME-INTERACTING FACTOR 7 (PIF7), and LUX ARRHYTHMO (LUX) suggest a role in evening complex (EC) independent pathways, demanding further investigation to elucidate the EC-dependent versus EC-independent mechanisms. The ELF3 regulation of flowering time about photoperiod and temperature variations can also optimize crop cultivation across diverse latitudes. In this review paper, we summarize how ELF3's role in the circadian clock and light-responsive flowering control in crops offers substantial potential for scientific advancement and practical applications in biotechnology and agriculture. Despite its essential role in crop adaptation, very little is known in many important crops. Consequently, comprehensive and targeted research is essential for extrapolating ELF3-related insights from Arabidopsis to other crops, utilizing both computational and experimental methodologies. This research should prioritize investigations into ELF3's protein-protein interactions, post-translational modifications, and genomic targets to elucidate its contribution to accurate circadian clock regulation.

Preharvest Methyl Jasmonate Treatment Affects the Mineral Profile, Metabolites, and Antioxidant Capacity of Radish Microgreens Produced without Substrate

This study investigated the impact of Methyl Jasmonate (MeJA) application on the nutritional content and yield of five different colored radish microgreens. Microgreens were produced without substrate and subjected to 0.5 mM and 1.0 mM MeJA treatments on the 7th day, three days before harvest. The parameters measured included yield, dry matter, minerals, amino acids, secondary metabolites such as chlorophylls (Chls), anthocyanins, flavonoids, phenolics, glucosinolates (GSLs), vitamin C, and antioxidant capacity. MeJA at 1.0 mM generally improved yield and dry weight across cultivars, and all microgreens exhibited rich mineral and amino acid composition, with the influence of cultivar being more significant than MeJA treatment. However, MeJA enhanced all cultivars' anthocyanins, GSLs, phenolics, flavonoids, and antioxidant activities. Generally, as the antioxidant capacity is the primary factor influencing the nutritional quality of microgreens, MeJA-treated microgreens, especially with selected superior cultivars such as 'Asia purple' and 'Koregon red', could offer a potential for cultivation of value-added, eco-friendly microgreens with substrate-free cultivation.

Berry secondary metabolites and leaf physiological parameters are independently regulated by exogenous methyl jasmonate application in Sangiovese grapevines (Vitis vinifera L.)

The role of jasmonates as elicitor of secondary metabolites is well known, and many experiments have been conducted in grapevine to evaluate their effects on berry and wine quality. Even though most of these studies used foliar jasmonates applications, little investigations have been done to assess the effects on leaves which, in turn, may indirectly affect grape metabolism potentially involving a long distance signaling or crosstalk. In this experiment we jointly investigated the specific effect of jasmonates on grape berry secondary metabolites and leaf physiological parameters to better comprehend their elicitation mechanisms in grapevine. A 10 mM methyl jasmonate (MeJA) solution was applied during the lag-phase only on the leaves or only on the clusters and compared to an untreated control. The MeJA specifically affected leaf physiological parameters and berry metabolism in the treated area. When applied only on the leaves, gas exchange parameters and leaf efficiency were reduced, stimulating the senescence mechanisms, without affecting berry metabolism. On the contrary, MeJA applied on the clusters significantly delayed berry ripening, leading to hypothesize a re-route of the berry carbon resources through the biosynthesis of volatile organic compounds which were strongly increased, especially the monoterpenes in their glycosylated form.

Transcriptomic and metabolomic analysis reveals the influence of carbohydrates on lignin degradation mediated by Bacillus amyloliquefaciens

Introduction

Ligninolytic bacteria can secrete extracellular enzymes to depolymerize lignin into small-molecular aromatics that are subsequently metabolized and funneled into the TCA cycle. Carbohydrates, which are the preferred carbon sources of bacteria, influence the metabolism of lignin-derived aromatics through bacteria.

Methods

In this study, untargeted metabolomics and transcriptomics analyses were performed to investigate the effect of carbohydrates on lignin degradation mediated by Bacillus amyloliquefaciens MN-13, a strain with lignin-degrading activity that was isolated in our previous work.

