Overexpression of membrane-bound gluconate-2-dehydrogenase to enhance the production of 2-keto-D-gluconic acid by Gluconobacter oxydans

Determining the functional role of the Gluconobacter oxydans GOX1969 protein as a BamB homolog

Acetic acid bacteria are used in many industrial processes such as the production of vinegar, vitamin C, the antidiabetic drug miglitol, and various artificial flavorings. These industrially important reactions are primarily carried out by an arsenal of periplasmic-facing membrane-bound dehydrogenases that incompletely oxidize their substrates and shuttle electrons directly into the respiratory chain. Among these dehydrogenases, GOX1969 in Gluconobacter oxydans was predicted to be a pyrroloquinoline quinone-dependent dehydrogenase of unknown function. However, after multiple analysis by a number of labs, no dehydrogenase activity has been detected. Reanalysis of GOX1969 sequence and structure reveals similarities to Escherichia coli BamB, which functions as a subunit of the β-barrel assembly machinery complex that is responsible for the assembly of β-barrel outer membrane proteins in Gram-negative bacteria. To test if the physiological function of GOX1969 is similar to BamB in E. coli, we introduced the gox1969 gene into an E. coli ∆bamB mutant. Growth deficiencies in the ∆bamB mutant were restored when gox1969 was expressed on the plasmid pGox1969. Furthermore, increased membrane permeability conferred by bamB deletion was restored upon gox1969 expression, which suggests a direct link between GOX1969 and a role in maintaining outer membrane stability. Together, this evidence strongly suggests that GOX1969 is functionally acting as a BamB in G. oxydans. As such, functional information on uncharacterized genes will provide new insights that will allow for more accurate modeling of acetic acid bacterial metabolism and further efforts to design rational strains for industrial use.IMPORTANCEGluconobacter oxydans is an industrially important member of the acetic acid bacteria. Experimental characterization of putative genes is necessary to identify targets for further engineering of rational acetic acid bacteria strains that can be used in the production of vitamin C, antidiabetic compounds, artificial flavorings, or novel compounds. In this study, we have identified an undefined dehydrogenase GOX1969 with no known substrate and defined structural similarities to outer membrane biogenesis protein BamB in E. coli K12. Furthermore, we demonstrate that GOX1969 is capable of complementing bamB knockout phenotypes in E. coli K12. Taken together, these findings enhance our understanding of G. oxydans physiology and expand the list of potential targets for future industrial strain design.

Ketogluconate production by Gluconobacter strains: enzymes and biotechnological applications

Gluconobacter strains perform incomplete oxidation of various sugars and alcohols, employing regio- and stereoselective membrane-bound dehydrogenases oriented toward the periplasmic space. This oxidative fermentation process is utilized industrially. The ketogluconate production pathway, characteristic of these strains, begins with the conversion of d-glucose to d-gluconate, which then diverges and splits into 2 pathways producing 5-keto-d-gluconate and 2-keto-d-gluconate and subsequently 2,5-diketo-d-gluconate. These transformations are facilitated by membrane-bound d-glucose dehydrogenase, glycerol dehydrogenase, d-gluconate dehydrogenase, and 2-keto-d-gluconate dehydrogenase. The variance in end products across Gluconobacter strains stems from the diversity of enzymes and their activities. This review synthesizes biochemical and genetic knowledge with biotechnological applications, highlighting recent advances in metabolic engineering and the development of an efficient production process focusing on enzymes relevant to the ketogluconate production pathway in Gluconobacter strains.

Efficient biosynthesis of (R)-mandelic acid from styrene oxide by an adaptive evolutionary Gluconobacter oxydans STA

BACKGROUND

(R)-mandelic acid (R-MA) is a highly valuable hydroxyl acid in the pharmaceutical industry. However, biosynthesis of optically pure R-MA remains significant challenges, including the lack of suitable catalysts and high toxicity to host strains. Adaptive laboratory evolution (ALE) was a promising and powerful strategy to obtain specially evolved strains.

