Exosome biogenesis: machinery, regulation, and therapeutic implications in cancer

Exosomes: the next-generation therapeutic platform for ischemic stroke

Current therapeutic strategies for ischemic stroke fall short of the desired objective of neurological functional recovery. Therefore, there is an urgent need to develop new methods for the treatment of this condition. Exosomes are natural cell-derived vesicles that mediate signal transduction between cells under physiological and pathological conditions. They have low immunogenicity, good stability, high delivery efficiency, and the ability to cross the blood-brain barrier. These physiological properties of exosomes have the potential to lead to new breakthroughs in the treatment of ischemic stroke. The rapid development of nanotechnology has advanced the application of engineered exosomes, which can effectively improve targeting ability, enhance therapeutic efficacy, and minimize the dosages needed. Advances in technology have also driven clinical translational research on exosomes. In this review, we describe the therapeutic effects of exosomes and their positive roles in current treatment strategies for ischemic stroke, including their anti-inflammation, anti-apoptosis, autophagy-regulation, angiogenesis, neurogenesis, and glial scar formation reduction effects. However, it is worth noting that, despite their significant therapeutic potential, there remains a dearth of standardized characterization methods and efficient isolation techniques capable of producing highly purified exosomes. Future optimization strategies should prioritize the exploration of suitable isolation techniques and the establishment of unified workflows to effectively harness exosomes for diagnostic or therapeutic applications in ischemic stroke. Ultimately, our review aims to summarize our understanding of exosome-based treatment prospects in ischemic stroke and foster innovative ideas for the development of exosome-based therapies.

The interplay between the tumor microenvironment and tumor-derived small extracellular vesicles in cancer development and therapeutic response

The tumor microenvironment (TME) plays an essential role in tumor cell survival by profoundly influencing their proliferation, metastasis, immune evasion, and resistance to treatment. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are small particles released by all cell types and often reflect the state of their parental cells and modulate other cells' functions through the various cargo they transport. Tumor-derived small EVs (TDSEVs) can transport specific proteins, nucleic acids and lipids tailored to propagate tumor signals and establish a favorable TME. Thus, the TME's biological characteristics can affect TDSEV heterogeneity, and this interplay can amplify tumor growth, dissemination, and resistance to therapy. This review discusses the interplay between TME and TDSEVs based on their biological characteristics and summarizes strategies for targeting cancer cells. Additionally, it reviews the current issues and challenges in this field to offer fresh insights into comprehending tumor development mechanisms and exploring innovative clinical applications.

Advances in macrophage-derived exosomes as immunomodulators in disease progression and therapy

Most somatic cells secrete vesicles called exosomes, which contain a variety of biomolecules. Recent research indicates that macrophage-derived exosomes are strongly correlated with tumors, infectious diseases, chronic inflammation, and tissue fibrosis. Therefore, the purpose of this review is to delve into the mechanisms of pathological states and how macrophage-derived exosomes react to them. We also discuss the biological effects of exosomes and how they affect disease. In addition, we have examined the possible uses of exosomes in illness treatment, highlighting both the benefits and drawbacks of these applications.

Exosomal LncRNAs and CircRNAs in lung cancer: Emerging regulators and potential therapeutic targets

Lung cancer remains one of the most prevalent and lethal malignancies globally, characterized by high incidence and mortality rates among all cancers. The delayed diagnosis of lung cancer at intermediate to advanced stages frequently leads to suboptimal treatment outcomes. To improve the management of this disease, it is imperative to identify new, highly sensitive prognostic and diagnostic biomarkers. Exosomes, extracellular vesicles with a lipid-bilayer structure and a size range of 30-150 nm, are pivotal in intercellular communication and play significant roles in lung cancer progression. Non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs), including long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) and circular RNAs (circRNAs), are highly prevalent within exosomes and play a crucial role in various pathophysiological processes mediated by these extracellular vesicles. Beyond their established functions in miRNA and protein sequestration, these ncRNAs are involved in regulating translation and interactions within exosomes. Numerous studies have highlighted the importance of exosomal lncRNAs and circRNAs in influencing epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT), angiogenesis, proliferation, invasion, migration, and metastasis in lung cancer. Due to their unique functional characteristics, these molecules are promising therapeutic targets and biomarkers for diagnosis and prognosis. This review provides a succinct summary of the formation of exosomal lncRNAs and circRNAs, clarifies their biological roles, and thoroughly explains the mechanisms by which they participate in the progression of lung cancer. Finally, we discuss the potential clinical applications and challenges associated with exosomal lncRNAs and circRNAs in lung cancer.

Injectable decellularized Wharton's jelly hydrogel containing CD56+ umbilical cord mesenchymal stem cell-derived exosomes for meniscus tear healing and cartilage protection

Traditional meniscectomy or suture for meniscal tear usually leads to failed self-healing, cartilage degeneration and worse osteoarthritis. The strategies that facilitate the healing process of torn meniscus and safeguard knee cartilage against degeneration will be promising for clinical therapy. The CD56+ umbilical cord mesenchymal stem cells (UCSCs) (CD56+UCSCs) were sorted from Wharton's jelly using flow cytometer. Then, the modified decellularized Wharton's Jelly hydrogel (DWJH) was combined with isolated CD56+Exos from CD56+UCSCs to fabricate DWJH/CD56+Exos. The in vitro studies were performed to characterize the DWJ (decellularized Wharton's Jelly). The injectability and rheological properties were assessed by shear rate and frequency sweep analysis. The biocompatibility and chondrogenic differentiation inducibility of DWJH/CD56+Exos were performed on human bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells (hBMSCs) and RAW 264.7 cells. The release dynamics was evaluated in vitro and in vivo experiments. As for the in vivo experiments, the operated rats that subjected to a 2 mm full-thickness longitudinal tear in right medial anterior meniscus were injected a single dose of DWJH/CD56+Exos. At 4 and 8 weeks postoperatively, torn meniscus healing and articular cartilage degeneration were evaluated by hematoxylin and eosin (H&E), safranin O/fast green (SO&FG), and Sirius red staining. In in vitro experiments, the injectable DWJH/CD56+Exos demonstrated excellent biocompatibility, exosome releasing efficiency, injectable property and chondrogenic inducibility. The results of in vivo experiments revealed that DWJH/CD56+Exos degraded over time, promoted meniscal chondrogenesis, organized meniscal extracellular matrix remodeling, safeguard articular cartilage and inhibited secondary cartilage degeneration, which accelerated further facilitated torn meniscus healing. The novel injectable DWJH/CD56+Exos promoted meniscal tear healing by promoting meniscal chondrogenesis, safeguarding articular cartilage, and inhibiting secondary cartilage degeneration.

Development of complementary analytical methods to characterize extracellular vesicles

BACKGROUND

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are involved in intercellular communication and various biological processes. They hold clinical promise for the diagnosis and management of a wide range of pathologies, including cancer, cardiovascular diseases and degenerative diseases, and are of interest as regenerative therapies. Understanding the complex structure of these EVs is essential to perceive the current challenges associated with their analysis and characterization. Today, challenges remain in terms of access to high-yield, high-purity isolation methods, as well as analytical methods for characterizing and controlling the quality of these products for clinical use.

RESULTS

We isolated EVs from the same immortalized human cell culture supernatant using two commonly used approaches, namely differential ultracentrifugation and membrane affinity. Then we evaluated EV morphology, size, zeta potential, particle and protein content, as well as protein identity using cryogenic electron microscopy, nanoparticle tracking analysis, asymmetric field flow fractionation (AF4) and size exclusion chromatography (SEC) coupled to multi angle light scattering, bicinchoninic acid assay, electrophoretic light scattering, western blotting and high-resolution mass spectrometry. Compared to membrane affinity isolation, dUC is a more efficient isolation process for obtaining particles with the characteristics expected for EVs and more specifically for exosomes. To validate an isolation process, cryogenic electron microscopy is essential to confirm vesicles with membranes. High resolution mass spectrometry is powerful for understanding the mechanism of action of vesicles. Separative methods, such as AF4 and SEC, are interesting for separating vesicle subpopulations and contaminants.