Results

The results demonstrated that the cell growth of the MN-13 strain and lignin removal were promoted when carbohydrates such as glucose and sodium carboxymethyl cellulose were added to an alkaline lignin-minimal salt medium (AL-MSM) culture. Metabolomics analysis showed that lignin depolymerization took place outside the cells, and the addition of glucose regulated the uptake and metabolism of lignin-derived monomers and activated the downstream metabolism process in cells. In the transcriptomics analysis, 299 DEGs were screened after 24 h of inoculation in AL-MSM with free glucose and 2 g/L glucose, respectively, accounting for 8.3% of the total amount of annotated genes. These DEGs were primarily assigned to 30 subcategories, including flagellar assembly, the PTS system, RNA degradation, glycolysis/gluconeogenesis, the TCA cycle, pyruvate metabolism, and tryptophan metabolism. These subcategories were closely associated with the cell structure, generation of cellular energy, and precursors for biosynthetic pathways, based on a - log 10 (P adjust) value in the KEGG pathway analysis.

Conclusion

In summary, the addition of glucose increased lignin degradation mediated by the MN-13 strain through regulating glycolysis, TCA cycle, and central carbon metabolism.

Metabolomics Reveals Rubiadin Accumulation and the Effects of Methyl Jasmonate Elicitation in Damnacanthus major Calli

Callus suspension techniques have been considered attractive for improving bioactive metabolite productivity; methyl jasmonate (MeJA) is a widely used elicitor for stimulating synthetic pathways. In this study, a multivariate analysis-based metabolomics approach was employed to investigate the primary and specialized metabolites in the leaves, unelicited calli, and 100 or 200 μM MeJA elicited calli of Damnacanthus major. Rubiadin, a powerful anthraquinone with various therapeutic properties, was only identified in D. major calli, accumulating in a MeJA elicitation concentration-dependent manner. Callus cultures also contained high levels of amino acids, sugars, and phenolic compounds, indicating energy metabolism and metabolic adaptation responses for proliferation and stabilization. Regarding MeJA application, elicited calli contained higher amounts of quinic acid, kaempferol, and glucose with lower amounts of sucrose and raffinose than those in the unelicited control, which were closely related to protective mechanisms against MeJA. Moreover, excessive elicitation increased the asparagine, fructose, and raffinose levels and decreased the glucose and sucrose levels, which was ascribed to increased activation of the aminoacyl-tRNA biosynthesis pathway and wider utilization of glucose than of fructose after sucrose degradation. These results will be useful for optimizing plant cell culture techniques to achieve high production rates for valuable specialized metabolites.

Transcriptome analysis of Taraxacum kok-saghyz reveals the role of exogenous methyl jasmonate in regulating rubber biosynthesis and drought tolerance

Taraxacum kok-saghyz has been identified as one of the most promising alternative rubber crops, with laticifer cells that produce high-quality rubber. To uncover the underlying molecular mechanisms regulating natural rubber biosynthesis under MeJA induction, a reference transcriptome was constructed from nine samples of T. kok-saghyz. MeJA treatment was applied for 0 h (control), 6 h, and 24 h. A total of 7452 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were identified in response to MeJA stress, relative to the control. Functional enrichment showed that these DEGs were primarily related to hormone signaling, defensive responses, and secondary metabolism. Combined analysis of the DEGs induced by MeJA and high-expression genes in laticifer cells further identified seven DEGs related to natural rubber biosynthesis that were upregulated in latex tissue, suggesting that these candidate genes could prove valuable in studying the mechanism of MeJA-mediated natural rubber biosynthesis. In addition, 415 MeJA-responsive DEGs were from several transcription factor families associated with drought resistance. This study helps to elucidate the mechanism of natural rubber biosynthesis in T. kok-saghyz in response to MeJA stress and identifies key candidate MeJA-induced DEGs in laticifer tissue, as well as a candidate drought-response target gene, whose knowledge will promote the breeding of T. kok-saghyz in the aspect of rubber yields and quality, and drought tolerance.

Plant defense under Arctic light conditions: Can plants withstand invading pests?

Global warming is predicted to change the growth conditions for plants and crops in regions at high latitudes (>60° N), including the Arctic. This will be accompanied by alterations in the composition of natural plant and pest communities, as herbivorous arthropods will invade these regions as well. Interactions between previously non-overlapping species may occur and cause new challenges to herbivore attack. However, plants growing at high latitudes experience less herbivory compared to plants grown at lower latitudes. We hypothesize that this finding is due to a gradient of constitutive chemical defense towards the Northern regions. We further hypothesize that higher level of defensive compounds is mediated by higher level of the defense-related phytohormone jasmonate. Because its biosynthesis is light dependent, Arctic summer day light conditions can promote jasmonate accumulation and, hence, downstream physiological responses. A pilot study with bilberry (Vaccinium myrtillus) plants grown under different light regimes supports the hypothesis.

