Time, location and frequency of snack consumption in different age groups of Canadians

Dietary polyphenol intake in the Canadian population: Findings from the 2015 Canadian Community Health Survey-Nutrition

OBJECTIVES

This study aimed to estimate usual polyphenol intake among Canadians using the nationally representative 2015 Canadian Community Health Survey-Nutrition and to explore the main dietary contributors to polyphenol intake and the sociodemographic and lifestyle factors that may impact polyphenol intake.

METHODS

Dietary information was collected from 19,409 respondents using 24-h dietary recalls. The polyphenol content of foods was estimated using the Phenol-Explorer Database (version 3.6). Daily intake values for total polyphenols (adjusted to energy intake), main classes, and subclasses were calculated for each respondent and dietary recall. Usual intake was estimated by age/sex groups and by sociodemographic and lifestyle characteristics independently for adults and children using the National Cancer Institute method. Given-day arithmetic mean polyphenol intakes and mean proportions of main classes contributing to sum total polyphenol intakes were explored. Population proportions were used to determine dietary contributors.

RESULTS

Usual total polyphenol intake was 1119.3 mg/1000 kcal/day (95% CI: 1090.5, 1148.1) for adults ≥ 19 years and 473.0 mg/1000 kcal/day (95% CI: 454.9, 491.0) for children 2‒18 years. Generally, total polyphenol intakes differed by age, sex, ethnicity, and household education status and were higher among coffee and tea consumers. Most polyphenols came from flavonoids (40.0%) and phenolic acids (49.8%), with children consuming more flavonoids and other polyphenols and adults more phenolic acids. The top food contributors to polyphenol intake were coffee (26.8%), tea (8.9%), fruit juice (4.2%), banana (4.1%), and apple (3.8%).

CONCLUSION

Usual intake of total polyphenols among Canadians differed primarily by age. Non-alcoholic beverages were top contributors to total polyphenol intake.

Convenience stores: an obesogenic promoter in a metropolitan area of northern Mexico?

Introduction

The prevalence of obesity in the Mexican school-age (5-11 years old) population increased from 8.9 to 18.1% between 1999 and 2022. Although overweight and obesity (OW + Ob) is a complex and multifactorial phenomenon, alongside its increasing trend, changes in eating patterns as a result of obesogenic environments that promote higher energy intake have been documented. The objective of the present study was to detect possible associations between schools and their proximity to and density of convenience stores in Monterrey, Mexico from 2015 to 2018.

Materials and methods

Anthropometric data were obtained from a subset of measurements of the National Registry of Weight and Height (RNPT) performed in the Monterrey Mexico metropolitan area in 2015 and 2018, and obesity prevalence was computed and classified into quintiles at the school level. Convenience store data were obtained from the National Directory of Economic Units (DNUE). The analyses consisted of densities within 400-800 m buffers, distance to the nearest stores, and cartographic visualization of the store's kernel density versus OW + Ob hotspots for both periods.

Results

A total of 175,804 children in 2015 and 175,964 in 2018 belonging to 1,552 elementary schools were included in the study; during this period, OW + Ob prevalence increased from 38.7 to 39.3%, and a directly proportional relationship was found between the quintiles with the higher OW + Ob prevalence and the number of stores for both radii. Hotspots of OW + Ob ranged from 63 to 91 between 2015 and 2018, and it was visually confirmed that such spots were associated with areas with a higher density of convenience stores regardless of socioeconomic conditions.

Conclusion

Although some relationships between the store's proximity/density and OW + Ob could be identified, more research is needed to gather evidence about this. However, due to the trends and the magnitude of the problem, guidelines aimed at limiting or reducing the availability of junk food and sweetened beverages on the school's periphery must be implemented to control the obesogenic environment.

Determination of nutritional signatures of vegetable snacks formulated with quinoa, amaranth, or wheat flour

Consumers demand food products that can impact positively health. Those made from quinoa or amaranth flours could meet these expectations. Thus, the main goal of this work was to evaluate the nutritional composition of easy-to-eat snacks combining red pepper, carrot, or zucchini with quinoa or amaranth flours, well-recognized superfoods. In addition, these were compared with snacks incorporating wheat flour, a widely used conventional cereal. The results showed higher protein content in quinoa or amaranth snacks. The snacks with quinoa showed lower saturated fatty acid contents and the highest contents of unsaturated fatty acids. Furthermore, the discriminant model obtained could be used as a powerful predictive model to classify the samples according to the vegetable and flours used. Besides, the canonical discriminant analysis showed that the most influential grouping variable was the flour rather than the vegetable.