SIGNIFICANCE

This study provides a critical assessment of eight different techniques for analyzing EVs, some of which are mandatory for in-depth characterization and deciphering, while others are more appropriate for routine analysis, once the production and isolation process has been validated. The strengths and limitations of the different approaches used are highlighted.

Migrasomes: Biogenesis, physiological roles, and therapeutic potentials

Migrasomes, vesicular structures discovered in migrating cells, arise from the junctions or tips of retraction fibers, and gradually grow to microscale vesicles. Migrasomes have garnered attention for their role in intercellular communication and potential therapeutic implications. This review presents an overview of recent advances in migrasome biology, covering the mechanisms of migrasome biogenesis, essential physiological roles, and their association with various diseases, alongside potential therapeutic applications. Furthermore, we share our perspectives on potential future directions in the study of migrasomes and highlight the challenges that remain in this developing area of research.

Exploring the roles and molecular mechanisms of RNA binding proteins in the sorting of noncoding RNAs into exosomes during tumor progression

BACKGROUND

RNA binding proteins (RBPs) play a role in sorting non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) into exosomes. These ncRNAs, carried by exosomes, are involved in regulating various aspects of tumor progression, including metastasis, angiogenesis, control of the tumor microenvironment, and drug resistance. Recent studies have emphasized the importance of the RBP-ncRNA-exosome mechanism in tumor regulation.

AIM OF REVIEW

This comprehensive review aims to explore the RBP-ncRNA-exosome mechanism and its influence on tumor development. By understanding this intricate mechanism provides novel insights into tumor regulation and may lead to innovative treatment strategies in the future.

KEY SCIENTIFIC CONCEPTS OF REVIEW

The review discusses the formation of exosomes and the complex relationships among RBPs, ncRNAs, and exosomes. The RBP-ncRNA-exosome mechanism is shown to affect various aspects of tumor biology, including metastasis, multidrug resistance, angiogenesis, the immunosuppressive microenvironment, and tumor progression. Tumor development relies on the transmission of information between cells, with RBPs selectively mediating sorting of ncRNAs into exosomes through various mechanisms, which in turn carry ncRNAs to regulate RBPs. The review also provides an overview of potential therapeutic strategies, such as targeted drug discovery and genetic engineering for modifying therapeutic exosomes, which hold great promise for improving cancer treatment.

A comprehensive review of challenges and advances in exosome-based drug delivery systems

Exosomes or so-called natural nanoparticles have recently shown enormous potential for targeted drug delivery systems. Several studies have reported that exosomes as advanced drug delivery platforms offer efficient targeting of chemotherapeutics compared to individual polymeric nanoparticles or liposomes. Taking structural constituents of exosomes, viz., proteins, nucleic acids, and lipids, into consideration, exosomes are the most promising carriers as genetic messengers and for treating genetic deficiencies or tumor progression. Unfortunately, very little attention has been paid to the factors like source, scalability, stability, and validation that contribute to the quality attributes of exosome-based drug products. Some studies suggested that exosomes were stable at around -80 °C, which is impractical for storing pharmaceutical products. Currently, no reports on the shelf-life and in vivo stability of exosome formulations are available. Exosomes are quickly cleared from blood circulation, and their in vivo distribution depends on the source. Considering these challenges, further studies are necessary to address major limitations such as poor drug loading, reduced in vivo stability, a need for robust, economical, and scalable production methods, etc., which may unlock the potential of exosomes in clinical applications. A few reports based on hybrid exosomes involving hybridization between different cell/tumor/macrophage-derived exosomes with synthetic liposomes through membrane fusion have shown to overcome some limitations associated with natural or synthetic exosomes. Yet, sufficient evidence is indispensable to prove their stability and clinical efficacy.

Exosomes Induce Crosstalk Between Multiple Types of Cells and Cardiac Fibroblasts: Therapeutic Potential for Remodeling After Myocardial Infarction

Recanalization therapy can significantly improve the prognosis of patients with acute myocardial infarction (AMI). However, infarction or reperfusion-induced cardiomyocyte death, immune cell infiltration, fibroblast proliferation, and scarring formation lead to cardiac remodeling and gradually progress to heart failure or arrhythmia, resulting in a high mortality rate. Due to the inability of cardiomyocytes to regenerate, the healing of infarcted myocardium mainly relies on the formation of scars. Cardiac fibroblasts, as the main effector cells involved in repair and scar formation, play a crucial role in maintaining the structural integrity of the heart after MI. Recent studies have revealed that exosome-mediated intercellular communication plays a huge role in myocardial repair and signaling transduction after myocardial infarction (MI). Exosomes can regulate the biological behavior of fibroblasts by activating or inhibiting the intracellular signaling pathways through their contents, which are derived from cardiomyocytes, immune cells, endothelial cells, mesenchymal cells, and others. Understanding the interactions between fibroblasts and other cell types during cardiac remodeling will be the key to breakthrough therapies. This review examines the role of exosomes from different sources in the repair process after MI injury, especially the impacts on fibroblasts during myocardial remodeling, and explores the use of exosomes in the treatment of myocardial remodeling after MI.

Exosomal miRNA as biomarker in cancer diagnosis and prognosis: A review

Exosomes, which are extracellular vesicles with a diameter ranging from 40 to 160 nm, are abundantly present in various body fluids. Exosomal microRNA (ex-miR), due to its exceptional sensitivity and specificity, has garnered significant attention. Notably, ex-miR is consistently detected in almost all bodily fluids, highlighting its potential as a reliable biomarker. This attribute of ex-miR has piqued considerable interest in its application as a diagnostic tool for the early detection, continuous monitoring, and prognosis evaluation of cancer. Given the critical role of exosomes and their cargo in cancer biology, this review explores the intricate processes of exosome biogenesis and uptake, their multifaceted roles in cancer development and progression, and the potential of ex-miRs as biomarkers for tumor diagnosis and prognosis.

Bone aging and extracellular vesicles

Bone aging, a major global health concern, is the natural decline in bone mass and strength. Concurrently, extracellular vesicles (EVs), tiny membrane-bound particles produced by cells, have gained recognition for their roles in various physiological processes and age-related diseases. The interaction between EVs and bone aging is of growing interest, particularly their effects on bone metabolism, which become increasingly critical with advancing age. In this review, we explored the biology, types, and functions of EVs and emphasized their regulatory roles in bone aging. We examined the effects of EVs on bone metabolism and highlighted their potential as biomarkers for monitoring bone aging progression. Furthermore, we discussed the therapeutic applications of EVs, including targeted drug delivery and bone regeneration, and addressed the challenges associated with EV-based therapies, including the technical complexities and regulatory issues. We summarized the current research and clinical trials investigating the role of EVs in bone aging and suggested future research directions. These include the potential for personalized medicine using EVs and the integration of EV research with advanced technologies to enhance the management of age-related bone health. This analysis emphasized the transformative potential of EVs in understanding and managing bone aging, thereby marking a significant advancement in skeletal health research.

Endothelial extracellular vesicles: their possible function and clinical significance in diabetic vascular complications

Diabetic vascular complications attract increased attention due to their high morbidity, mortality and disability rate. Comprehensive and in-depth exploration of the etiology and pathogenesis of diabetic vascular complications is important for diagnosis and treatment. Endothelial extracellular vesicles (EVs) serve as potential intercellular communicators, transmitting biological information from the donor cell to the recipient cell, exerting both harmful and beneficial effects on vascular function. Endothelial EVs are new diagnostic and therapeutic targets and biomarkers in diabetic vascular complications. This review summarizes the biogenesis and release of endothelial EVs, as well as isolation and characterization methods, and discusses the role of endothelial EVs in the maintenance of vascular homeostasis along with their contributions to vascular dysfunction. Finally, the article illustrates the impact of endothelial EVs on the pathogenesis of diabetic vascular complications and evaluates their potential as therapeutic tools and diagnostic markers in diabetic vascular complications.