Genome-wide analysis of the CAD gene family reveals two bona fide CAD genes in oil palm

Cinnamyl alcohol dehydrogenase (CAD) is the key enzyme for lignin biosynthesis in plants. In this study, genome-wide analysis was performed to identify CAD genes in oil palm (Elaeis guineensis). Phylogenetic analysis was then conducted to select the bona fide EgCADs. The bona fide EgCAD genes and their respective 5' flanking regions were cloned and analysed. Their expression profiles were evaluated in various organs using RT-PCR. Seven EgCAD genes (EgCAD1-7) were identified and divided into four phylogenetic groups. EgCAD1 and EgCAD2 display high sequence similarities with other bona fide CADs and possess all the signature motifs of the bona fide CAD. They also display similar 3D protein structures. Gene expression analysis showed that EgCAD1 was expressed most abundantly in the root tissues, while EgCAD2 was expressed constitutively in all the tissues studied. EgCAD1 possesses only one transcription start site, while EgCAD2 has five. Interestingly, a TC microsatellite was found in the 5' flanking region of EgCAD2. The 5' flanking regions of EgCAD1 and EgCAD2 contain lignin-associated regulatory elements i.e. AC-elements, and other defence-related motifs, including W-box, GT-1 motif and CGTCA-motif. Altogether, these results imply that EgCAD1 and EgCAD2 are bona fide CAD involved in lignin biosynthesis during the normal development of oil palm and in response to stresses. Our findings shed some light on the roles of the bona fide CAD genes in oil palm and pave the way for manipulating lignin content in oil palm through a genetic approach.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s13205-022-03208-0.

Transcriptomic changes during the establishment of long-term methyl jasmonate-induced resistance in Norway spruce

Norway spruce (Picea abies) is an economically and ecologically important tree species that grows across northern and central Europe. Treating Norway spruce with jasmonate has long-lasting beneficial effects on tree resistance to damaging pests, such as the European spruce bark beetle Ips typographus and its fungal associates. The (epi)genetic mechanisms involved in such long-lasting jasmonate induced resistance (IR) have gained much recent interest but remain largely unknown. In this study, we treated 2-year-old spruce seedlings with methyl jasmonate (MeJA) and challenged them with the I. typographus vectored necrotrophic fungus Grosmannia penicillata. MeJA treatment reduced the extent of necrotic lesions in the bark 8 weeks after infection and thus elicited long-term IR against the fungus. The transcriptional response of spruce bark to MeJA treatment was analysed over a 4-week time course using mRNA-seq. This analysis provided evidence that MeJA treatment induced a transient upregulation of jasmonic acid, salicylic acid and ethylene biosynthesis genes and downstream signalling genes. Our data also suggests that defence-related genes are induced while genes related to growth are repressed by methyl jasmonate treatment. These results provide new clues about the potential underpinning mechanisms and costs associated with long-term MeJA-IR in Norway spruce.

There and back again; historical perspective and future directions for Vaccinium breeding and research studies

The genus Vaccinium L. (Ericaceae) contains a wide diversity of culturally and economically important berry crop species. Consumer demand and scientific research in blueberry (Vaccinium spp.) and cranberry (Vaccinium macrocarpon) have increased worldwide over the crops' relatively short domestication history (~100 years). Other species, including bilberry (Vaccinium myrtillus), lingonberry (Vaccinium vitis-idaea), and ohelo berry (Vaccinium reticulatum) are largely still harvested from the wild but with crop improvement efforts underway. Here, we present a review article on these Vaccinium berry crops on topics that span taxonomy to genetics and genomics to breeding. We highlight the accomplishments made thus far for each of these crops, along their journey from the wild, and propose research areas and questions that will require investments by the community over the coming decades to guide future crop improvement efforts. New tools and resources are needed to underpin the development of superior cultivars that are not only more resilient to various environmental stresses and higher yielding, but also produce fruit that continue to meet a variety of consumer preferences, including fruit quality and health related traits.

