Production of Bio-omega-3 eggs through the supplementation of extruded flaxseed meal in hen diet

Egg Quality, Sensory Attributes, and Protein Metabolites of Laying Hens Fed Whole Flaxseed, Fish Oil, and Different Sources of Trace Elements

This study evaluated the effects of whole flaxseed (WFS), fish oil (FO), and different sources of Se, Zn, and Fe (inorganic, organic, and nano-source) on egg production, quality, sensory attributes, and serum protein metabolites in laying hens. A total of 144 hens were divided into six groups with six replicates of four hens each. Hens were fed six diets as follows: 1) control diet; 2) 7.5%WFS+1.5%FO; 3) 7.5%WFS+1.5%FO+175 mg/kg vitamin E (VE); 4) 7.5%WFS+1.5%FO+175 mg/kg VE + inorganic sources of Se, Zn, and Fe (ISeZnFe); 5) 7.5%WFS+1.5%FO+175 mg/kg VE + organic sources of Se, Zn, and Fe (OSeZnFe); 6) 7.5%WFS+1.5%FO+175 mg/kg VE + nano-source of Se, Zn, and Fe (NSeZnFe) from 40-50 weeks of age. Laying hens fed 7.5% WFS, 1.5% FO, and different sources of trace elements in their diets had no negative effects on laying rate, egg weight, egg mass, feed intake, feed conversion ratio, body weight change, or survival rate compared to that of hens fed the control diet. Dietary treatments did not negatively affect the external and internal egg characteristics or egg sensory attributes. Feeding 7.5%WFS+1.5%FO+VE+ISeZnFe positively influenced yolk color in fresh eggs. Dietary treatments had a significant impact on egg nutritional composition, with the highest levels of macronutrients found in eggs from hens fed the 7.5%WFS+1.5%FO+VE+NSeZnFe treatment. The highest plasma globulin concentrations were observed in hens fed organic and nano-source trace elements. The same diets reduced plasma uric acid levels. Based on these findings, the inclusion of organic or nano-source trace minerals in diets containing WFS and FO positively affected egg quality and hen protein metabolites.

Dietary flaxseed cake influences on performance, quality, and sensory attributes of eggs, serum, and egg trace minerals of laying hens

Nowadays, there is a global shortage in feed supply for animal nutrition; however, there are a considerable amount of agro-industrial co- and by-products that may offer a reasonable solution. Flaxseed cake (FSC) is a by-product of flaxseed for oil extraction rich in n-3 α-linolenic acid (ALA). Thus, the dietary inclusion of FSC on laying performance, egg quality, and serum and egg trace elements (Se, Zn, and Fe) was evaluated using Hisex White hens. The hens were distributed to three equal experimental treatments and provided diets including 0%, 5%, or 10% FSC from 48 to 58 weeks of age. Findings clarified that up to 10% FSC in the laying hen diet had no detrimental effect on laying rate, egg mass, and feed utilization. It was found that FSC resulted in a valuable source of protein, energy, macro- (Ca and P), micro- (Se, Zn and Fe) elements, and essential amino acids, with arginine being the highest. Dietary FSC did not negatively influence the egg quality traits, as well as egg sensory attributes. Including 5% or 10% FSC in diet did not significantly affect serum total protein and renal function in terms of creatinine, uric acid, and uric acid-to-creatinine ratio. Different FSC levels did not influence the chemical composition of eggs and trace elements in serum and eggs. It could be concluded that FSC is a valuable feedstuff that can provide a good source of energy, protein, amino acids, and macro- and micro-elements for hens' nutrition. The inclusion of up to 10% of FSC in hens diet did not adversely influence egg laying performance, egg quality of both fresh and stored eggs, sensory attributes, and nutritional composition, as well as Se, Zn, and Fe in serum and eggs due to balanced nutrient profile of FSC.