Nuclear translocation of plasma membrane protein ADCY7 potentiates T cell-mediated antitumour immunity in HCC

BACKGROUND

The potency of T cell-mediated responses is a determinant of immunotherapy effectiveness in treating malignancies; however, the clinical efficacy of T-cell therapies has been limited in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) owing to the extensive immunosuppressive microenvironment.

OBJECTIVE

Here, we aimed to investigate the key genes contributing to immune escape in HCC and raise a new therapeutic strategy for remoulding the HCC microenvironment.

DESIGN

The genome-wide in vivo clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR) screen library was conducted to identify the key genes associated with immune tolerance. Single-cell RNA-seq (scRNA-seq), flow cytometry, HCC mouse models, chromatin immunoprecipitation and coimmunoprecipitation were used to explore the function and mechanism of adenylate cyclase 7 (ADCY7) in HCC immune surveillance.

RESULTS

Here, a genome-wide in vivo CRISPR screen identified a novel immune modulator-ADCY7. The transmembrane protein ADCY7 undergoes subcellular translocation via caveolae-mediated endocytosis and then translocates to the nucleus with the help of leucine-rich repeat-containing protein 59 (LRRC59) and karyopherin subunit beta 1 (KPNB1). In the nucleus, it functions as a transcription cofactor of CCAAT/enhancer binding protein alpha (CEBPA) to induce CCL5 transcription, thereby increasing CD8+ T cell infiltration to restrain HCC progression. Furthermore, ADCY7 can be secreted as exosomes and enter neighbouring tumour cells to promote CCL5 induction. Exosomes with high ADCY7 levels promote intratumoural infiltration of CD8+ T cells and suppress HCC tumour growth.

CONCLUSION

We delineate the unconventional function and subcellular location of ADCY7, highlighting its pivotal role in T cell-mediated immunity in HCC and its potential as a promising treatment target.

Engineering Approaches for Exosome Cargo Loading and Targeted Delivery: Biological versus Chemical Perspectives

Exosomes are nanoscale membrane bound vesicles secreted by almost all types of cells. Their unique attributes, such as minimal immunogenicity and compatibility with biological systems, make them novel carriers for drug delivery. These native exosomes harbor proteins, nucleic acids, small molecule compounds, and fluorogenic agents. Moreover, through a combination of chemical and bioengineering methodologies, exosomes are tailored to transport precise therapeutic payloads to designated cells or tissues. In this review, we summarize the strategies for exosome modification and drug loading modalities in engineered exosomes. In addition, we provide an overview of the advances in the use of engineered exosomes for targeted drug delivery. Lastly, we discuss the merits and limitations of chemically engineered versus bioengineered exosome-mediated target therapies. These insights offer additional options for refining engineered exosomes in pharmaceutical development and hold promise for expediting the successful translation of engineered exosomes from the bench to the bedside.

Exosomal microRNA as a key regulator of PI3K/AKT pathways in human tumors

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are conserved non-protein-coding RNAs that are naturally present in organisms and can control gene expression by suppressing the translation of mRNA or causing the degradation of mRNA. MicroRNAs are highly concentrated in the PI3K/AKT pathway, and abnormal activation of the PI3K/AKT pathway plays a role in cancer progression. The AKT/PI3K pathway is critical for cellular functions and can be stimulated by cytokines and in normal situations. It is involved in regulating various intracellular signal transduction, including development, differentiation, transcriptional regulation, protein, and synthesis. There is a growing body of evidence indicating that miRNAs, which are abundant in exosomes released by different cells, can control cellular biological activities via modulating the PI3K/AKT pathway, hence influencing cancer progression and drug resistance. This article provides an overview of the latest research progress regarding the function and medical use of the PI3K/AKT pathway and exosomal miRNA/AKT/PI3K axis in the behaviors of cancer cells.

Diseased Tendon Models Demonstrate Influence of Extracellular Matrix Alterations on Extracellular Vesicle Profile

Tendons enable movement through their highly aligned extracellular matrix (ECM), predominantly composed of collagen I. Tendinopathies disrupt the structural integrity of tendons by causing fragmentation of collagen fibers, disorganization of fiber bundles, and an increase in glycosaminoglycans and microvasculature, thereby driving the apparent biomechanical and regenerative capacity in patients. Moreover, the complex cellular communication within the tendon microenvironment ultimately dictates the fate between healthy and diseased tendon, wherein extracellular vesicles (EVs) may facilitate the tendon's fate by transporting biomolecules within the tissue. In this study, we aimed to elucidate how the EV functionality is altered in the context of tendon microenvironments by using polycaprolactone (PCL) electrospun scaffolds mimicking healthy and pathological tendon matrices. Scaffolds were characterized for fiber alignment, mechanical properties, and cellular activity. EVs were isolated and analyzed for concentration, heterogeneity, and protein content. Our results show that our mimicked healthy tendon led to an increase in EV secretion and baseline metabolic activity over the mimicked diseased tendon, where reduced EV secretion and a significant increase in metabolic activity over 5 days were observed. These findings suggest that scaffold mechanics may influence EV functionality, offering insights into tendon homeostasis. Future research should further investigate how EV cargo affects the tendon's microenvironment.

Exosomal miR-106a-5p from highly metastatic colorectal cancer cells drives liver metastasis by inducing macrophage M2 polarization in the tumor microenvironment

BACKGROUND

The tumor microenvironment (TME) is a dynamic system orchestrated by intricate cell-to-cell crosstalk. Specifically, macrophages within the TME play a crucial role in driving tumor progression. Exosomes are key mediators of communication between tumor cells and the TME. However, the mechanisms underlying exosome-driven crosstalk between tumor cells and macrophages during colorectal cancer (CRC) progression remain incompletely elucidated.

METHODS

Single-cell RNA sequencing were analyzed using the Seurat package. Exosomes were isolated using ultracentrifugation and characterized by transmission electron microscopy, nanoparticle tracking analysis, and western blot. miRNAs differentially expressed in exosomes were analyzed using the limma package. CD206 expression in CRC tissues, exosomes tracing, and exosomal miR-106a-5p transport were observed through immunofluorescence. Macrophage polarization was assessed via qRT-PCR, ELISA, and flow cytometry. The interactions between miR-106a-5p, hnRNPA1, and SOCS6 were evaluated using miRNA pull-down, RIP, and dual-luciferase reporter assays. Transwell assays and liver metastasis model explored the role of exosomal miR-106a-5p-induced M2 macrophages in promoting CRC liver metastasis.

RESULT

The proportion of M2 macrophages is increased in CRC with liver metastasis compared to those without. Highly metastatic CRC cells release exosomes enriched with miR-106a-5p, which promote macrophages M2 polarization by suppressing SOCS6 and activating JAK2/STAT3 pathway. These M2 macrophages reciprocally enhance CRC liver metastasis. hnRNPA1 regulate the transport of miR-106a-5p into exosomes. Clinically, elevated miR-106a-5p in plasma exosomes correlated with liver metastasis and poor prognosis.

CONCLUSION

CRC-derived exosomal miR-106a-5p plays a critical role in promoting liver metastasis and is a potential biomarker for the prevention and treatment of CRC liver metastasis.

Adipose tissue-derived extracellular vesicles from obese mice suppressed splenocyte-mediated pancreatic cancer cell death

Background

Obesity is a risk factor for pancreatic cancer and negatively contributes to the immune system. However, the mechanisms by which obesity mediates these actions are still poorly understood. Recent studies have demonstrated that extracellular vesicles (EVs) are key mediators of communication between cells and may influence various aspects of cancer progression.

Objectives

We aim to explore the influence of EVs derived from adipose tissue of obese mice on cytokine production within the interactions between cancer cells and immune cells.

Design

We isolated EVs from the adipose tissue of both C57BL6/J mice and Ob/Ob mice. Subsequently, we treated EVs with Panc02 cells, the murine ductal pancreatic cancer cell line, which were co-cultured with splenocytes. Viability and SMAD4 gene expression were examined in Panc02 cells, and cytokine concentrations of IL-6, IL-4, IL-12, and IL-12p70 were measured in the cultured medium.