Volatile-mediated plant-plant interactions: volatile organic compounds as modulators of receiver plant defence, growth, and reproduction

It is firmly established that plants respond to biotic and abiotic stimuli by emitting volatile organic compounds (VOCs). These VOCs provide information on the physiological status of the emitter plant and are available for detection by the whole community. In the context of plant-plant interactions, research has focused mostly on the defence-related responses of receiver plants. However, responses may span hormone signalling and both primary and secondary metabolism, and ultimately affect plant fitness. Here we present a synthesis of plant-plant interactions, focusing on the effects of VOC exposure on receiver plants. An overview of the important chemical cues, the uptake and conversion of VOCs, and the adsorption of VOCs to plant surfaces is presented. This is followed by a review of the substantial VOC-induced changes to receiver plants affecting both primary and secondary metabolism and influencing plant growth and reproduction. Further research should consider whole-plant responses for the effective evaluation of the mechanisms and fitness consequences of exposure of the receiver plant to VOCs.

Transcriptomics and Antioxidant Analysis of Two Chinese Chestnut (Castanea mollissima BL.) Varieties Provides New Insights Into the Mechanisms of Resistance to Gall Wasp Dryocosmus kuriphilus Infestation

Chinese chestnut is a popular fruit tree with a high nutritional value of its nuts, which can suffer from infestation by the chestnut gall wasp Dryocosmus kuriphilus (GWDK) that results in gall formation and resultant loss of production and profitability. The physiological and molecular mechanisms of GWDK resistance found in certain genotypes currently remains elusive. To gain new insights into this phenomenon, a series of RNA-Seq integrated with metabolomic profiling experiments were executed to investigate the chemical and transcriptional differences in response to GWDK infestation in two contrasting chestnut varieties grown in China (the susceptible "HongLi," HL and the partially resistant "Shuhe_Wuyingli," SW). Three time points were selected for comparison: The initiation stage (A), growth stage (B), and maturation stage (C). Results showed that concentrations of hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) and the activities of peroxidase (POD) and superoxide dismutase (SOD) enzyme were elevated in the resistant SW leaves compared with those in HL leaves at all three developmental stages, while catalase (CAT) and polyphenol oxidase (PPO) activities were mostly higher in HL leaves. RNA-Seq transcriptomic analyses of HL and SW leaves revealed that various metabolic pathways involved in GWDK stress responses, such as plant hormone signal transduction, MAPK signaling, and the peroxisome pathway, were enriched in the contrasting samples. Moreover, the weighted gene co-expression network analysis (WGCNA) of differentially expressed genes in the POD pathway combined with transcription factors (TFs) indicated that the expression of TF members of bHLH, WRKY, NAC, and MYB family positively correlated with POD pathway gene expression. The TFs CmbHLH130 (EVM0032437), CmWRKY31 (EVM0017000), CmNAC50 (EVM0000033), and CmPHL12 (EVM0007330) were identified as putative TFs that participate in the regulation of insect-induced plant enzyme activities in chestnut, which may contribute to GWDK resistance in SW. Expression levels of 8 random differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were furthermore selected to perform quantitative reverse transcription PCR (qRT-PCR) to validate the accuracy of the RNA-Seq-derived expression patterns. This study guides the functional analyses of further candidate genes and mechanisms important for GWDK resistance in chestnuts in the future as well as can help in identifying the master transcriptional regulators and important enzyme steps that support major insect defense pathways in chestnut.

The Interface amongst Conserved and Specialized Pathways in Non-Paclitaxel and Paclitaxel Accumulating Taxus Cultures

Plant cell cultures derived from Taxus are used to produce valuable metabolites like paclitaxel, a chemotherapeutic drug. Methyl jasmonate elicitation enhances paclitaxel accumulation, but also inhibits culture growth and increases phenylpropanoid biosynthesis, two side effects that detract from taxane accumulation. To understand the connection between all of these processes, a systems approach is applied to investigate cell-wide metabolism in Taxus. Non-paclitaxel and paclitaxel accumulating cultures were elicited over single and multi-generational periods, and subsequent changes in conserved and specialized metabolism were quantified. Methyl jasmonate typically resulted in decreased growth and increased metabolite content in paclitaxel accumulating cultures. Conversely, elicitation typically resulted in either no change or decrease in accumulation of metabolites in the non-paclitaxel accumulating cultures. In both sets of cultures, variability was seen in the response to methyl jasmonate across generations of cell growth. Consolidation of these data determined that paclitaxel accumulation and basal levels of phenolic and flavonoid compounds are indirectly correlated with aggregate size. These approaches assess alternative metabolic pathways that are linked to paclitaxel biosynthesis and provide a comprehensive strategy to both understand the relationship between conserved and specialized metabolism in plants and in the design of strategies to increase natural product yields in plant cell culture.