RESULTS

Herein, we report a new cell factory of the Gluconobacter oxydans to biocatalytic styrene oxide into R-MA by utilizing the G. oxydans endogenous efficiently incomplete oxidization and the epoxide hydrolase (SpEH) heterologous expressed in G. oxydans. With a new screened strong endogenous promoter P₁₂₇₈₀, the production of R-MA was improved to 10.26 g/L compared to 7.36 g/L of using P_lac. As R-MA showed great inhibition for the reaction and toxicity to cell growth, adaptive laboratory evolution (ALE) strategy was introduced to improve the cellular R-MA tolerance. The adapted strain that can tolerate 6 g/L R-MA was isolated (named G. oxydans STA), while the wild-type strain cannot grow under this stress. The conversion rate was increased from 0.366 g/L/h of wild type to 0.703 g/L/h by the recombinant STA, and the final R-MA titer reached 14.06 g/L. Whole-genome sequencing revealed multiple gene-mutations in STA, in combination with transcriptome analysis under R-MA stress condition, we identified five critical genes that were associated with R-MA tolerance, among which AcrA overexpression could further improve R-MA titer to 15.70 g/L, the highest titer reported from bulk styrene oxide substrate.

CONCLUSIONS

The microbial engineering with systematic combination of static regulation, ALE, and transcriptome analysis strategy provides valuable solutions for high-efficient chemical biosynthesis, and our evolved G. oxydans would be better to serve as a chassis cell for hydroxyl acid production.

The industrial versatility of Gluconobacter oxydans: current applications and future perspectives

Gluconobacter oxydans is a well-known acetic acid bacterium that has long been applied in the biotechnological industry. Its extraordinary capacity to oxidize a variety of sugars, polyols, and alcohols into acids, aldehydes, and ketones is advantageous for the production of valuable compounds. Relevant G. oxydans industrial applications are in the manufacture of L-ascorbic acid (vitamin C), miglitol, gluconic acid and its derivatives, and dihydroxyacetone. Increasing efforts on improving these processes have been made in the last few years, especially by applying metabolic engineering. Thereby, a series of genes have been targeted to construct powerful recombinant strains to be used in optimized fermentation. Furthermore, low-cost feedstocks, mostly agro-industrial wastes or byproducts, have been investigated, to reduce processing costs and improve the sustainability of G. oxydans bioprocess. Nonetheless, further research is required mainly to make these raw materials feasible at the industrial scale. The current shortage of suitable genetic tools for metabolic engineering modifications in G. oxydans is another challenge to be overcome. This paper aims to give an overview of the most relevant industrial G. oxydans processes and the current strategies developed for their improvement.

Acceleration of the Dehydrogenation of d-Glucose to 2-Keto-d-gluconate in Aqueous Amino Acid via Hydrated Stacked Clay Nanosheets

The assembly of discrete active species to form periodical nanostructures is essential in realizing low-cost artificial enzymes that mimic natural enzymatic functions in extraordinary bio(chemo)selective reactions. In this study, we developed artificial bifunctional glucose/gluconic acid dehydrogenase from naturally abundant resources: l-aspartic acid (Asp) and montmorillonite (a subgroup of smectite natural clay minerals). β-d-Glucose (Glc) was dehydrogenated to 2-keto-d-gluconate (2-KGA) at 25 and 30 °C in an aqueous acidic solution (pH = 3, 4, and 5). The reaction involved sequential steps that yielded d-gluconic acid (GA) as an intermediate. The second step of the dehydrogenation (GA to 2-KGA) occurred at a higher rate than the first (Glc to GA), which is comparable to the natural process. A negatively charged carboxylate in Asp was required for the dehydrogenation, which donates an electron pair (COO:^-) to the hydroxyl group bonded to the C(1)-position of Glc. The acidic sites in clay served as coenzymatic sites (electron acceptor), promoting the Glc dehydrogenation as the Glc reduced by Asp approached the clay coenzymatic sites. The active coenzymatic structures were developed in 48 h (induction period) through the rearrangement of the adsorbed Asp and Glc molecules on montmorillonite in water (intermediate structure). The spontaneous assembling of the intermediate structures facilitated the one-pot dehydrogenation of Glc to 2-KGA via periodic "hydrated stacked layers" comprising clay nanosheets, Asp, and Glc. The facile synthetic route proposed here is inexpensive and would be beneficial without using both GDH and GADH enzymes bound to a cell membrane.