Results

Interestingly, we observed a significant reduction in splenocyte-mediated Panc02 cell death when treated with EVs derived from the adipose tissue of Ob/Ob mice, compared to those from C57BL6/J mice. Additionally, EVs from Ob/Ob mice-derived adipose tissue significantly increased the levels of IL-4, IL-2, and IL-12p70 in the culture media of Panc02 cells co-cultured with splenocytes, compared to EVs from C57BL6/J mice-derived adipose tissue.

Conclusion

Adipose tissue-derived EVs from obese mice suppressed splenocyte-mediated Panc02 cell death and upregulated IL-4, IL-2, and IL-12p70 in cultured medium.

Adipose tissue-derived extracellular vesicles aggravate temporomandibular joint osteoarthritis associated with obesity

INTRODUCTION

Temporomandibular joint osteoarthritis (TMJ OA) is a major disease that affects maxillofacial health and is characterised by cartilage degeneration and subchondral bone remodelling. Obesity is associated with the exacerbation of pathological manifestations of TMJ OA. However, the underlying mechanism between adipose tissue and the TMJ axis remains limited.

OBJECTIVES

To evaluate the effects of obesity and the adipose tissue on the development of TMJ OA.

METHODS

The obesity-related metabolic changes in TMJ OA patients were detected by physical signs and plasma metabolites. The effects of adipose tissue-derived EVs (Ad-EVs) on TMJ OA was investigated through histological and cytological experiments as well as gene editing technology. Alterations of Ad-EVs in obese state were identified by microRNA-seq analysis and the mechanism by which EVs affect TMJ OA was explored in vitro and in vivo.

RESULTS

Obesity and the related metabolic changes were important influencing factors for TMJ OA. Ad-EVs from obese mice induced marked chondrocyte apoptosis, cartilage matrix degradation and subchondral bone remodelling, which exacerbated the development of TMJ OA. Depletion of Ad-EVs secretion by knocking out the geranylgeranyl diphosphate synthase (Ggpps) gene in adipose tissue significantly inhibited the obesity-induced aggravation of TMJ OA. MiR-3074-5p played an important role in this process .

CONCLUSIONS

Our work unveils an unknown link between obese adipose tissue and TMJ OA. Targeting the Ad-EVs and the miR-3074-5p may represent a promising therapeutic strategy for obesity-related TMJ OA.

KEY POINTS

High-fat-diet-induced obesity aggravate the progression of TMJ OA in mice. Obese adipose tissue participates in cartilage damage through the altered miRNA in extracellular vesicles. Inhibition of miR-3074-5p/SMAD4 pathway in chondrocyte alleviated the effect of HFD-EVs on TMJ OA.

Small extracellular vesicles associated miRNA in myocardial fibrosis

Myocardial fibrosis involves the loss of cardiomyocytes, myocardial fibroblast proliferation, and a reduction in angiogenesis, ultimately leading to heart failure, Given its significant implications, it is crucial to explore novel therapies for myocardial fibrosis. Recently one emerging avenue has been the use of small extracellular vesicles (sEV)-carried miRNA. In this review, we summarize the regulatory role of sEV-carried miRNA in myocardial fibrosis. We explored not only the potential diagnostic value of circulating miRNA as biomarkers for heart disease but also the therapeutic implications of sEV-carried miRNA derived from various cellular sources and applications of modified sEV. This exploration is paramount for researchers striving to develop innovative, cell-free therapies as potential drug candidates for the management of myocardial fibrosis.

RNAs in tumour-derived extracellular vesicles and their significance in the tumour microenvironment

Small extracellular vesicles (sEVs) secreted by various types of cells serve as crucial mediators of intercellular communication within the complex tumour microenvironment (TME). Tumour-derived small extracellular vesicles (TDEs) are massively produced and released by tumour cells, recapitulating the specificity of their cell of origin. TDEs encapsulate a variety of RNA species, especially messenger RNAs, microRNAs, long non-coding RNAs, and circular RNAs, which release to the TME plays multifaced roles in cancer progression through mediating cell proliferation, invasion, angiogenesis, and immune evasion. sEVs act as natural delivery vehicles of RNAs and can serve as useful targets for cancer therapy. This review article provides an overview of recent studies on TDEs and their RNA cargo, with emphasis on the role of these RNAs in carcinogenesis.

The potential of exosomes as a new therapeutic strategy for glioblastoma

Glioblastoma (GBM) stands for the most common and aggressive type of brain tumour in adults. It is highly invasive, which explains its short rate of survival. Little is known about its risk factors, and current therapy is still ineffective. Hence, efforts are underway to develop novel and effective treatment approaches against this type of cancer. Exosomes are being explored as a promising strategy for conveying and delivering therapeutic cargo to GBM cells. They can fuse with the GBM cell membrane and, consequently, serve as delivery systems in this context. Due to their nanoscale size, exosomes can cross the blood-brain barrier (BBB), which constitutes a significant hurdle to most chemotherapeutic drugs used against GBM. They can subsequently inhibit oncogenes, activate tumour suppressor genes, induce immune responses, and control cell growth. However, despite representing a promising tool for the treatment of GBM, further research and clinical studies regarding exosome biology, engineering, and clinical applications still need to be completed. Here, we sought to review the application of exosomes in the treatment of GBM through an in-depth analysis of the scientific and clinical studies on the entire process, from the isolation and purification of exosomes to their design and transformation into anti-oncogenic drug delivery systems. Surface modification of exosomes to enhance BBB penetration and GBM-cell targeting is also a topic of discussion.

Ubiquitin-Specific Protease 22 Plays a Key Role in Increasing Extracellular Vesicle Secretion and Regulating Cell Motility of Lung Adenocarcinoma

Tumor-derived extracellular vesicles (EVs) are potential biomarkers for tumors, but their reliable molecular targets have not been identified. The previous study confirms that ubiquitin-specific protease 22 (USP22) promotes lung adenocarcinoma (LUAD) metastasis in vivo and in vitro. Moreover, USP22 regulates endocytosis of tumor cells and localizes to late endosomes. However, the role of USP22 in the secretion of tumor cell-derived EVs remains unknown. In this study, it demonstrates that USP22 increases the secretion of tumor cell-derived EVs and accelerates their migration and invasion, invadopodia formation, and angiogenesis via EV transfer. USP22 enhances EV secretion by upregulating myosin IB (MYO1B). This study further discovers that USP22 activated the SRC signaling pathway by upregulating the molecule KDEL endoplasmic reticulum protein retention receptor 1 (KDELR1), thereby contributing to LUAD cell progression. The study provides novel insights into the role of USP22 in EV secretion and cell motility regulation in LUAD.

Construction of a prognostic model with exosome biogenesis- and release-related genes and identification of RAB27B in immune infiltration of pancreatic cancer

Background

Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) is a highly aggressive and fatal disease. Exosomes are extracellular vesicles that plays a vital rule in the progression and metastasis of PDAC. However, the specific mechanism of exosome biogenesis and release in the tumorigenesis and development of pancreatic cancer remains elusive. The aim of this study is to develop novel biomarkers and construct a reliable prognostic signature to accurately stratify patients and optimize clinical decision-making.

Methods

Gene expression and clinical data were acquired from The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) and Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) databases. Univariate Cox regression analysis, random forest analysis, least absolute shrinkage and selection operator (LASSO) regression analysis, and multivariate Cox regression analysis were used to construct the risk signature. The effectiveness of the model was validated by survival point plot, Kaplan-Meier survival analysis, and receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve in training, testing and entire cohorts. Meanwhile, single sample gene set enrichment analysis (ssGSEA), ESTIMATE and CIBERSORT algorithm were utilized to assess the association of the risk signature with the immune status in the PDAC tumor microenvironment. We also performed functional enrichment, tumor mutation analysis, and DNA methylation analyses based on the risk signature. The function of the core gene was further verified by polymerase chain reaction (PCR), western blot, bicinchoninic acid (BCA), immunohistochemistry (IHC) and in vitro experiments including cell proliferation, migration, and apoptosis experiments.