Systemic Expression of Genes Involved in the Plant Defense Response Induced by Wounding in Senna tora

Wounds in tissues provide a pathway of entry for pathogenic fungi and bacteria in plants. Plants respond to wounding by regulating the expression of genes involved in their defense mechanisms. To analyze this response, we investigated the defense-related genes induced by wounding in the leaves of Senna tora using RNA sequencing. The genes involved in jasmonate and ethylene biosynthesis were strongly induced by wounding, as were a large number of genes encoding transcription factors such as ERFs, WRKYs, MYBs, bHLHs, and NACs. Wounding induced the expression of genes encoding pathogenesis-related (PR) proteins, such as PR-1, chitinase, thaumatin-like protein, cysteine proteinase inhibitor, PR-10, and plant defensin. Furthermore, wounding led to the induction of genes involved in flavonoid biosynthesis and the accumulation of kaempferol and quercetin in S. tora leaves. All these genes were expressed systemically in leaves distant from the wound site. These results demonstrate that mechanical wounding can lead to a systemic defense response in the Caesalpinioideae, a subfamily of the Leguminosae. In addition, a co-expression analysis of genes induced by wounding provides important information about the interactions between genes involved in plant defense responses.

The Induced Resistance Lexicon: Do's and Don'ts

To be protected from biological threats, plants have evolved an immune system comprising constitutive and inducible defenses. For example, upon perception of certain stimuli, plants can develop a conditioned state of enhanced defensive capacity against upcoming pathogens and pests, resulting in a phenotype called 'induced resistance' (IR). To tackle the confusing lexicon currently used in the IR field, we propose a widely applicable code of practice concerning the terminology and description of IR phenotypes using two main phenotypical aspects: local versus systemic resistance, and direct versus primed defense responses. Our general framework aims to improve uniformity and consistency in future scientific communication, which should help to avoid further misinterpretations and facilitate the accessibility and impact of this research field.

Effects of Abiotic Elicitors on Expression and Accumulation of Three Candidate Benzophenanthridine Alkaloids in Cultured Greater Celandine Cells

Efforts to develop the necessary biotechnologies in Greater Celandine (Chelidonium majus L.), a leading plant resource for the development of plant-derived medicines, have been hampered by the lack of knowledge about transcriptome and metabolome regulations of its medicinal components. Therefore, this study aimed to examine the effect of abiotic elicitors, methyl jasmonate (MJ) and salicylic acid (SA), at different time courses (12, 24, 48, and 72 h), on expression and metabolome of key benzophenanthridine alkaloids (BPAs) in an optimized in vitro culture. Gene expression analysis indicated the upregulation of CFS (cheilanthifoline synthase) to 2.62, 4.85, and 7.28 times higher than the control at 12, 24, and 48 h respectively, under MJ elicitation. Besides, MJ upregulated the expression of TNMT (tetrahydroprotoberberine N-methyltransferase) to 2.79, 4.75, and 7.21 times at 12, 24, and 48 h respectively, compared to the control. Investigation of BPAs revealed a significant enhancement in the chelidonine content (9.86 µg/mg) after 72 h of MJ elicitation. Additionally, sanguinarine content increased to its highest level (3.42 µg/mg) after 24 h of MJ elicitation; however, no significant enhancement was detected in its content in shorter elicitation time courses. Generally, higher gene expression and BPAs’ level was observed through longer elicitation courses (48 and 72 h). Our findings take part in improving the understanding of transcription and metabolic regulation of BPAs in cultured Greater Celandine cells.