Age-related differences in eating location, food source location, and timing of snack intake among U.S. children 1-19 years

BACKGROUND

Snacking is nearly universal and contributes significant energy to U.S. children's diets. Little is known, however, about where and when snacking intake occurs and if such patterns change with age. This research evaluated age-related differences in eating location, food source location, and timing of snacking among U.S. children aged 1-19 years (y).

METHODS

A cross-sectional analysis of snacking among 14,666 children in the 2007-2018 U.S. National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey was conducted using a single 24-hour dietary recall. Snacking was participant-defined and included all eating occasions outside of meals. Linear regression and analysis of covariance were used to examine the effects of age (toddler 1-2 y, preschooler 3-5 y, school-age 6-11 y, adolescent 12-19 y) on the percentage of daily snack energy consumed by eating location (at home vs. away from home), food source location (grocery store, convenience store, school/childcare, restaurant, from someone else (i.e. "socially"), and other), and time of day (morning, 6am-12pm; early afternoon, 12pm-3pm; late afternoon/afterschool 3pm-6pm; evening 6pm-9pm, late-night 9pm-12am, and overnight 12am-6am).

RESULTS

On average, U.S. children consumed most of their daily snacking energy at home (71%), from foods and beverages obtained from grocery stores (75%), and in the late afternoon/afterschool (31%). Toddlers and preschoolers consumed a greater percentage of their daily snack energy during the morning hours compared to school-age children and adolescents (both p < 0.001); school-age children consumed the most in the evening (27%, p < 0.001), and adolescents consumed the most in the late-night period (22%, p < 0.001). Age-related increases were seen in the percentage of daily snacking energy eaten outside the home (p < 0.001), and obtained socially (p < 0.001), from restaurants (p < 0.001), and convenience stores (p < 0.001).

CONCLUSION

Findings reveal age-related differences in eating location, food source location, and timing of snack intake among U.S. children aged 1-19 y. Younger children consume a greater percentage of snacking calories in the morning and at home relative to older children. School-age children and adolescents show greater snacking in the evening and at night and from foods obtained and eaten outside the home. Efforts to promote healthy snacking behaviors among children should consider developmental differences in snacking patterns.

Subclinical Reactive Hypoglycemia with Low Glucose Effectiveness-Why We Cannot Stop Snacking despite Gaining Weight

Obesity has grown worldwide owing to modern obesogenic lifestyles, including frequent snacking. Recently, we studied continuous glucose monitoring in obese/overweight men without diabetes and found that half of them exhibit glucose levels less than 70 mg/dL after a 75-g oral glucose load without notable hypoglycemic symptoms. Interestingly, people with "subclinical reactive hypoglycemia (SRH)" snack more frequently than those without it. Since the ingestion of sugary snacks or drinks could further induce SRH, a vicious cycle of "Snacking begets snacking via SRH" can be formed. Glucose effectiveness (Sg) is an insulin-independent mechanism that contributes to most of the whole-body glucose disposal after an oral glucose load in people without diabetes. Our recent data suggest that both higher and lower Sg are associated with SRH, while the latter but not the former is linked to snacking habits, obesity, and dysglycemia. The present review addresses the possible role of SRH in snacking habits in people with obesity/overweight, taking Sg into account. It is concluded that, for those with low Sg, SRH can be regarded as a link between snacking and obesity. Prevention of SRH by raising Sg might be key to controlling snacking habits and body weight.

Associations of timing of food intake with energy intake, eating behaviour traits and psychosocial factors in adults with overweight and obesity

Introduction

Whether a late distribution of food intake impacts obesity through increased energy intake remains uncertain and the behavioural characterization of late eating needs to be further investigated. The first objective of this study was to assess the associations between late eating and body mass index (BMI) and total energy intake (TEI), and whether TEI mediates the association between late eating and BMI. The second objective was to assess the associations between late eating and eating behaviour traits or psychosocial factors and whether eating behaviour traits mediate the association between late eating and TEI.

Methods

Baseline data from 301 individuals (56% women, age = 38.7 ± 8.5 years; BMI = 33.2 ± 3.4 kg/m²), who participated in four weight loss studies were used in this cross-sectional study. Total energy intake was assessed using a three-day food record from which the percentage of TEI after 17:00 and after 20:00 was calculated. Eating behaviour traits and psychosocial factors were assessed with questionnaires. Pearson correlations and mediation analyses adjusted for age, sex, underreporting of energy intake, sleep duration and bedtime were performed.