Results

We constructed an exosome biogenesis- and release-related risk model which could serve as an effective and independent prognosis predictor for PDAC patients. The immune infiltration analysis revealed that our signature was related to the PDAC immune microenvironment, mainly associated with a lower proportion of natural killer (NK) cells and CD8+ T cells. Tissue microarray IHC confirmed the association of RAB27B with poor prognosis in PDAC. Knockdown of RAB27B expression promoted PDAC cells' apoptosis, while decreased cellular proliferation and migration. Also, knockdown of RAB27B expression led to reduced exosome secretion, while RAB27B overexpression promoted exosome secretion.

Conclusions

The predictive signature can predict overall survival, help elucidate the mechanism of exosome biogenesis and release, and provide immunotherapy guidance for PDAC patients.

Exosomes as promising bioactive materials in the treatment of spinal cord injury

Patients with spinal cord injury (SCI) have permanent devastating motor and sensory disabilities. Secondary SCI is known for its complex progression and presents with sophisticated aberrant inflammation, vascular changes, and secondary cellular dysfunction, which aggravate the primary damage. Since their initial discovery, the potent neuroprotective effects and powerful delivery abilities of exosomes (Exos) have been reported in different research fields, including SCI. In this study, we summarize therapeutic advances related to the application of Exos in preclinical animal studies. Subsequently, we discuss the mechanisms of action of Exos derived from diverse cell types, including neurogenesis, angiogenesis, blood-spinal cord barrier preservation, anti-apoptosis, and anti-inflammatory potential. We also evaluate the relationship between the Exo delivery cargo and signaling pathways. Finally, we discuss the challenges and advantages of using Exos to offer innovative insights regarding the development of efficient clinical strategies for SCI.

Metabolic landscaping of extracellular vesicles from body fluids by phosphatidylserine imprinted polymer enrichment and mass spectrometry analysis

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are emerging as new source of biomarkers discovery in liquid biopsy due to their stabilization in body fluids, protected by phospholipid bilayers. However, the metabolomics study of EVs is very little reported due to the lack of efficient and high-throughput isolation methods for clinical samples. In this study, phosphatidylserine imprinted polymers were employed for rapid and efficient EVs isolation from five human body fluids, including plasma, urine, amniotic fluid, cerebrospinal fluid, and saliva. The isolated EVs were subsequently analyzed for metabolomic studies by high-resolution mass spectrometry. Metabolic landscaping was conducted between the body fluids and their EVs, indicating EVs contain a large number of metabolites that are completely specific to the body fluid source. Finally, quantitative metabolomic analysis of EVs was carried out with plasma samples of hepatocellular carcinoma. Several differentially expressed exosomal metabolites were revealed including the upregulation of sphingosine (d18:1), taurochenodeoxycholic acid (TCDCA), pipecolic acid (PA), and 4-hydroxynonenal (4-HNE) and down-regulation of piperine, caffeine, and indole. We believe the proposed methodology will provide a deeper understanding of the molecular composition and functions of EVs as an alternative source for biomarker discovery.

Landscape of exosomes to modified exosomes: a state of the art in cancer therapy

Exosomes are a subpopulation of extracellular vesicles (EVs) that naturally originate from endosomes. They play a significant role in cellular communication. Tumor-secreted exosomes play a crucial role in cancer development and significantly contribute to tumorigenesis, angiogenesis, and metastasis by intracellular communication. Tumor-derived exosomes (TEXs) are a promising biomarker source of cancer detection in the early stages. On the other hand, they offer revolutionary cutting-edge approaches to cancer therapeutics. Exosomes offer a cell-free approach to cancer therapeutics, which overcomes immune cell and stem cell therapeutics-based limitations (complication, toxicity, and cost of treatment). There are multiple sources of therapeutic exosomes present (stem cells, immune cells, plant cells, and synthetic and modified exosomes). This article explores the dynamic source of exosomes (plants, mesenchymal stem cells, and immune cells) and their modification (chimeric, hybrid exosomes, exosome-based CRISPR, and drug delivery) based on cancer therapeutic development. This review also highlights exosomes based clinical trials and the challenges and future orientation of exosome research. We hope that this article will inspire researchers to further explore exosome-based cancer therapeutic platforms for precision oncology.

MicroRNA-enriched exosome as dazzling dancer between cancer and immune cells

Exosomes are widely recognized for their roles in numerous biological processes and as intercellular communication mediators. Human cancerous and normal cells can both produce massive amounts of exosomes. They are extensively dispersed in tumor-modeling animals' pleural effusions, ascites, and plasma from people with cancer. Tumor cells interact with host cells by releasing exosomes, which allow them to interchange various biological components. Tumor growth, invasion, metastasis, and even tumorigenesis can all be facilitated by this delicate and complex system by modifying the nearby and remote surroundings. Due to the existence of significant levels of biomolecules like microRNA, exosomes can modulate the immune system's stimulation or repression, which in turn controls tumor growth. However, the role of microRNA in exosome-mediated communication between immunological and cancer cells is still poorly understood. This study aims to get the most recent information on the "yin and yang" of exosomal microRNA in the regulation of tumor immunity and immunotherapy, which will aid current cancer treatment and diagnostic techniques.

Exosomes: from basic research to clinical diagnostic and therapeutic applications in cancer

Cancer continues to pose a global threat despite potent anticancer drugs, often accompanied by undesired side effects. To enhance patient outcomes, sophisticated multifunctional approaches are imperative. Small extracellular vesicles (EVs), a diverse family of naturally occurring vesicles derived from cells, offer advantages over synthetic carriers. Among the EVs, the exosomes are facilitating intercellular communication with minimal toxicity, high biocompatibility, and low immunogenicity. Their tissue-specific targeting ability, mediated by surface molecules, enables precise transport of biomolecules to cancer cells. Here, we explore the potential of exosomes as innovative therapeutic agents, including cancer vaccines, and their clinical relevance as biomarkers for clinical diagnosis. We highlight the cargo possibilities, including nucleic acids and drugs, which make them a good delivery system for targeted cancer treatment and contrast agents for disease monitoring. Other general aspects, sources, and the methodology associated with therapeutic cancer applications are also reviewed. Additionally, the challenges associated with translating exosome-based therapies into clinical practice are discussed, together with the future prospects for this innovative approach.

The Chemopreventive Impact of Diet-Derived Phytochemicals on the Adipose Tissue and Breast Tumor Microenvironment Secretome

Cancer cells-derived extracellular vesicles can trigger the transformation of adipose-derived mesenchymal stem cells (ADMSC) into a pro-inflammatory, cancer-associated adipocyte (CAA) phenotype. Such secretome-mediated crosstalk between the adipose tissue and the tumor microenvironment (TME) therefore impacts tumor progression and metastatic processes. In addition, emerging roles of diet-derived phytochemicals, especially epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG) among other polyphenols, in modulating exosome-mediated metabolic and inflammatory signaling pathways have been highlighted. Here, we discuss how selected diet-derived phytochemicals could alter the secretome signature as well as the crosstalk dynamics between the adipose tissue and the TME, with a focus on breast cancer. Their broader implication in the chemoprevention of obesity-related cancers is also discussed.

Circ_0001947 encapsulated by small extracellular vesicles promotes gastric cancer progression and anti-PD-1 resistance by modulating CD8+ T cell exhaustion

BACKGROUND

While small extracellular vesicles (sEVs)-derived circular RNAs (circRNAs) have been emerged as significant players in cancer, the function and underlying mechanism of sEVs-derived circRNAs in anti-cancer immunity remain unclear.

METHODS

Gastric cancer (GC)-derived circRNAs were identified using RNA-seq data from GEO datasets and quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR), RNA immunoprecipitation, dual-luciferase assay, and bioinformatics analysis were performed to investigate the regulatory axis. Transwell assay, wound healing assay, cell counting kit-8 (CCK-8) assay, and xenograft models were used to evaluate its role in GC progression in vivo and in vitro. The delivery of specific circRNAs into sEVs were verified through electron microscopy, nanoparticle tracking analysis (NTA) and fuorescence in situ hybridization (FISH). Flow cytometric analysis and immunohistochemical staining were conducted to find out how specific circRNAs mediated CD8+ T cell exhaustion and resistant to anti-programmed cell death 1 (PD-1) therapy.