Leaf isoprene emission as a trait that mediates the growth-defense tradeoff in the face of climate stress

Plant isoprene emissions are known to contribute to abiotic stress tolerance, especially during episodes of high temperature and drought, and during cellular oxidative stress. Recent studies have shown that genetic transformations to add or remove isoprene emissions cause a cascade of cellular modifications that include known signaling pathways, and interact to remodel adaptive growth-defense tradeoffs. The most compelling evidence for isoprene signaling is found in the shikimate and phenylpropanoid pathways, which produce salicylic acid, alkaloids, tannins, anthocyanins, flavonols and other flavonoids; all of which have roles in stress tolerance and plant defense. Isoprene also influences key gene expression patterns in the terpenoid biosynthetic pathways, and the jasmonic acid, gibberellic acid and cytokinin signaling networks that have important roles in controlling inducible defense responses and influencing plant growth and development, particularly following defoliation. In this synthesis paper, using past studies of transgenic poplar, tobacco and Arabidopsis, we present the evidence for isoprene acting as a metabolite that coordinates aspects of cellular signaling, resulting in enhanced chemical defense during periods of climate stress, while minimizing costs to growth. This perspective represents a major shift in our thinking away from direct effects of isoprene, for example, by changing membrane properties or quenching ROS, to indirect effects, through changes in gene expression and protein abundances. Recognition of isoprene's role in the growth-defense tradeoff provides new perspectives on evolution of the trait, its contribution to plant adaptation and resilience, and the ecological niches in which it is most effective.

Seed Treatment With Jasmonic Acid and Methyl Jasmonate Induces Resistance to Insects but Reduces Plant Growth and Yield in Rice, Oryza sativa

When applied exogenously to plants, jasmonates [i.e., jasmonic acid (JA) and methyl jasmonate (MeJA)] increase plant resistance against herbivores, and their use in pest management has been suggested. For integration into pest management programs, the benefits of the resistance induced by jasmonates must outweigh the costs of jasmonates on plant growth and yield. A previous field study in rice found that seed treatment with MeJA reduced densities of the rice water weevil, Lissorhoptrus oryzophilus, but also reduced plant growth. Yields from MeJA plots were similar to yields from control plots. Because this study was conducted under field conditions with natural levels of pest populations, it was unclear whether effects on growth and yield were due to direct effects of MeJA treatment on the plant or due to lower reductions in rice water weevil densities. Therefore, the present study was designed to characterize the effects of JA and MeJA seed treatment on rice plant growth and yield in a pest-free environment under greenhouse conditions. Seed treatment with 2.5 mM JA and 2.5 mM MeJA enhanced resistance in rice plants to rice water weevils when plants were exposed to weevils 30 days after planting. Seed treatment with MeJA reduced seedling emergence and plant height at 4 and 14 days after planting, respectively, compared to JA and control treatments. However, numbers of tillers per plant at 45 days after planting and days to heading were unaffected by jasmonate seed treatment. Of four yield components (panicles per plant, filled grains per panicle, percent unfilled grains, and filled grain mass) that were measured, only filled grain mass was reduced by seed treatment. Plants grown from MeJA-treated seeds showed 31% lower grain masses compared to plants grown from control-treated seeds. Thus, the effects of seed treatment with MeJA on plant growth were stronger immediately post-treatment and subsided over time, such that plant growth mostly recovered 6 weeks after treatment. At maturity, MeJA may reduce one but not all components of yield. Despite similar effects on rice water weevil resistance, the negative effects of JA seed treatment on plant growth and yield were smaller compared to MeJA seed treatment.

Effects of exogenous methyl jasmonate on the synthesis of endogenous jasmonates and the regulation of photosynthesis in citrus