Designing Nutrition for Health-Incorporating Dietary By-Products into Poultry Feeds to Create Functional Foods with Insights into Health Benefits, Risks, Bioactive Compounds, Food Component Functionality and Safety Regulations

This review delves into the concept of nutrition by design, exploring the relationship between poultry production, the utilization of dietary by-products to create functional foods, and their impact on human health. Functional foods are defined as products that extend beyond their basic nutritional value, offering potential benefits in disease prevention and management. Various methods, including extraction, fermentation, enrichment, biotechnology, and nanotechnology, are employed to obtain bioactive compounds for these functional foods. This review also examines the innovative approach of enhancing livestock diets to create functional foods through animal-based methods. Bioactive compounds found in these functional foods, such as essential fatty acids, antioxidants, carotenoids, minerals, vitamins, and bioactive peptides, are highlighted for their potential in promoting well-being and mitigating chronic diseases. Additionally, the review explores the functionality of food components within these products, emphasizing the critical roles of bioaccessibility, bioactivity, and bioavailability in promoting health. The importance of considering key aspects in the design of enhanced poultry diets for functional food production is thoroughly reviewed. The safety of these foods through the establishment of regulations and guidelines was reviewed. It is concluded that the integration of nutrition by design principles empowers individuals to make informed choices that can prioritize their health and well-being. By incorporating functional foods rich in bioactive compounds, consumers can proactively take steps to prevent and manage health issues, ultimately contributing to a healthier society and lifestyle.

Advanced Practical Strategies to Enhance Table Egg Production

The global demand for table eggs has increased exponentially due to the growing human population. To meet this demand, major advances in hen genetics, nutrition, and husbandry procedures are required. Developing cost-effective and practically applicable strategies to improve egg production and quality is necessary for the development of egg industry worldwide. Consumers have shown a strong desire regarding the improvement of hens' welfare and egg quality. They also become interested in functional and designer foods. Modifications in the nutritional composition of laying hen diets significantly impact egg nutritional composition and quality preservation. According to previous scientific research, enriched egg products can benefit human health. However, producers are facing a serious challenge in optimizing breeding, housing, and dietary strategies to ensure hen health and high product quality. This review discussed several practical strategies to increase egg production, quality, and hens' welfare. These practical strategies can potentially be used in layer farms for sustainable egg production. One of these strategies is the transition from conventional to enriched or cage-free production systems, thereby improving bird behavior and welfare. In addition, widely use of plant/herbal substances as dietary supplements in layers' diets positively impacts hens' physiological, productive, reproductive, and immunological performances.

Rosehip (Rosa canina L.) Meal as a Natural Antioxidant on Lipid and Protein Quality and Shelf-Life of Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids Enriched Eggs

Eggs are a common food of animal origin, inexpensive, and rich in bioactive substances with high biological value. Eggs enriched in polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) are extremely desired by the progressive consumer. However, during storage, eggs undergo some physiochemical changes, which decrease their value. In this regard, the effect of dietary rosehip meal and flaxseed meal on hens’ egg quality characteristics, amino acids, fatty acids, health-related indices, antioxidant capacity, total polyphenols content, and shelf life was examined. For this study 120 Tetra SL laying hens, 29 weeks of age, were fed, for 4 weeks, three diets that included control (basal diet—RF0), basal diet + 1.5% rosehip and 7% flaxseed meal (RF1), and basal diet + 3% rosehip and 7% flaxseed meal (RF2). Productive performance of hens were recorded. The content of essential amino acids (EAA), antioxidant amino acids (AAA), and sulfur amino acids (SAA) was higher in RF1 and RF2, compared with RF0. Eggs belonging to the RF1 and RF2 groups had significantly (p < 0.05) higher content of n-3 PUFAs, especially linolenic and docosahexaenoic acids. Total antioxidant capacity and polyphenol content increased in both rosehip supplemented groups, but especially in RF2. Moreover, eggs from RF1 and RF2 groups maintained significantly higher egg quality parameters after storage for 14 and 28 days in the refrigerator (5 °C) and ambient temperature (21 °C), compared with those from the RF0 group. In the Haugh unit, yolk and albumen pH presented better values in RF1 and RF2 eggs compared to the RF0 eggs.