RESULTS

We identified that circ_0001947, packaged by GC-derived sEVs, was obviously elevated in GC and was associated with poor clinical outcome. High circ0001947 level augmented the proliferation, migration, and invasion of GC cells. Mechanistically, circ0001947 sponged miR-661 and miR-671-5p to promote the expression of CD39, which further facilitated CD8+ T cell exhaustion and immune resistance. Conversely, blocking circ_0001947 attenuated CD8+ T cell exhaustion and increased the response to anti-PD-1 therapy.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study manifested the therapeutic potential of targeting sEVs-transmitted circ_0001947 to prohibit CD8+ T cell exhaustion and immune resistance in GC.

Extracellular vesicle-associated DNA: ten years since its discovery in human blood

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) have emerged as key players in intercellular communication, facilitating the transfer of crucial cargo between cells. Liquid biopsy, particularly through the isolation of EVs, has unveiled a rich source of potential biomarkers for health and disease, encompassing proteins and nucleic acids. A milestone in this exploration occurred a decade ago with the identification of extracellular vesicle-associated DNA (EV-DNA) in the bloodstream of a patient diagnosed with pancreatic cancer. Subsequent years have witnessed substantial advancements, deepening our insights into the molecular intricacies of EV-DNA emission, detection, and analysis. Understanding the complexities surrounding the release of EV-DNA and addressing the challenges inherent in EV-DNA research are pivotal steps toward enhancing liquid biopsy-based strategies. These strategies, crucial for the detection and monitoring of various pathological conditions, particularly cancer, rely on a comprehensive understanding of why and how EV-DNA is released. In our review, we aim to provide a thorough summary of a decade's worth of research on EV-DNA. We will delve into diverse mechanisms of EV-DNA emission, its potential as a biomarker, its functional capabilities, discordant findings in the field, and the hurdles hindering its clinical application. Looking ahead to the next decade, we envision that advancements in EV isolation and detection techniques, coupled with improved standardization and data sharing, will catalyze the development of novel strategies exploiting EV-DNA as both a source of biomarkers and therapeutic targets.

Two roads diverged in a cell: insights from differential exosome regulation in polarized cells

Exosomes are extracellular vesicles involved in intercellular signaling, carrying various cargo from microRNAs to metabolites and proteins. They are released by practically all cells and are highly heterogenous due to their origin and content. Several groups of exosomes are known to be involved in various pathological conditions including autoimmune, neurodegenerative, and infectious diseases as well as cancer, and therefore a substantial understanding of their biogenesis and release is crucial. Polarized cells display an array of specific functions originated from differentiated membrane trafficking systems and could lead to hints in untangling the complex process of exosomes. Indeed, recent advances have successfully revealed specific regulation pathways for releasing different subsets of exosomes from different sides of polarized epithelial cells, underscoring the importance of polarized cells in the field. Here we review current evidence on exosome biogenesis and release, especially in polarized cells, highlight the challenges that need to be combatted, and discuss potential applications related to exosomes of polarized-cell origin.

Tumor-associated exosomes in cancer progression and therapeutic targets

Exosomes are small membrane vesicles that are released by cells into the extracellular environment. Tumor-associated exosomes (TAEs) are extracellular vesicles that play a significant role in cancer progression by mediating intercellular communication and contributing to various hallmarks of cancer. These vesicles carry a cargo of proteins, lipids, nucleic acids, and other biomolecules that can be transferred to recipient cells, modifying their behavior and promoting tumor growth, angiogenesis, immune modulation, and drug resistance. Several potential therapeutic targets within the TAEs cargo have been identified, including oncogenic proteins, miRNAs, tumor-associated antigens, immune checkpoint proteins, drug resistance proteins, and tissue factor. In this review, we will systematically summarize the biogenesis, composition, and function of TAEs in cancer progression and highlight potential therapeutic targets. Considering the complexity of exosome-mediated signaling and the pleiotropic effects of exosome cargoes has challenge in developing effective therapeutic strategies. Further research is needed to fully understand the role of TAEs in cancer and to develop effective therapies that target them. In particular, the development of strategies to block TAEs release, target TAEs cargo, inhibit TAEs uptake, and modulate TAEs content could provide novel approaches to cancer treatment.

Exosomes in esophageal cancer: Promising nanocarriers in cancer progression, diagnosis, prognosis, and therapy

Esophageal cancer (EC) is one of the most fatal cancers all over the world. Sensitive detection modalities for early-stage EC and efficient treatment methods are urgently needed for the improvement of the prognosis of EC. Exosomes are small vesicles for intercellular communication, mediating many biological responses including cancer progression, which are not only promising biomarkers for diagnosis and prognosis but also therapeutic tools for EC. This review provides an overview of the relationships between exosomes and EC progression, as well as the application of exosomes in the diagnosis, prognosis, and treatment of EC. This article is categorized under: Therapeutic Approaches and Drug Discovery > Nanomedicine for Oncologic Disease.

Recent Progress in Mesenchymal Stem Cell-Derived Exosomes for Skin Wound Repair

BACKGROUND

Exosomes are nanometer-sized, lipid bilayer membrane vesicles that are secreted by various cell types. Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) have been shown to exert therapeutic effects through the secretion of exosomes via a paracrine pathway. Functions: Recent studies have demonstrated that MSC-derived exosomes (MSC-Exos) can effectively transport various bioactive substances, including proteins, mRNAs, microRNAs, long non-coding RNAs, circular RNAs, and lipids, into target cells. This process regulates multiple aspects during wound repair, such as the inflammatory response, cell proliferation, migration, differentiation, angiogenesis, and matrix remodeling.

POTENTIAL APPLICATIONS

By promoting wound healing and inhibiting scar formation, MSC-Exos have shown great promise for clinical applications in wound repair. This review highlights the recent advances in our understanding of the role and mechanism of MSC-Exos during wound repair, providing insights into their potential use in future therapeutic strategies.

Shedding Light on the Role of Exosomal PD-L1 (ExoPD-L1) in Cancer Progression: an Update

Exosomes are the primary category of extracellular vesicles (EVs), which are lipid-bilayer vesicles with biological activity spontaneously secreted from either normal or tansformed cells. They serve a crucial role for intercellular communication and affect extracellular environment and the immune system. Tumor-derived exosomes (TEXs) enclose high levels of immunosuppressive proteins, including programmed death-ligand 1 (PD-L1). PD-L1 and its receptor PD-1 act as crucial immune checkpoint molecules, thus facilitating tumor advancement by inhibiting immune responses. PDL-1 is abundantly present on tumor cells and interacts with PD-1 on activated T cells, resulting in T cell suppression and allowing immune evasion of cancer cells. Various FDA-approved monoclonal antibodies inhibiting the PD-1/PD-L1 interaction are commonly used to treat a diverse range of tumors. Although the achieved results are significant, some individuals have a poor reaction to PD-1/PD-L1 blocking. PD-L1-enriched TEXs may mimic the impact of cell-surface PD-L1, consequently potentiating tumor resistance to PD1/PD-L1 based therapy. In light of this, a strong correlation between circulating exosomal PD-L1 levels and response rate to anti-PD-1/PD-L1 antibody treatment has been evinced. This article inspects the function of exosomal PDL-1 in developing resistance to anti-PD-1/PD-L1 therapy for opening new avenues for overcoming tumor resistance to such modalities and development of more favored combination therapy.