Methyl jasmonate (MeJA) is an airborne signaling phytohormone that can induce changes in endogenous jasmonates (JAs) and cause photosynthetic responses. However, the response of these two aspects of citrus plants at different MeJA concentrations is still unclear. Four MeJA concentrations were used in two citrus varieties, Huangguogan (C. reticulata × C. sinensis) and Shiranuhi [C. reticulata × (C. reticulata × C. sinensis)], to investigate the effects of MeJA dose on the endogenous JAs pathway and photosynthetic capacity. We observed that MeJA acted in a dose-dependent manner, and its stimulation in citrus leaves showed a bidirectional character at different concentrations. This work demonstrates that MeJA at only a concentration of 2.2 mM or less contributed to the activation of magnesium protoporphyrin IX methyltransferase (ChlM, EC 2.1.1.11) and protochlorophyllide oxidoreductase (POR, EC 1.3.1.11) and the simultaneous accumulation of Chl a and Chl b, which in turn contributed to an improved photosynthetic capacity and PSII photochemistry efficiency of citrus. Meanwhile, the inhibition of endogenous JAs synthesis by exogenous MeJA was observed. This was achieved by reducing the ratio of monogalactosyl diacylglycerol (MGDG) to diagalactosyl diacylglycerol (DGDG) and inhibiting the activities of key enzymes in JAs synthesis, especially 12-oxo-phytodienoic acid reductase (OPR, EC 1.3.1.42). Another noteworthy finding is that there may exist a JA-independent pathway that could regulate 12-oxo-phytodienoic acid (OPDA) synthesis. This study jointly analyzed the internal hormone regulation mechanism and the external physiological response, as well as revealed the effects of exogenous MeJA on promoting the photosynthesis and inhibiting the endogenous JAs synthesis.

Fruit ripening in Lycium barbarum and Lycium ruthenicum is associated with distinct gene expression patterns

Goji berries have been used as food and medicine for millennia. Due to their high morphological similarity, fruits of two distinct species belonging to the family Solanaceae, Lycium barbarum (LB) and Lycium chinense (Chinese boxthorn), are usually marketed together as goji berries, but nearly 90% of all commercially available goji berries belong to the former species. A third closely related species, a wild perennial thorny shrub native to north‐western China, Lycium ruthenicum (LR; known as Russian box thorn, and its fruit as black wolfberry), has become a popular choice for combating soil desertification and for alleviating soil salinity/alkalinity due to its high resistance to the harsh environment of saline deserts. Despite the phylogenetic closeness of LB and LR, their fruits are very different. To identify the genes involved in these distinct phenotypes, here we studied expression patterns of 22 transcriptional regulators that may be crucial drivers of these differences during five developmental stages. BAM1 may contribute to higher sugar content in LB. High expression of BFRUCT in ripe LR is likely to be an evolutionary adaptation to fruit ripening in an arid environment. Two arogenate dehydratase paralogues, CHS and LDOX, are probably crucial elements of the mechanism by which LR accumulates much higher levels of anthocyanin. DXS2 (carotenoid accumulation in LB) and CCD4 (carotenoid degradation in ripe LR fruit) may be crucial drivers behind the much higher content of carotenoids in LB. EIL3 and ERF5 are two transcription factors that may contribute to the higher abiotic stress resilience of LR. GATA22‐like appears to have more important roles in growth than ripening in LB fruit and vice versa in LR. HAT5‐like exhibited opposite temporal patterns in two fruits: high in the 1st stage in LB and high in the 5th stage in LR. PED1 was expressed at a much lower level in LR. Finally, we hypothesise that the poorly functionally characterised SCL32 gene may play a part in the increased resistance to environmental stress of LR. We suggest that BAM1, BFRUCT, EIL3, ERF5, ADT paralogues (for functional redundancy), PED1, GATA22‐like, HAT5‐like and SCL32 warrant further functional studies.

Methyl Jasmonate Affects Photosynthesis Efficiency, Expression of HvTIP Genes and Nitrogen Homeostasis in Barley

Jasmonates modulate many growth and developmental processes and act as stress hormones that play an important role in plant tolerance to biotic and abiotic stresses. Therefore, there is a need to identify the genes that are regulated through the jasmonate signalling pathway. Aquaporins, and among them the Tonoplast Intrinsic Proteins (TIPs), form the channels in cell membranes that are responsible for the precise regulation of the movement of water and other substrates between cell compartments. We identified the cis-regulatory motifs for the methyl jasmonate (MeJA)-induced genes in the promoter regions of all the HvTIP genes, which are active in barley seedlings, and thus we hypothesised that the HvTIP expression could be a response to jasmonate signalling. In the presented study, we determined the effect of methyl jasmonate on the growth parameters and photosynthesis efficiency of barley seedlings that had been exposed to different doses of MeJA (15–1000 µM × 120 h) in a hydroponic solution. All of the applied MeJA concentrations caused a significant reduction of barley seedling growth, which was most evident in the length of the first leaf sheath and dry leaf weight. The observed decrease of the PSII parameters after the exposure to high doses of MeJA (500 µM or higher) was associated with the downregulation of HvPsbR gene encoding one of the extrinsic proteins of the Oxygen Evolving Complex. The reduced expression of HvPsbR might lead to the impairment of the OEC action, manifested by the occurrence of the K-band in an analysis of fluorescence kinetics after MeJA treatment as well as reduced photosynthesis efficiency. Furthermore, methyl jasmonate treatment caused a decrease in the nitrogen content in barley leaves, which was associated with an increased expression the four tonoplast aquaporin genes (HvTIP1;2, HvTIP2;2, HvTIP4;1 and HvTIP4;2) predicted to transport the nitrogen compounds from the vacuole to the cytosol. The upregulation of the nitrogen-transporting HvTIPs might suggest their involvement in the vacuolar unloading of ammonia and urea, which both could be remobilised when the nitrogen content in the leaves decreases. Our research provides tips on physiological role of the individual TIP subfamily members of aquaporins under methyl jasmonate action.