Identification of the Phosphorus-Solubilizing Bacteria Strain JP233 and Its Effects on Soil Phosphorus Leaching Loss and Crop Growth

Phosphorus (P) is one of the most limiting nutrients in global agricultural ecosystems, and phosphorus-solubilizing bacteria (PSB) can convert insoluble P into soluble P, thereby improving the absorption and use of soil P by plants. Increasing leaching loss of soil P due to PSB that could lead to water eutrophication is a major concern, although no direct experimental evidence is available to evaluate these effects. In this study, a highly efficient PSB strain, Pseudomonas sp. JP233, was isolated from soil and its P-solubilizing agent was identified by metabolomics and HPLC analyses. The effects of JP233 on P contents in soil leachates were also analyzed by microcosm leaching experiments in the absence and presence of maize. JP233 could solubilize insoluble P into soluble forms, and the molybdate reactive phosphorus (MRP) content reached 258.07 mg/L in NBRIP medium containing 5 g/L Ca3(PO4)2 within 48 h. Metabolomics analysis demonstrated that the organic acid involved in JP233 P solubilization was primarily 2-keto gluconic acid (2KGA). Further, HPLC analysis revealed that 2KGA contents rapidly accumulated to 19.33 mg/mL within 48 h. Microcosm leaching experiments showed that MRP and total phosphorus (TP) contents in soil leaching solutions were not significantly higher after JP233 inoculation. However, inoculation with JP233 into maize plant soils significantly decreased MRP and TP contents in the soil leaching solutions on days 14 (P < 0.01), 21 (P < 0.01), and 28 (P < 0.05). Inoculation with strain JP233 also significantly increased the biomass of maize aerial components and that of whole plants (P < 0.05). Thus, strain JP233 exhibited a significant plant-growth-promoting effect on maize development. In conclusion, the application of PSB into soils does not significantly increase P leachate loss. Rather, the application of PSB can help reduce P leachate loss, while significantly promoting plant absorption and use of soil P.

Characterization of 3 phylogenetically distinct membrane-bound d-gluconate dehydrogenases of Gluconobacter spp. and their biotechnological application for efficient 2-keto-d-gluconate production

We identified a novel flavoprotein-cytochrome c complex d-gluconate dehydrogenase (GADH) encoded by gndXYZ of Gluconobacter oxydans NBRC 3293, which is phylogenetically distinct from previously reported GADHs encoded by gndFGH and gndSLC of Gluconobacter spp. To analyze the biochemical properties of respective GADHs, Gluconobacter japonicus NBRC 3271 mutant strain lacking membranous d-gluconate dehydrogenase activity was constructed. All GADHs (GndFGH, GndSLC, and GndXYZ) were successfully overexpressed in the constructed strain. The optimal pH and KM value at that pH of GndFGH, GndSLC, and GndXYZ were 5, 6, and 4, and 8.82 ± 1.15, 22.9 ± 5.0, and 11.3 ± 1.5 m m, respectively. When the mutants overexpressing respective GADHs were cultured in d-glucose-containing medium, all of them produced 2-keto-d-gluconate, revealing that GndXYZ converts d-gluconate to 2-keto-d-gluconate as well as other GADHs. Among the recombinants, the gndXYZ-overexpressing strain accumulated the highest level of 2-keto-d-gluconate, suggesting its potential for 2-keto-d-gluconate production.

Directional enhancement of 2-keto-gluconic acid production from enzymatic hydrolysate by acetic acid-mediated bio-oxidation with Gluconobacter oxydans

An acetic acid-mediated bio-oxidation strategy with Gluconobacter oxydans was developed to produce valuable 2-ketogluconic acid from lignocellulosic biomass. Metabolically, glucose is firstly oxidized to gluconic acid and further oxidized to 2-keto-gluconic acid by Gluconobacter oxydans. As a specific inhibitor for microbial fermentation generated from pretreatment, acetic acid was validated to have a down-regulated effect on bio-oxidizing glucose to gluconic acid. Nevertheless, it significantly facilitated 2-keto-gluconic acid accumulation and improved gluconate dehydrogenase activity. In the presence of 5.0 g/L acetic acid, the yield of 2-keto-gluconic acid increased from 38.0% to 80.5% using pure glucose as feedstock with 1.5 g/L cell loading. Meanwhile, 44.6 g/L 2-keto-gluconic acid with a yield of 83.5% was also achieved from the enzymatic hydrolysate. 2-keto-gluconic acid production, found in this study, laid a theoretical foundation for the industrial production of 2-keto-gluconic acid by Gluconobacter oxydans using lignocellulosic materials.