Exosomal CTHRC1 from cancer-associated fibroblasts facilitates endometrial cancer progression via ITGB3/FAK signaling pathway

The emerging tumor microenvironment (TME) is a complex and constantly evolving entity. Cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs) are a vital component of the TME with diverse functions. They interact closely with cancer cells through reciprocal signaling and play a crucial role in tumor progression. Exosomes, which contain diverse biological information, are identified as an important mediator of cell-cell communication. This study aimed to investigate how CAF-derived exosomes promote metastasis of endometrial cancer (EC). Our findings revealed that CAF-derived exosomes significantly enhanced EC cell proliferation and migration compared to normal fibroblast-derived exosomes. Quantitative proteomics analysis of CAF/NF-derived exosomes demonstrated differential expression of CTHRC1, a protein overexpressed in multiple tumors, promoting cancer progression through enhanced cell migration and invasion. Exosomal overload of CTHRC1 significantly contributes to EC cell migration. Mechanically, we determined that ITGB3 was immunoprecipitated by CTHRC1 and phosphorylated FAK on Tyr397, which was important for exosomal CTHRC1 mediated migratory ability of EC cells. Overexpression of CTHRC1 in secreted exosomes promotes the metastatic ability of EC cells in mouse models and may be eliminated by Defactinib, an inhibitor of FAK Tyr397 phosphorylation. Moreover, overexpression of CTHRC1 was increased in EC patients, elevating with cancer progression, and correlated with negative tumor prognosis. Our results revealed that CAF mediated endometrial cancer progression is related to high levels of CTHRC1 and exosomal CTHRC1 derived from CAF may be a promising therapeutic strategy for metastatic endometrial cancer.

Advances in Extracellular-Vesicles-Based Diagnostic and Therapeutic Approaches for Ocular Diseases

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are nanoscale membrane vesicles of various sizes that can be secreted by most cells. EVs contain a diverse array of cargo, including RNAs, lipids, proteins, and other molecules with functions of intercellular communication, immune modulation, and regulation of physiological and pathological processes. The biofluids in the eye, including tears, aqueous humor, and vitreous humor, are important sources for EV-based diagnosis of ocular disease. Because the molecular cargos may reflect the biology of their parental cells, EVs in these biofluids, as well as in the blood, have been recognized as promising candidates as biomarkers for early diagnosis of ocular disease. Moreover, EVs have also been used as therapeutics and targeted drug delivery nanocarriers in many ocular disorders because of their low immunogenicity and superior biocompatibility in nature. In this review, we provide an overview of the recent advances in the field of EV-based studies on the diagnosis and therapeutics of ocular disease. We summarized the origins of EVs applied in ocular disease, assessed different methods for EV isolation from ocular biofluid samples, highlighted bioengineering strategies of EVs as drug delivery systems, introduced the latest applications in the diagnosis and treatment of ocular disease, and presented their potential in the current clinical trials. Finally, we briefly discussed the challenges of EV-based studies in ocular disease and some issues of concern for better focusing on clinical translational studies of EVs in the future.

Yin-Yang: two sides of extracellular vesicles in inflammatory diseases

The concept of Yin-Yang, originating in ancient Chinese philosophy, symbolizes two opposing but complementary forces or principles found in all aspects of life. This concept can be quite fitting in the context of extracellular vehicles (EVs) and inflammatory diseases. Over the past decades, numerous studies have revealed that EVs can exhibit dual sides, acting as both pro- and anti-inflammatory agents, akin to the concept of Yin-Yang theory (i.e., two sides of a coin). This has enabled EVs to serve as potential indicators of pathogenesis or be manipulated for therapeutic purposes by influencing immune and inflammatory pathways. This review delves into the recent advances in understanding the Yin-Yang sides of EVs and their regulation in specific inflammatory diseases. We shed light on the current prospects of engineering EVs for treating inflammatory conditions. The Yin-Yang principle of EVs bestows upon them great potential as, therapeutic, and preventive agents for inflammatory diseases.

Extracellular Vesicle microRNA: A Promising Biomarker and Therapeutic Target for Respiratory Diseases

Respiratory diseases, including chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), asthma, lung cancer, and coronavirus pneumonia, present a major global health challenge. Current diagnostic and therapeutic options for these diseases are limited, necessitating the urgent development of novel biomarkers and therapeutic strategies. In recent years, microRNAs (miRNAs) within extracellular vesicles (EVs) have received considerable attention due to their crucial role in intercellular communication and disease progression. EVs are membrane-bound structures released by cells into the extracellular environment, encapsulating a variety of biomolecules such as DNA, RNA, lipids, and proteins. Specifically, miRNAs within EVs, known as EV-miRNAs, facilitate intercellular communication by regulating gene expression. The expression levels of these miRNAs can reflect distinct disease states and significantly influence immune cell function, chronic airway inflammation, airway remodeling, cell proliferation, angiogenesis, epithelial-mesenchymal transition, and other pathological processes. Consequently, EV-miRNAs have a profound impact on the onset, progression, and therapeutic responses of respiratory diseases, with great potential for disease management. Synthesizing the current understanding of EV-miRNAs in respiratory diseases such as COPD, asthma, lung cancer, and novel coronavirus pneumonia, this review aims to explore the potential of EV-miRNAs as biomarkers and therapeutic targets and examine their prospects in the diagnosis and treatment of these respiratory diseases.

Mesenchymal Stem Cell-Derived Exosomes as a Treatment Option for Osteoarthritis

Osteoarthritis (OA) is a leading cause of pain and disability worldwide in elderly people. There is a critical need to develop novel therapeutic strategies that can effectively manage pain and disability to improve the quality of life for older people. Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) have emerged as a promising cell-based therapy for age-related disorders due to their multilineage differentiation and strong paracrine effects. Notably, MSC-derived exosomes (MSC-Exos) have gained significant attention because they can recapitulate MSCs into therapeutic benefits without causing any associated risks compared with direct cell transplantation. These exosomes help in the transport of bioactive molecules such as proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids, which can influence various cellular processes related to tissue repair, regeneration, and immune regulation. In this review, we have provided an overview of MSC-Exos as a considerable treatment option for osteoarthritis. This review will go over the underlying mechanisms by which MSC-Exos may alleviate the pathological hallmarks of OA, such as cartilage degradation, synovial inflammation, and subchondral bone changes. Furthermore, we have summarized the current preclinical evidence and highlighted promising results from in vitro and in vivo studies, as well as progress in clinical trials using MSC-Exos to treat OA.

The molecular conversations of sarcomas: exosomal non-coding RNAs in tumor's biology and their translational prospects

Exosomes mediate cell-to-cell crosstalk involving a variety of biomolecules through an intricate signaling network. In recent years, the pivotal role of exosomes and their non-coding RNAs cargo in the development and progression of several cancer types clearly emerged. In particular, tumor bulk and its microenvironment co-evolve through cellular communications where these nanosized extracellular vesicles are among the most relevant actors. Knowledge about the cellular, and molecular mechanisms involved in these communications will pave the way for novel exosome-based delivery of therapeutic RNAs as well as innovative prognostic/diagnostic tools. Despite the valuable therapeutic potential and clinical relevance of exosomes, their role on sarcoma has been vaguely reported because the rarity and high heterogeneity of this type of cancer. Here, we dissected the scientific literature to unravel the multifaceted role of exosomal non-coding RNAs as mediator of cell-to-cell communications in the sarcoma subtypes.