Structural variation, functional differentiation and expression characteristics of the AP2/ERF gene family and its response to cold stress and methyl jasmonate in Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer

The APETALA2/Ethylene Responsive Factor (AP2/ERF) gene family has been shown to play a crucial role in plant growth and development, stress responses and secondary metabolite biosynthesis. Nevertheless, little is known about the gene family in ginseng (Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer), an important medicinal herb in Asia and North America. Here, we report the systematic analysis of the gene family in ginseng using several transcriptomic databases. A total of 189 putative AP2/ERF genes, defined as PgERF001 through PgERF189, were identified and these PgERF genes were spliced into 397 transcripts. The 93 PgERF genes that have complete AP2 domains in open reading frame were classified into five subfamilies, DREB, ERF, AP2, RAV and Soloist. The DREB subfamily and ERF subfamily were further clustered into four and six groups, respectively, compared to the 12 groups of these subfamilies found in Arabidopsis thaliana. Gene ontology categorized these 397 transcripts of the 189 PgERF genes into eight functional subcategories, suggesting their functional differentiation, and they have been especially enriched for the subcategory of nucleic acid binding transcription factor activity. The expression activity and networks of the 397 PgERF transcripts have substantially diversified across tissues, developmental stages and genotypes. The expressions of the PgERF genes also significantly varied, when ginseng was subjected to cold stress, as tested using six PgERF genes, PgERF073, PgERF079, PgERF110, PgERF115, PgERF120 and PgERF128, randomly selected from the DREB subfamily. This result suggests that the DREB subfamily genes play an important role in plant response to cold stress. Finally, we studied the responses of the PgERF genes to methyl jasmonate (MeJA). We found that 288 (72.5%) of the 397 PgERF gene transcripts responded to the MeJA treatment, with 136 up-regulated and 152 down-regulated, indicating that most members of the PgERF gene family are responsive to MeJA. These results, therefore, provide new resources and knowledge necessary for family-wide functional analysis of the PgERF genes in ginseng and related species.

Molecular and ecological plant defense responses along an elevational gradient in a boreal ecosystem

Plants have the capacity to alter their phenotype in response to environmental factors, such as herbivory, a phenomenon called phenotypic plasticity. However, little is known on how plant responses to herbivory are modulated by environmental variation along ecological gradients. To investigate this question, we used bilberry (Vaccinium myrtillus L.) plants and an experimental treatment to induce plant defenses (i.e., application of methyl jasmonate; MeJA), to observe ecological responses and gene expression changes along an elevational gradient in a boreal system in western Norway. The gradient included optimal growing conditions for bilberry in this region (ca. 500 m a.s.l.), and the plant's range limits at high (ca. 900 m a.s.l.) and low (100 m a.s.l.) elevations. Across all altitudinal sites, MeJA-treated plants allocated more resources to herbivory resistance while reducing growth and reproduction than control plants, but this response was more pronounced at the lowest elevation. High-elevation plants growing under less herbivory pressure but more resource-limiting conditions exhibited consistently high expression levels of defense genes in both MeJA-treated and untreated plants at all times, suggesting a constant state of "alert." These results suggest that plant defense responses at both the molecular and ecological levels are modulated by the combination of climate and herbivory pressure, such that plants under different environmental conditions differentially direct the resources available to specific antiherbivore strategies. Our findings are important for understanding the complex impact of future climate changes on plant-herbivore interactions, as this is a major driver of ecosystem functioning and biodiversity.