Dehydrogenases of acetic acid bacteria

Acetic acid bacteria (AAB) are a group of bacteria that can oxidize many substrates such as alcohols and sugar alcohols and play important roles in industrial biotechnology. A majority of industrial processes that involve AAB are related to their dehydrogenases, including PQQ/FAD-dependent membrane-bound dehydrogenases and NAD(P)⁺-dependent cytoplasmic dehydrogenases. These cofactor-dependent dehydrogenases must effectively regenerate their cofactors in order to function continuously. For PQQ, FAD and NAD(P)⁺ alike, regeneration is directly or indirectly related to the electron transport chain (ETC) of AAB, which plays an important role in energy generation for aerobic cell growth. Furthermore, in changeable natural habitats, ETC components of AAB can be regulated so that the bacteria survive in different environments. Herein, the progressive cascade in an application of AAB, including key dehydrogenases involved in the application, regeneration of dehydrogenase cofactors, ETC coupling with cofactor regeneration and ETC regulation, is systematically reviewed and discussed. As they have great application value, a deep understanding of the mechanisms through which AAB function will not only promote their utilization and development but also provide a reference for engineering of other industrial strains.

Cobalt Phosphate Nanocrystals: A Catalase-Like Nanozyme and In Situ Enzyme-Encapsulating Carrier for Efficient Chemoenzymatic Synthesis of α-Keto Acid

Chemoenzymatic catalysis combining the traits of chemical and enzymatic catalysis provides tremendous possibilities for the design of biosynthetic pathways utilizing inorganic catalysts and enzymes. However, the efficiency of chemoenzymatic catalysis is usually governed by the synergy and compatibility of the two catalysts. Here, we report for the first time the catalase-like activity of cobalt phosphate nanocrystals (CoPs). By a one-pot biomimetic mineralization with CoPs and l-amino acid oxidase (LAAO) under a mild condition, we have fabricated a hybrid nanobiocatalyst, LAAO@CoPs, for the chemoenzymatic synthesis of α-keto acid. The as-fabricated nanobiocatalyst with directly contacted catalytic sites of the enzyme and nanozyme maximizes the substrate channeling effects for in situ chemical decomposition of the oxidative intermediate, H₂O₂, during the enzymatic oxidation of l-tryptophan (l-Trp), thus minimizing the H₂O₂ accumulation and byproduct generation. Benefiting from the superiority of LAAO@CoPs, complete conversion (100.0%) of l-Trp to indole pyruvic acid is achieved, over two times higher than the yield of the free LAAO system (47.6%). Meanwhile, LAAO@CoPs show high stabilities against heat and proteolytic treatments. This work offers a new design approach for constructing a high-performance nanobiocatalyst for cascade reactions, especially for those systems with toxic or reactive intermediates.

On the way toward regulatable expression systems in acetic acid bacteria: target gene expression and use cases

Acetic acid bacteria (AAB) are valuable biocatalysts for which there is growing interest in understanding their basics including physiology and biochemistry. This is accompanied by growing demands for metabolic engineering of AAB to take advantage of their properties and to improve their biomanufacturing efficiencies. Controlled expression of target genes is key to fundamental and applied microbiological research. In order to get an overview of expression systems and their applications in AAB, we carried out a comprehensive literature search using the Web of Science Core Collection database. The Acetobacteraceae family currently comprises 49 genera. We found overall 6097 publications related to one or more AAB genera since 1973, when the first successful recombinant DNA experiments in Escherichia coli have been published. The use of plasmids in AAB began in 1985 and till today was reported for only nine out of the 49 AAB genera currently described. We found at least five major expression plasmid lineages and a multitude of further expression plasmids, almost all enabling only constitutive target gene expression. Only recently, two regulatable expression systems became available for AAB, an N-acyl homoserine lactone (AHL)-inducible system for Komagataeibacter rhaeticus and an L-arabinose-inducible system for Gluconobacter oxydans. Thus, after 35 years of constitutive target gene expression in AAB, we now have the first regulatable expression systems for AAB in hand and further regulatable expression systems for AAB can be expected. KEY POINTS: • Literature search revealed developments and usage of expression systems in AAB. • Only recently 2 regulatable plasmid systems became available for only 2 AAB genera. • Further regulatable expression systems for AAB are in sight.