Poultry Meat and Eggs as an Alternative Source of n-3 Long-Chain Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids for Human Nutrition

The beneficial effects of n-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-3 LC-PUFA) on human health are widely known. Humans are rather inefficient in synthesizing n-3 LC-PUFA; thus, these compounds should be supplemented in the diet. However, most Western human diets have unbalanced n-6/n-3 ratios resulting from eating habits and the fact that fish sources (rich in n-3 LC-PUFA) are not sufficient (worldwide deficit ~347,956 t/y) to meet the world requirements. In this context, it is necessary to find new and sustainable sources of n-3 LC-PUFA. Poultry products can provide humans n-3 LC-PUFA due to physiological characteristics and the wide consumption of meat and eggs. The present work aims to provide a general overview of the main strategies that should be adopted during rearing and postproduction to enrich and preserve n-3 LC-PUFA in poultry products. The strategies include dietary supplementation of α-Linolenic acid (ALA) or n-3 LC-PUFA, or enhancing n-3 LC-PUFA by improving the LA (Linoleic acid)/ALA ratio and antioxidant concentrations. Moreover, factors such as genotype, rearing system, transport, and cooking processes can impact the n-3 LC-PUFA in poultry products. The use of a multifactorial view in the entire production chain allows the relevant enrichment and preservation of n-3 LC-PUFA in poultry products.

Supplementary n-3 fatty acids sources on performance and formation of omega-3 in egg of laying hens: a meta-analysis

A meta-analysis was performed to evaluate the effects of supplementary n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) sources in the diet on the formation of some important n-3 PUFA contents in eggs and to assess factors contributing to the conversion efficiency of omega-3 in laying hens. A dataset was constructed from 34 studies examining the impact of dietary inclusion with ingredients rich in n-3 PUFA on fatty acids profile and production performance of laying hens. The eligibility criteria were developed to obtain studies reporting required information with sufficient quality. The mixed model methodology was employed where the “study” was set as random effects and fatty acid (FA) supplements as fixed effects. Several factors were included in the models as covariates. Discrete analysis for sources of FA was also performed to compare their effects on FA formation in eggs. Significant linear positive associations were observed between the concentration of α-linolenic acid (ALA), total n-3 PUFA, and the ratio of linoleic acid (LA) to ALA (LA/ALA) in diets with the formation of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), total n-3 PUFA, and n6/n3 ratio in egg (P < 0.05) with different magnitudes. ALA and total n-3 PUFAs concentration had no relationship with cholesterol concentration, feed intake, and egg weight. Prediction models for DHA formation was higher for ALA as predictor variables (slope = 0.482; R² = 0.684) than n-3 PUFAs (slopes = 0.998, R² = 0.628). Significant interactions were found on the level of ALA × FA sources and n-3 PUFA × FA sources. Fish oil (P = 0.0148, R² = 0.732) improved the prediction equation to estimate DHA formation. To conclude, levels of ALA, n-3 PUFA, and the ratio of LA/ALA can be used as predictor variables to estimate the formation of n-3 fatty acids in eggs. It was confirmed that although all n-3 FA sources had a positive correlation on DHA and n-3 PUFA deposition, however, fish oil showed the highest prediction model for DHA formation across all FA sources included in the dataset.

Enriching laying hens eggs by feeding diets with different fatty acid composition and antioxidants

The current study was conducted to evaluate egg quality, egg yolk fatty acids, health-related indices and antioxidants from laying hens' eggs fed different combined vegetable by-products, rich in fatty acids and antioxidants. One hundred twenty 50 weeks-old Tetra SL laying hens were divided into three groups. They were given daily a standard diet (Control, C), a diet containing 9% rapeseed meal with 3% grapeseed meal (T1 diet), or a diet containing 9% flaxseed meal and 3% sea buckthorn meal (T2 diet). Hen production performances, egg quality, egg yolk fatty acids total polyphenols content and antioxidant capacity were determined. The T1 diet significantly reduced the egg yolk content of palmitic acid from 76.615 mg (C) to 46.843 mg (T1) and that of oleic acid from 788.13 mg (C) to 682.83 mg (T1). Feeding flaxseed and sea buckthorn meals significantly increased the egg yolk content of α-linolenic acid in T2 yolks (35.297 mg) compared with C yolks (4.752 mg) and that of docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) from 16.282 mg (C) to 74.918 mg (T2). The atherogenicity indices (AI) were not significantly affected, whereas the thrombogenicity indices (TI) decreased significantly (p < 0.0007) from 0.72 (C) to 0.60 (T1) and 0.66 (T2), respectively. Adding this combination of meals to the hens' diets, increased the total polyphenol content and antioxidant capacity in T1 and T2 eggs compared to C eggs. The significant enrichment of eggs with n-3 fatty acids and antioxidant capacity, as well on the health-related indices especially from T2 eggs, represents a potential functional feed ingredient in poultry feeding, to obtain eggs as functional food.