Results

Percent TEI after 17:00 and after 20:00 were associated with TEI (r = 0.13, p = 0.03 for both), and TEI mediated the association between percent TEI after 17:00 and BMI (β = 0.01 ± 0.01, 95% CI: 0.001, 0.02). Percent TEI after 17:00 was associated with disinhibition (r = 0.13, p = 0.03) and percent TEI after 20:00 was associated with susceptibility to hunger (r = 0.13, p = 0.03), stress (r = 0.24, p = 0.002) and anxiety (r = 0.28, p = 0.0004). In women, disinhibition mediated the association between percent TEI after 17:00 and TEI (β = 3.41 ± 1.43, 95% CI: 0.92, 6.47). Susceptibility to hunger mediated the association between percent TEI after 20:00 and TEI (β = 0.96 ± 0.59, 95% CI: 0.02, 2.34) in men and women.

Conclusion

Late eating is associated with TEI and suboptimal eating behaviours which could contribute to explaining the association between timing of food intake and obesity.

Snacking Behavior and Association with Metabolic Risk Factors in Adults from North and South India

BACKGROUND

Snacks are increasingly contributing to daily diets around the world. Studies from high-income countries have demonstrated the link between snack consumption and metabolic risk factors, but there are very few studies from low- and middle-income countries.

OBJECTIVES

The objective of this study was to assess snack behavior and its associations with metabolic risk factors in Indian adults.

METHODS

Adults from the UDAY study (October 2018-February 2019, n = 8762) from rural and urban Sonipat (North) and Vizag (South) India were studied for snack consumption (food frequency questionnaire), demographic factors, including age, sex, etc. and metabolic risk factors, including BMI, waist circumference, fat percentage, plasma glucose, and blood pressure. We compared snack consumption by categories of sociodemographic factors (Mann-Whitney U test, Kruskal-Wallis test) and studied the likelihood for metabolic risk (logistic regression analysis).

RESULTS

Half of the study participants were women and resided in rural locations. Savory snacks were the most preferred; 50% of the participants consumed them 3-5 times/wk. Participants preferred to purchase out-of-home prepared snacks and eat them at home (86.6%) while watching television (69.4%) or with family/friends (49.3%). The reasons for snacking were hunger, craving, liking, and availability. Snack consumption was higher in Vizag (56.6%) than in Sonipat (43.4%), among women (55.5%) than men (44.5%), and the wealthiest; it was similar in rural-urban locations. Frequent consumers of snacks had 2 times higher likelihood for having obesity (OR: 2.22; 95% CI: 1.51, 3.27) central obesity (OR: 2.35; 95% CI: 1.60, 3.45), and higher fat percentage (OR: 1.92; 95% CI: 1.31, 2.82) and higher fasting glucose levels (r=0.12 (0.07-0.18) than consumers who consumed snacks rarely (all P ≤ 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

Snack (savory and sweet) consumption was high among adults from sexes in both urban and rural locations of north and south India. This was associated with higher risk of obesity. There is a need to improve the food environment by promoting policies for ensuring healthier food options to reduce snacking and associated metabolic risk.

Snacking habits of Brazilian adolescents: Brazilian National Dietary Survey, 2017-2018

This study was aimed at describing the snack consumption among Brazilian adolescents. The Brazilian National Dietary Survey (2017-2018) is a nationwide representative cross-sectional study that collected food consumption data from 8264 adolescents (10 to 19 years old); data from one 24-h recall were used, in which all foods and beverages consumed throughout the day prior to the interview were described along with the amount, unit of measurement, time, place and occasion of consumption (breakfast, lunch, dinner or snack). Snacks were classified as follows: (a) Morning snack: "Snacks" consumed between 6 AM and 12 PM; (b) Afternoon snack: "Snacks" consumed between 1 PM and 5 PM; (c) Evening snack: "Snacks" consumed between 6 PM and 5 AM. Individuals were categorised according to the number of "Snacks" per day (zero, one, two or three or more). Among the evaluated adolescents, 52.8% were female and 23.0% were overweight. The consumption of at least one snack per day was mentioned by 88.2% of the adolescents, with an average of 2.33 snacks per day. An afternoon snack was consumed by 70.0% of the adolescents. Snack consumption was related to higher mean daily energy intake and a greater contribution of carbohydrates, added sugar and trans fat to the total daily energy intake. 'Cookies & Crackers' and 'Fast Foods' were the groups that contributed the most to the energy intake provided by snacks, showing, therefore, that less healthy foods were relevant components of the snacks consumed. For their important contribution to food intake, snacking habits deserve attention among the topics covered in dietary guidelines.