Identification of Gradient Promoters of Gluconobacter oxydans and Their Applications in the Biosynthesis of 2-Keto-L-Gulonic Acid

The acetic acid bacterium Gluconobacter oxydans is known for its unique incomplete oxidation and therefore widely applied in the industrial production of many compounds, e.g., 2-keto-L-gulonic acid (2-KLG), the direct precursor of vitamin C. However, few molecular tools are available for metabolically engineering G. oxydans, which greatly limit the strain development. Promoters are one of vital components to control and regulate gene expression at the transcriptional level for boosting production. In this study, the low activity of SDH was found to hamper the high yield of 2-KLG, and enhancing the expression of SDH was achieved by screening the suitable promoters based on RNA sequencing data. We obtained 97 promoters from G. oxydans’s genome, including two strong shuttle promoters and six strongest promoters. Among these promoters, P₃₀₂₂ and P₀₉₄₃ revealed strong activities in both Escherichia coli and G. oxydans, and the activity of the strongest promoter (P₂₇₀₃) was about threefold that of the other reported strong promoters of G. oxydans. These promoters were used to overexpress SDH in G. oxydans WSH-003. The titer of 2-KLG reached 3.7 g/L when SDH was under the control of strong promoters P₂₀₅₇ and P₂₇₀₃. This study obtained a series of gradient promoters, including two strong shuttle promoters, and expanded the toolbox of available promoters for the application in metabolic engineering of G. oxydans for high-value products.

Comparative analysis of the chemical and biochemical synthesis of keto acids

Keto acids are essential organic acids that are widely applied in pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, food, beverages, and feed additives as well as chemical synthesis. Currently, most keto acids on the market are prepared via chemical synthesis. The biochemical synthesis of keto acids has been discovered with the development of metabolic engineering and applied toward the production of specific keto acids from renewable carbohydrates using different metabolic engineering strategies in microbes. In this review, we provide a systematic summary of the types and applications of keto acids, and then summarize and compare the chemical and biochemical synthesis routes used for the production of typical keto acids, including pyruvic acid, oxaloacetic acid, α-oxobutanoic acid, acetoacetic acid, ketoglutaric acid, levulinic acid, 5-aminolevulinic acid, α-ketoisovaleric acid, α-keto-γ-methylthiobutyric acid, α-ketoisocaproic acid, 2-keto-L-gulonic acid, 2-keto-D-gluconic acid, 5-keto-D-gluconic acid, and phenylpyruvic acid. We also describe the current challenges for the industrial-scale production of keto acids and further strategies used to accelerate the green production of keto acids via biochemical routes.

2-Keto-D-gluconic acid and prodigiosin producing by a Serratia marcescens

Microbial fermentation has become the main method to produce target compound. In this study, a 2-Keto-D-gluconic acid (2-KGA) producing mutant strain was obtained by mutation with rational screening methods. Meanwhile, prodigiosin was produced when the nitrogen source in the medium was changed to peptone and its fermentation conditions were evaluated to achieve high-efficient accumulation. The mutant strain SDSPY-136 was firstly identified as Serratia marcescens by morphological observation and 16S rDNA sequencing. The 2-KGA synthetic capacity of S. marcescens SDSPY-136 was evaluated by shake fermentation with 110 g/L glucose as substrates. For fermentation, 2-KGA yield, conversation rate and purity of SDSPY-136 reached 104.60 g/L, 95.10%, 99.11% in 72 h. The red pigment was extracted from the fermentation broth using acidic methanol and identified as prodigiosin by FT-IR. The optimal conditions were as follows: glycerol 20 g/L, peptone 20 g/L, MgSO₄15 g/L, pH 6.0, a 2% (v/v) inoculum, 30 °C and 200 rpm of shaking culture. Eventually, prodigiosin reached a yield of 9.89 g/Lafter shake culturing for 50 h under this condition. The mutant S. marcescens SDSPY-136 was shown to be promising for 2-KGA and prodigiosin production and a suitable object for prodigiosin metabolism research of S. marcescens.