The role of ncRNAs and exosomes in the development and progression of endometrial cancer

Endometrial cancer (EC) is one of the most common gynecologic cancers. In recent years, research has focused on the genetic characteristics of the tumors to detail their prognosis and tailor therapy. In the case of EC, genetic mutations have been shown to underlie their formation. It is very important to know the mechanisms of EC formation related to mutations induced by estrogen, among other things. Noncoding RNAs (ncRNAs), composed of nucleotide transcripts with very low protein-coding capacity, are proving to be important. Their expression patterns in many malignancies can inhibit tumor formation and progression. They also regulate protein coding at the epigenetic, transcriptional, and posttranscriptional levels. MicroRNAs (miRNAs), several varieties of which are associated with normal endometrium as well as its tumor, also play a particularly important role in gene expression. MiRNAs and long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) affect many pathways in EC tissues and play important roles in cancer development, invasion, and metastasis, as well as resistance to anticancer drugs through mechanisms such as suppression of apoptosis and progression of cancer stem cells. It is also worth noting that miRNAs are highly precise, sensitive, and robust, making them potential markers for diagnosing gynecologic cancers and their progression. Unfortunately, as the incidence of EC increases, treatment becomes challenging and is limited to invasive tools. The prospect of using microRNAs as potential candidates for diagnostic and therapeutic use in EC seems promising. Exosomes are extracellular vesicles that are released from many types of cells, including cancer cells. They contain proteins, DNA, and various types of RNA, such as miRNAs. The noncoding RNA components of exosomes vary widely, depending on the physiology of the tumor tissue and the cells from which they originate. Exosomes contain both DNA and RNA and have communication functions between cells. Exosomal miRNAs mediate communication between EC cells, tumor-associated fibroblasts (CAFs), and tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) and play a key role in tumor cell proliferation and tumor microenvironment formation. Oncogenes carried by tumor exosomes induce malignant transformation of target cells. During the synthesis of exosomes, various factors, such as genetic and proteomic data are upregulated. Thus, they are considered an interesting therapeutic target for the diagnosis and prognosis of endometrial cancer by analyzing biomarkers contained in exosomes. Expression of miRNAs, particularly miR-15a-5p, was elevated in exosomes derived from the plasma of EC patients. This may suggest the important utility of this biomarker in the diagnosis of EC. In recent years, researchers have become interested in the topic of prognostic markers for EC, as there are still too few identified markers to support the limited treatment of endometrial cancer. Further research into the effects of ncRNAs and exosomes on EC may allow for cancer treatment breakthroughs.

Lectin microarray based glycan profiling of exosomes for dynamic monitoring of colorectal cancer progression

BACKGROUND

Exosomes, as emerging biomarkers in liquid biopsies in recent years, offer profound insights into cancer diagnostics due to their unique molecular signatures. The glycosylation profiles of exosomes have emerged as potential biomarkers, offering a novel and less invasive method for cancer diagnosis and monitoring. Colorectal cancer (CRC) represents a substantial global health challenge and burden. Thus there is a great need for the aberrant glycosylation patterns on the surface of CRC cell-derived exosomes, proposing them as potential biomarkers for tumor characterization.

RESULTS

The interactions of 27 lectins with exosomes from three CRC cell lines (SW480, SW620, HCT116) and one normal colon epithelial cell line (NCM460) have been analyzed by the lectin microarray. The result indicates that Ulex Europaeus Agglutinin I (UEA-I) exhibits high affinity and specificity towards exosomes derived from SW480 cells. The expression of glycosylation related genes within cells has been analyzed by high-throughput quantitative polymerase chain reaction (HT-qPCR). The experimental result of HT-qPCR is consistent with that of lectin microarray. Moreover, the limit of detection (LOD) of UEA-I microarray is calculated to be as low as 2.7 × 105 extracellular vehicles (EVs) mL-1 (three times standard deviation (3σ) of blank sample). The UEA-I microarray has been successfully utilized to dynamically monitor the progression of tumors in mice-bearing SW480 CRC subtype, applicable in tumor sizes ranging from 2 mm to 20 mm in diameter.

SIGNIFICANCE

The results reveal that glycan expression pattern of exosome is linked to specific CRC subtypes, and regulated by glycosyltransferase and glycosidase genes of mother cells. Our findings illuminate the potential of glycosylation molecules on the surface of exosomes as reliable biomarkers for diagnosis of tumor at early stage and monitoring of cancer progression.

Comparative Analysis of Exosomes and Extracellular Microvesicles in Healing Pathways: Insights for Advancing Regenerative Therapies

Exosomes and microvesicles bear great potential to broaden therapeutic options in the clinical context. They differ in genesis, size, cargo, and composition despite their similarities. They were identified as participating in various processes such as angiogenesis, cell migration, and intracellular communication. Additionally, they are characterized by their natural biocompatibility. Therefore, researchers concluded that they could serve as a novel curative method capable of achieving unprecedented results. Indeed, in experiments, they proved remarkably efficient in enhancing wound regeneration and mitigating inflammation. Despite immense advancements in research on exosomes and microvesicles, the time for their large-scale application is yet to come. This article aims to gather and analyze current knowledge on those promising particles, their characteristics, and their potential clinical implementations.

Extracellular Vesicle Preparation and Analysis: A State-of-the-Art Review

In recent decades, research on Extracellular Vesicles (EVs) has gained prominence in the life sciences due to their critical roles in both health and disease states, offering promising applications in disease diagnosis, drug delivery, and therapy. However, their inherent heterogeneity and complex origins pose significant challenges to their preparation, analysis, and subsequent clinical application. This review is structured to provide an overview of the biogenesis, composition, and various sources of EVs, thereby laying the groundwork for a detailed discussion of contemporary techniques for their preparation and analysis. Particular focus is given to state-of-the-art technologies that employ both microfluidic and non-microfluidic platforms for EV processing. Furthermore, this discourse extends into innovative approaches that incorporate artificial intelligence and cutting-edge electrochemical sensors, with a particular emphasis on single EV analysis. This review proposes current challenges and outlines prospective avenues for future research. The objective is to motivate researchers to innovate and expand methods for the preparation and analysis of EVs, fully unlocking their biomedical potential.

CREG1 promotes bovine placental trophoblast cells exosome release by targeting IGF2R and participates in regulating organoid differentiation via exosomes transport

BACKGROUND

Placental exosomes are a kind of intercellular communication media secreted by placental cells during pregnancy, exosomogenesis and release are regulated by many secretory glycoproteins. CREG1 is a kind of secreted glycoprotein widely expressed in various organs and tissues of the body, which inhibits cell proliferation and enhances cell differentiation. The aim of this study was to explore the role of CREG1 in regulating exosomogenesis during the proliferation and differentiation of placental trophoblast cells in early pregnant dairy cows by targeting IGF2R and participating in regulating organoid differentiation via exosomes transport.

METHODS

Molecular biological methods were firstly used to investigate the expression patterns of CREG1, IGF2R and exosomal marker proteins in early placental development of pregnant dairy cows. Subsequently, the effects of CREG1 on the formation and release of bovine placental trophoblast (BTCs) derived exosomes by targeting IGF2R were investigated. Further, the effects of CREG1 on the change of gene expression patterns along with the transport of exosomes to recipient cells and participate in regulating the differentiation of organoids were explored.

RESULTS

The expression of CREG1, IGF2R and exosomal marker proteins increased with the increase of pregnancy months during the early evolution of placental trophoblast cells in dairy cows. Overexpression of Creg1 enhanced the genesis and release of exosomes derived from BTCs, while knocking down the expression of Igf2r gene not only inhibited the genesis of exosomes, but also inhibited the genesis and release of exosomes induced by overexpression of CREG1 protein. Interestingly, IGF2R can regulate the expression of CREG1 through reverse secretion. What's more, the occurrence and release of trophoblast-derived exosomes are regulated by CREG1 binding to IGF2R, which subsequently binds to Rab11. CREG1 can not only promote the formation and release of exosomes in donor cells, but also regulate the change of gene expression patterns along with the transport of exosomes to recipient cells and participate in regulating the early development of placenta.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study confirmed that CREG1 is involved in the exosomogenesis and release of exosomes during the proliferation and differentiation of placental trophoblast cells in early pregnant dairy cows by targeting IGF2R, and is involved in the regulation of organoid differentiation through exosome transport.

Molecular insights to therapeutic in cancer: role of exosomes in tumor microenvironment, metastatic progression and drug resistance

Exosomes play a pivotal part in cancer progression and metastasis by transferring various biomolecules. Recent research highlights their involvement in tumor microenvironment remodeling, mediating metastasis, tumor heterogeneity and drug resistance. The unique cargo carried by exosomes garners the interest of researchers owing to its potential as a stage-specific biomarker for early cancer detection and its role in monitoring personalized treatment. However, unanswered questions hinder a comprehensive understanding of exosomes and their cargo in this context. This review discusses recent advancements and proposes novel ideas for exploring exosomes in cancer progression, aiming to deepen our understanding and improve treatment approaches.