Dietary soluble flaxseed oils as a source of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids for laying hens

The present study investigated the effect of dietary soluble flaxseed oil (SFO), as a source of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids, on the fatty acid composition of egg yolk and various indices including laying performance, egg quality, nutrient composition of eggs, egg stability upon storage, and serum characteristics in laying hens. A total of 210 52-week-old Hy-Line Brown laying hens were assigned to one of 5 experimental diets. A corn-soybean meal-based control diet was mixed without or with SFO to reach the concentrations of 0.2, 0.4, 0.6, and 0.8% in diets and fed for 4 wk. Dietary SFO did not affect laying performance and egg quality. Increasing dietary SFO linearly increased the pH of yolk at 7, 14, and 28 d following storage at room temperature (P < 0.05). Malondialdehyde contents in egg yolks were quadratically increased (P < 0.05) at 0, 7, and 21 d following storage as the inclusion levels of SFO increased in diets. A significant increase (P < 0.05) in total omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and docosahexaenoic acid, but not α-linolenic acid and eicosapentaenoic acid, was deposited in egg yolks at 2 and 4 wk following the SFO feeding. Finally, dietary SFO did not affect serum parameters such as total cholesterol, triglyceride, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol, and nitric oxide. It is concluded that adding SFO into the diets of laying hens can be an efficient strategy to enrich the omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids, including docosahexaenoic acid in eggs.

Profile of fatty acid lipid fractions of omega-3 fatty acid-enriched table eggs

The omega-3 fatty acid (FA) enrichment of yolk is a key means one of the main objectives to improve the nutraceutical properties of eggs. We evaluated the effect of the dietary inclusion of extruded linseed fed to laying hens on the fatty acid composition of the polar and non-polar lipid classes of the eggs. Two groups of 36 Lohmann White Leghorn layers (65 weeks old) were each fed one of two different diets for a period of 12 weeks. The two diets consisted of a conventional cereal-based diet concentrate (C) and a diet concentrate containing 5% linseed (L). The inclusion of linseed in the diet increased the content of α-linolenic (C18:3n-3), eicosapentaenoic (C20:5n-3) and docosahexaenoic (C22:6n-3) acids in neutral lipids, while a concomitant decrease in arachidonic acid (C20:4n-6) was observed. As regards the polar fraction, the fatty acid composition was slightly affected by the dietary treatments except for C18:0 (+1.14 fold), C18:2n-6 (+1.23 fold), C18:3n-3 (+2.8 fold) and C22:6n-3 (+1.41 fold). Principal component analysis demonstrated that very long-chain FAs were more representative of polar lipids, except for C20:5n-3, while neutral lipids were characterized by dietary n-3 FA (C18:3n-3).

Inclusion of pyridoxine to flaxseed cake in poultry feed improves productivity of omega-3 enriched eggs

Flaxseed cake produced during flax oil production is rich in protein, and could be utilized in the production of omega-3 enriched eggs or value added eggs. But the presence of anti-nutrients in flaxseed cake adversely affects the bird and egg characteristics. Supplementation of pyridoxine may prove beneficial as noted by earlier research. In our study, we divided 30 layer birds into three groups and supplemented them with different combination feeds containing: (A) control ration, (B) fresh flax seed cake with pyridoxine and (C) fresh flax seed cake without pyridoxine. Crushed 2% flaxseed was also added to the flaxseed cake groups for deposition of sufficient omega-3 fatty acids into the eggs. Supplementation was given for a period of 4 weeks and egg as well as bird characteristics observed. Birds fed pyridoxine showed better incorporation of omega-3 fatty acids into the egg yolk. Supplementation of flaxseed cake with pyridoxine resulted in better yields of omega-3 eggs as well as improved health of layer birds.