The Influence of Increased Dairy Product Consumption, as Part of a Lifestyle Modification Intervention, on Diet Quality and Eating Patterns in Female Adolescents with Overweight/Obesity

Our study examined how increased dairy consumption versus habitually low dairy consumption, against a background of healthy eating (and exercise), influenced diet quality, nutrient intake, and snacking in Canadian female adolescents (14.8 ± 2.2 years) with overweight/obesity (OW/OB). We also explored dairy consumption patterns in the group consuming dairy products. Participants were randomized into two groups: higher/recommended dairy (RDa; 4 svg/d; n = 24) or low dairy (LDa; 0−2 svg/d; n = 23). Both groups participated in a 12-week, eucaloric, lifestyle modification intervention consisting of exercise training and nutritional counseling. The intervention increased the total Canadian Healthy Eating Index score (p < 0.001) with no differences between groups. The “other food” sub-score improved more in RDa than LDa (p = 0.02), and the “saturated fat” sub-score increased more in LDa than RDa (p = 0.02). The intervention significantly increased the consumption of dairy-related nutrients more in RDa than LDa (p < 0.05). The intervention also decreased snack size in both groups (p = 0.01) and improved percentage of healthy snack energy intake more in RDa than LDa (p = 0.04). More servings of dairy products were consumed as snacks than at breakfast, lunch, or dinner (p < 0.05). Thus, our study improved diet quality, and dairy product consumption improved intakes of key related nutrients and snack consumption in adolescents with OW/OB.

Where do Dutch adults obtain their snack foods? Cross-sectional exploration of individuals' interactions with the food environment

We investigated frequency of consumption and location of obtaining snack foods and sociodemographic differences therein. Data: cross-sectional survey data (N = 1784 Dutch adults 18-65 years) on the frequency of consumption of 10 snack foods and where they obtained them. Adjusted logistic regression analyses revealed notable differences in the frequency of snack food consumption between younger and older adults and between those with low vs. high socioeconomic position (SEP). The location of obtaining snack foods also differed between sociodemographic groups with supermarkets forming an important point-of-purchase for snack foods, especially for those with low SEP and with children in their household.

Olfactory and Gustatory Supra-Threshold Sensitivities Are Linked to Ad Libitum Snack Choice

Snacking is a common eating habit in the modern food environment. Individual snack choices vary substantially, with sweet versus savoury snacks linked to differential health outcomes. The role of olfactory and gustatory sensitivities in snack choices and consumption is yet to be tested. A total of 70 Caucasian young males (age: 21−39 years; BMI: 20.5−40.5 kg∙m−2) were tested for their supra-threshold sensitivities to sweet and savoury associated odours and tastants (vanillin, methional; sucrose, NaCl). The participants also attended an ad libitum task in which their intakes of sweet and savoury snacks were recorded and analysed. Univariate and multivariate analyses were used to test for relationships between odour/taste sensitivities and sweet versus savoury snack intake. Results indicated that individual sensitivities to sweet-associated stimuli (e.g., vanillin, sucrose) were negatively linked with intake of the congruent (e.g., sweet) snacks and positively linked with incongruent (e.g., savoury) snacks (p < 0.05). These differences were reflected by energy intake rather than consumption weight (p > 0.05). This study outlines the fundamental roles of olfactory and gustatory sensitivities in snack choices and offers novel insights into inter-individual variability in snack consumption.

Added sugars, saturated fat, and sodium intake from snacks among U.S. adolescents by eating location

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Added sugar, saturated fat, sodium intake higher from snacks eaten at home vs. away.

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Snacks eaten at home provided about one fourth of daily calories from added sugars.

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With few exceptions, snack types consumed were similar at home and away from home.