Production of 2-keto-L-gulonic acid by metabolically engineered Escherichia coli

The 2-keto-L-gulonic acid (2-KLG) is the direct precursor for industrial vitamin C production. The main biosynthetic method for 2-KLG production is the classical two-step fermentation route. However, disadvantages of this method are emerging, including high consumption of energy, difficulties in strain screening, complex operation, and poor stability. In this study, five recombinant Escherichia coli strains overexpressing different sorbose/sorbosone dehydrogenases were constructed and used for 2-KLG production. By optimizing catalytic conditions and further expressing pyrroloquinoline quinone in the recombinant strain, the titer of 2-KLG reached 72.4 g/L, with a conversion ratio from L-sorbose of 71.2% in a 5-L bioreactor. To achieve direct biosynthesis of 2-KLG from D-sorbitol, a co-culture system consisting of Gluconobacter oxydans and recombinant E. coli was designed. With this co-culture system, 16.8 g/L of 2-KLG was harvested, with a conversion ratio from D-sorbitol of 33.6%. The approaches developed here provide alternative routes for the efficient biosynthesis of 2-KLG.

Production of 2-keto-gluconic acid from glucose by immobilized Pseudomonas plecoglossicida resting cells

2-Keto-d-gluconic acid (2KGA) is an important organic acid derived from d-glucose and is used to produce the food antioxidant erythorbic acid. To improve the 2KGA production performance and cell reusability, various carriers such as calcium alginate, k-carrageenan, chitosan, and poly(vinyl alcohol)-alginate were evaluated to immobilize Pseudomonas plecoglossicida JUIM01 resting cells. Calcium alginate was shown to be a suitable carrier since the immobilized cells had the highest number of reuse times and produced the highest 2KGA concentration of 171.77 g/L, with a productivity of 3.58 g/L·h and conversion ratio of 98.38%. The cell concentration, cultivation temperature, aeration rate and initial glucose concentration were further optimized in a 5-L airlift bioreactor to obtain the best 2KGA production performance by calcium alginate-immobilized P. plecoglossicida cells. Under the optimal conditions including a cell concentration of 4.0 g/L, glucose concentration of 126.0 g/L, temperature of 34 °C and aeration rate of 2.8 L/min, 134.45 g/L 2KGA was produced by alginate-immobilized P. plecoglossicida cells within 30 h, with a total productivity of 4.48 g/L·h and yield of 1.07 g/g (conversion ratio of over 99.0%). The immobilized cells maintained a stable conversion capacity after nine reuses and 25 days of storage at 4 °C, which indicated that calcium alginate immobilization of P. plecoglossicida cells had industrial practicability for 2KGA production.

A Wake-Up Call for the Efficient Use of the Bacterial Resting Cell Process, with Focus on Low Solubility Products

Micro-organisms are often subjected to stressful conditions. Owing to their capacity to adapt, they try to rapidly cope with the unfavorable conditions by lowering their growth rate, changing their morphology, and developing altered metabolite production and other stress-related metabolism. The stress-related metabolism of the cells which interrupted their growth is often referred to as resting metabolism and can be exploit for specific and high rate production of secondary metabolites. Although the bacterial resting cell process has been described decades ago, we find it worthwhile to bring the process under renewed attention and refer to this type of processes as non-growing metabolically active (NGMA) cell processes. Despite their use may sound counterproductive, NGMA cells can be of interest to increase substrate conversion rates or enable conversion of certain substrates, not accessible to growing cells due to their bacteriostatic nature or requirement of resistance to a multitude of different stress mechanisms. Biomass reuse is an interesting feature to improve the economics of NGMA cell processes. Yet, for lipophilic compounds or compounds with low solubility, biomass separation can be delicate. This review draws the attention on existing examples of NGMA cell processes, summarizing some developmental tools and highlighting drawbacks and opportunities, to answer the research question if NGMA cells can have a distinct added value in industry. Particular elaboration is made on a novel and more broadly applicable strategy to enable biomass reuse for conversions of compounds with low solubility.