Effect of Dietary Incorporation of Linseed Alone or Together with Tomato-Red Pepper Mix on Laying Hens' Egg Yolk Fatty Acids Profile and Health Lipid Indexes

This study evaluated the effect of linseed incorporation in laying hens’ feed (alone or along with a tomato-red pepper mix) on laying hens’ egg yolk fatty acids profile, as well as on their atherogenic (IA) and thrombogenic (IT) health lipid indexes, and the ratio between the hypocholesterolemic and hypercholesterolemic fatty acids (HH). Sixty 27 weeks-old Novogen White laying hens were divided into three groups and given 100 g/hen/day of a standard diet (Control, C) containing 4.5% of ground linseed (Linseed diet, L), containing 1% of dried tomato paste and 1% sweet red pepper (Lineseeds-Tomato-Pepper, LTP). The linseed dietary inclusion significantly reduced the egg yolk content of palmitic acid from 25.41% (C) to 23.43% (L) and that of stearic acid from 14.75% (C) to 12.52% (L). Feeding 4.5% ground linseed did not affect the egg yolk content of α-Linolenic acid but significantly increased the egg yolk concentration of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) from 0.011% (C) to 0.047% (L) and that of docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) from 1.94% (C) to 2.73% (L). The IA and the HH were not affected (p > 0.05) by the dietary addition of linseed, whereas the IT decreased (p < 0.05) from 1.16 (C) to 0.86 (L). Adding tomato-sweet red pepper mix to the linseed-supplemented feed did not affect the measured parameters as compared to the linseed dietary treatment.

Time Trends and Patterns of Reported Egg Consumption in the U.S. by Sociodemographic Characteristics

Eggs have the potential to contribute essential nutrients to nutritionally vulnerable populations on limited food budgets. Further research is needed to better understand patterns of egg consumption across diverse sociodemographic groups in order to inform clinical practice to improve nutrient adequacy. Data on demographics and egg intake of 29,694 U.S. adults were obtained from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 2001-2012. The National Cancer Institute's usual intake methodology was used to estimate the distribution of egg intake. Linear and logistic regression models were used to test for time trends in egg consumption and for differences between sociodemographic groups. The proportion of the U.S. population, overall (21%-22%; p = 0.311) and by sociodemographic group (p > 0.05 for all groups), that reported consuming eggs remained unchanged from 2001 to 2012. Mean egg consumption increased overall from 23.0 (95% CI, 20.8-25.2) g/day in 2001-2002 to 25.5 (22.7-28.4) g/day in 2011-2012 (p = 0.012), but not among food insecure individuals (p = 0.816) and Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP) participants (p = 0.399). No differences in the odds of egg consumption were observed by income level, food security status, or SNAP participation status (p > 0.05 for all groups). Given the nutritional benefits of eggs, as well as their low cost and culinary versatility, the results presented here have important implications for reducing disparities in health outcomes and diet quality, in particular among food insecure individuals and SNAP participants. Further research is needed to examine factors that influence egg consumption and associated nutrient intake, and to identify potential barriers to increasing egg consumption, such as egg price changes, across diverse sociodemographic groups.

Serum and macular response to carotenoid-enriched egg supplementation in human subjects: the Egg Xanthophyll Intervention clinical Trial (EXIT)

The macular carotenoids lutein (L), zeaxanthin (Z) and meso-zeaxanthin (MZ) accumulate at the macula, where they are collectively referred to as macular pigment (MP). Augmentation of this pigment, typically achieved through diet and supplementation, enhances visual function and protects against progression of age-related macular degeneration. However, it is known that eggs are a rich dietary source of L and Z, in a highly bioavailable matrix. In this single-blind placebo-controlled study, L- and MZ-enriched eggs and control non-enriched eggs were fed to human subjects (mean age 41 and 35 years, respectively) over an 8-week period, and outcome measures included MP, visual function and serum concentrations of carotenoids and cholesterol. Serum carotenoid concentrations increased significantly in control and enriched egg groups, but to a significantly greater extent in the enriched egg group (P<0·001 for L, Z and MZ). There was no significant increase in MP in either study group post intervention, and we saw no significant improvement in visual performance in either group. Total cholesterol increased significantly in each group, but it did not exceed the upper limit of the normative range (6·5 mmol/l). Therefore, carotenoid-enriched eggs may represent an effective dietary source of L, Z and MZ, reflected in significantly raised serum concentrations of these carotenoids, and consequentially improved bioavailability for capture by target tissues. However, benefits in terms of MP augmentation and /or improved visual performance were not realised over the 8-week study period, and a study of greater duration will be required to address these questions.