Snacking away from home is thought to contribute to excess intake of energy, added sugars, saturated fat, and sodium compared to snacking at home. Using data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2009–2016, we examined associations between location of snack consumption (at home or away from home) and added sugars, saturated fat, and sodium intake from food and beverage snacks in U.S. adolescents aged 12–19. We also compared top snack contributors to intakes of these nutrients by location of consumption. Nutrient intake (added sugars, saturated fat, and sodium) from food and beverage snacks was estimated by the average intake from two 24-hour dietary recalls, and location of consumption for each snack was reported by participants as at home or away from home. Adjusted mixed effects models were performed to examine associations between nutrient intakes and the location of consumption. Adolescents (n = 3,869) had lower intakes of added sugars (−5.20 g/day), saturated fat (−2.06 g/day) and sodium (−170.15 mg/day) from food snacks consumed away from home compared to at home (p < 0.0001). Similarly, adolescents had lower intake of added sugars (−2.74 g/day), saturated fat (−0.32 g/day) and sodium (−16.04 mg/day) from beverage snacks consumed away from home compared to at home (p < 0.0001). The top contributors to the target nutrients were similar irrespective of location. Taken together, our results demonstrate that adolescents consumed more target nutrients from snacks at home than away from home. Larger snack portion sizes and higher frequency of snacking at home may explain these findings and requires further study.

The role of an individual's olfactory discriminability in influencing snacking and habitual energy intake

Recent studies have revealed close links between human olfaction, appetite, and food choice. However, it remains unclear whether olfactory sensitivity plays a direct role in determining food and energy intake. The present study addresses this question by assessing relationships between individual olfactory discriminability (at a suprathreshold level), snacking, and habitual energy intake. A total of 92 healthy Caucasian males (mean age = 26.1, SD = 5.8) were tested for their olfactory discriminability (measured by d') to three food-related odorants (O1 - Vanillin, O2 - Methional, and O3 - Maltol/Furaneol mixture) with a 2-AFC method of constant stimuli. These sensory data were then analysed with two separate measures of food consumption - (1) snack energy intake within an ad libitum buffet setting; (2) habitual energy intake using four-day weighed food records. Univariate analyses of variance revealed significant results with regards to O1. Specifically, individuals with higher discriminability consumed significantly less energy from snacking as opposed to their less sensitive counterparts (p = 0.05). However, no significant relationship was found between individual olfactory discriminability and habitual energy intake. While recent years have seen increasing research focus on how external olfactory cues affect food consumption, our study offers particularly novel insights regarding the role of individual olfactory sensitivity in shaping eating behaviour.

Comparison of Home Use Tests with Differing Time and Order Controls

Consumer tests are classified in terms of the location of testing as laboratory tests or central location tests (CLTs) and home use tests (HUTs). CLT is generally used in sensory tests due to the ease of test control, whereas HUT has higher validity because of real consumption. However, the lack of test control in HUT is a major issue. In order to investigate the error occurrence and efforts required to minimize errors, three groups of tests were designed differing time and order control and evaluation was conducted using six snacks with texture differences. Errors related to time, order, and consumer or sample number were higher for more controlled conditions, however, most errors were recoverable using identification information except for cases of no response. Additionally, consumers preferred to consume all snacks in the evening at home, which differed from the typical 9 a.m. to 6 p.m. evaluation time in CLT. However, the timing differed for consumers with self-reported snacking time. The research title that included the term 'home' might have influenced the participants' choice of location for evaluation. Overall, there was no significant difference between the results of groups despite different time and order controls, which could increase the applicability of HUT.

A Cross-Sectional Survey of Salty Snack Consumption among Serbian Urban-Living Students and Their Contribution to Salt Intake

This study investigated the behavior of urban-living students related to the salty snacks consumption, and their contribution to salt daily intake. A cross-sectional survey on 1313 urban-living students (16–25 years, 61.4% university students and 38.6% high school students) used a pre-verified questionnaire created specifically for the study. The logistic regression analysis was performed to investigate the factors influencing snack consumption. The results of salt content and the snack consumption frequency were used to evaluate snack contribution to salt intake. All subjects consumed salty snacks, on average several times per week, more often at home and slightly more during periods of intensive studying, with 42% of the participants reporting to consume two or more packages per snacking occasion. Most of the participants consumed such products between main meals, but 10% of them took snacks immediately after the main meal. More high-school students than university students were in the “high snack group” (p < 0.05). The most frequently consumed salty snacks were those with the highest content of salt. Salt intake from snack products for a majority of participants ranged between 0.4 and 1 g/day. The research revealed younger age, home environment and significant contribution to salt intake as critical points in salty snack consumption among urban-living students important for the better understanding of their dietary habits.