Two-Stage Semi-Continuous 2-Keto-Gluconic Acid (2KGA) Production by Pseudomonas plecoglossicida JUIM01 From Rice Starch Hydrolyzate

A two-stage semi-continuous strategy for producing 2-keto-gluconic acid (2KGA) by Pseudomonas plecoglossicida JUIM01 from rice starch hydrolyzate (RSH) has been developed. The initial glucose concentration (140 g/L) was selected for first-stage fermentation due to its highest 2KGA productivity of 7.58 g/(L⋅h), cell weight of 3.91 g/L, and residual glucose concentration of 25.00 g/L. Followed by removing 70.0% (v/v) of the first-stage broth and feeding 400.0 g/L of glucose to the second-stage fermentor, a total of 50680.0 g glucose was consumed, and 50005.20 g 2KGA was obtained with a yield of 0.9867 g/g by P. plecoglossicida JUIM01 after a 3-cycle two-stage semi-continuous fermentation. Our results indicated that the developed two-stage semi-continuous fermentation could be industrially applied due to its high 2KGA concentration, 2KGA yield and operation efficiency.

Identification of NAD-Dependent Xylitol Dehydrogenase from Gluconobacter oxydans WSH-003

Gluconobacter oxydans plays an important role in the conversion of d-sorbitol to l-sorbose, which is an essential intermediate for the industrial-scale production of vitamin C. In the fermentation process, some d-sorbitol could be converted to d-fructose and other byproducts by uncertain dehydrogenases. Genome sequencing has revealed the presence of diverse genes encoding dehydrogenases in G. oxydans. However, the characteristics of most of these dehydrogenases remain unclear. Therefore, the analyses of these unknown dehydrogenases could be useful for identifying those related to the production of d-fructose and other byproducts. Accordingly, dehydrogenases in G. oxydans WSH-003, an industrial strain used for vitamin C production, were examined. A nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD)-dependent dehydrogenase, which was annotated as xylitol dehydrogenase 2, was identified, codon-optimized, and expressed in Escherichia coli BL21 (DE3) cells. The enzyme exhibited a high preference for NAD⁺ as the cofactor, while no activity with nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate, flavin adenine dinucleotide, or pyrroloquinoline quinone was noted. Although this enzyme presented high similarity with NAD-dependent xylitol dehydrogenase, it showed high activity to catalyze d-sorbitol to d-fructose. Unlike the optimum temperature and pH for most of the known NAD-dependent xylitol dehydrogenases (30-40 °C and about 6-8, respectively), those for the identified enzyme were 57 °C and 12, respectively. The values of K _m and V _max of the identified dehydrogenase toward l-sorbitol were 4.92 μM and 196.08 μM/min, respectively. Thus, xylitol dehydrogenase 2 can be useful for the cofactor-reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide regeneration under alkaline conditions, or its knockout can improve the conversion ratio of d-sorbitol to l-sorbose.

Efficient biosynthesis of 2-keto-D-gluconic acid by fed-batch culture of metabolically engineered Gluconobacter japonicus

2-keto-d-gluconic acid (2-KGA) is a key precursor for synthesising vitamin C and isovitamin C. However, phage contamination is as constant problem in industrial production of 2-KGA using Pseudomonas fluorescens. Gluconobacter holds promise for producing 2-KGA due to impressive resistance to hypertonicity and acids, and high utilisation of glucose. In this study, the 2-KGA synthesis pathway was regulated to enhance production of 2-KGA and reduce accumulation of the by-products 5-keto-d-gluconic acid (5-KGA) and d-gluconic acid (D-GA) in the 2-KGA producer Gluconobacter japonicus CGMCC 1.49. Knocking out the ga5dh-1 gene from a competitive pathway and overexpressing the ga2dh-A gene from the 2-KGA synthesis pathway via homologous recombination increased the titre of 2-KGA by 63.81% in shake flasks. Additionally, accumulation of 5-KGA was decreased by 63.52% with the resulting G. japonicas-Δga5dh-1-ga2dh-A strain. Using an intermittent fed-batch mode in a 3 L fermenter, 2-KGA reached 235.3 g L⁻¹ with a 91.1% glucose conversion rate. Scaling up in a 15 L fermenter led to stable 2-KGA titre with productivity of 2.99 g L⁻¹ h⁻¹, 11.99% higher than in the 3 L fermenter, and D-GA and 5-KGA by-products were completely converted to 2-KGA.

Integrative process for sugarcane bagasse biorefinery to co-produce xylooligosaccharides and gluconic acid

An integrated and green process for co-producing xylooligosaccharides (XOS) and gluconic acid (GA), was developed by utilizing sugarcane bagasse as starting material. In this study, the highest XOS yield of 39.1% obtained from the prehydrolysis was achieved with 10% acetic acid at 150 °C for 45 min. Subsequently, 88.6% conversion of cellulose was achieved in a fed-batch enzymatic hydrolysis using a solid loading of 15%. Results of glucose fermentation suggested that inherent regulatory system of strain Gluconobacter oxydans ATCC 621H boosted GA accumulation without the requirement of pH control, leading to a good 96.3% of GA yield. Great performance of this strain offer an economically feasible option for the large-scale sustainable GA production from biomass. Overall, approximately 105 g XOS and 340 g GA were co-produced from 1 kg of dried sugarcane bagasse as feedstock; this integrated process might be a cost-effective option for the comprehensive utilization of sugarcane bagasse.

Enhancing 2-Ketogluconate Production of Pseudomonas plecoglossicida JUIM01 by Maintaining the Carbon Catabolite Repression of 2-Ketogluconate Metabolism

2-Ketogluconate (2KGA) is an organic acid that is important for pharmaceutical, cosmetic, and environmental applications. Pseudomonas plecoglossicida JUIM01 strain is an important industrial 2KGA producer in China. In this paper, we found that P. plecoglossicida JUIM01 could convert glucose to 2KGA extracellularly, and the formed 2KGA was subsequently consumed after glucose was exhausted during the fermentation process. Experiments of glucose and 2KGA supplementation during fermentation process revealed that, only when glucose was exhausted, the strain started to consume the product 2KGA. Then, the mechanism of this phenomenon was investigated at transcription and protein levels, and the results indicated that P. plecoglossicida JUIM01 possesses carbon catabolite repression of 2KGA metabolism by glucose. Next, increasing the supply of glucose could attenuate 2KGA consumption and enhance the 2KGA yield from glucose. Finally, fed-batch fermentation of P. plecoglossicida JUIM01 resulted in 205.67 g/L of 2KGA with a productivity of 6.86 g/L/h and yield of 0.953 g/g glucose. These results can provide references for the industrial fermentation production of 2KGA and other fermentation products.

A Novel 2-Keto-D-Gluconic Acid High-Producing Strain Arthrobacter globiformis JUIM02

2-Keto-D-gluconic acid (2KGA) is mainly used for industrial production of erythorbic acid, a food antioxidant. In this study, a 2KGA producing strain JUIM02 was firstly identified as Arthrobacter globiformis by morphological observation and 16S rDNA sequencing. The 2KGA synthetic capacity of A. globiformis JUIM02 was evaluated by both fermentation and bioconversion, with 180 g/L dextrose monohydrate as substrates, in shake flasks and 5 L fermenters. For fermentation, 2KGA titer, yield, molar yield, and productivity of JUIM02 reached 159.05 g/L, 0.97 g/g, 90.18%, and 6.63 g/L/h in 24 h. For non-sterile and buffer-free bioconversion by free resting cells (~ 3.2 g/L dry cell weight) of JUIM02, these data were 172.96 g/L, 1.06 g/g, 98.07%, and 5.41 g/L/h in 32 h. Moreover, JUIM02 resting cells could be repeatedly used. Resting cells stored at 4 °C within 30 days showed stable bioconversion capacity, with 2KGA titers ≥ 171.50 g/L, yields ≥ 1.04 g/g, and molar yields ≥ 97.24%. The 2KGA synthetic pathway in A. globiformis, which was rarely reported, was also speculated similar to Pseudomonas and verified preliminarily. In conclusion, A. globiformis JUIM02 is a promising 2KGA industrial-producing strain suitable for various production methods and a suitable object for 2KGA metabolism research of A. globiformis.