Red blood cells: a potential delivery system

Immunogenicity-masking delivery of uricase against hyperuricemia and gout

Improving the activity of uricase and lowering its immunogenicity remain significant challenges in the enzyme replacement management of hyperuricemia and related inflammatory diseases. Herein, an immunogenicity-masking strategy based on engineered red blood cells (RBCs) was developed for effective uricase delivery against both hyperuricemia and gout. The dynamic membrane of RBCs enabled high resistance to protease inactivation and hydrogen peroxide accumulation. Benefiting from these advantages, a single infusion of RBC-loaded uricase (Uri@RBC) performed prolonged blood circulation and sustained hyperuricemia management. Importantly, RBCs masked the immunogenicity of uricase, leading to the maintenance of UA-lowering performance after repeated infusion through reduced antibody-mediated macrophage clearance. In an acute gout model, Uri@RBC profoundly alleviated joint edema and inflammation with minimal systemic toxicity. This study supports the employment of immunogenicity-masking tools for efficient and safe enzyme delivery, and this strategy may be leveraged to improve the usefulness of enzyme replacement therapies for managing a wide range of inflammatory diseases.

Red blood cells based nanotheranostics: A smart biomimetic approach for fighting against cancer

The technique of engineering drug delivery vehicles continues to develop, which bring enhancements in working more efficiently and minimizing side effects to make it more effective and safer. The intense capability of therapeutic agents to remain undamaged in a harsh extracellular environment is helpful to the success of drug development efforts. With this in mind, alterations of biopharmaceuticals with enhanced stability and decreased immunogenicity have been an increasingly active focus of such efforts. Red blood cells (RBCs), also known as erythrocytes have undergone extensive scrutiny as potential vehicles for drug delivery due to their remarkable attributes over the years of research. These include intrinsic biocompatibility, minimal immunogenicity, flexibility, and prolonged systemic circulation. Throughout the course of investigation, a diverse array of drug delivery platforms based on RBCs has emerged. These encompass genetically engineered RBCs, non-genetically modified RBCs, and RBC membrane-coated nanoparticles, each devised to cater to a range of biomedical objectives. Given their prevalence in the circulatory system, RBCs have gained significant attention for their potential to serve as biomimetic coatings for artificial nanocarriers. By virtue of their surface emulation capabilities and customizable core materials, nanocarriers mimicking these RBCs, hold considerable promise across a spectrum of applications, spanning drug delivery, imaging, phototherapy, immunomodulation, sensing, and detection. These multifaceted functionalities underscore the considerable therapeutic and diagnostic potential across various diseases. Our proposed review provides the synthesis of recent strides in the theranostic utilization of erythrocytes in the context of cancer. It also delves into the principal challenges and prospects intrinsic to this realm of research. The focal point of this review pertains to accentuating the significance of erythrocyte-based theranostic systems in combating cancer. Furthermore, it precisely records the latest and the most specific methodologies for tailoring the attributes of these biomimetic nanoscale formulations, attenuating various discoveries for the treatment and management of cancer.

Advances in Drug Delivery Systems for the Treatment of Acute Myeloid Leukemia

Acute myeloid leukemia (AML) is a common and catastrophic hematological neoplasm with high mortality rates. Conventional therapies, including chemotherapy, hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT), immune therapy, and targeted agents, have unsatisfactory outcomes for AML patients due to drug toxicity, off-target effects, drug resistance, drug side effects, and AML relapse and refractoriness. These intrinsic limitations of current treatments have promoted the development and application of nanomedicine for more effective and safer leukemia therapy. In this review, the classification of nanoparticles applied in AML therapy, including liposomes, polymersomes, micelles, dendrimers, and inorganic nanoparticles, is reviewed. In addition, various strategies for enhancing therapeutic targetability in nanomedicine, including the use of conjugating ligands, biomimetic-nanotechnology, and bone marrow targeting, which indicates the potential to reverse drug resistance, are discussed. The application of nanomedicine for assisting immunotherapy is also involved. Finally, the advantages and possible challenges of nanomedicine for the transition from the preclinical phase to the clinical phase are discussed.

Advancing in vivo reprogramming with synthetic biology

Reprogramming cells will play a fundamental role in shaping the future of cell therapies by developing new strategies to engineer cells for improved performance and higher-order physiological functions. Approaches in synthetic biology harness cells' natural ability to sense diverse signals, integrate environmental inputs to make decisions, and execute complex behaviors based on the health of the organism or tissue. In this review, we highlight strategies in synthetic biology to reprogram cells, and discuss how recent approaches in the delivery of modified mRNA have created new opportunities to alter cell function in vivo. Finally, we discuss how combining concepts from synthetic biology and the delivery of mRNA in vivo could provide a platform for innovation to advance in vivo cellular reprogramming.

Drug-loaded erythrocytes: Modern approaches for advanced drug delivery for clinical use

Scientific organizations worldwide are striving to create drug delivery systems that provide a high local concentration of a drug in pathological tissue without side effects on healthy organs in the body. Important physiological properties of red blood cells (RBCs), such as frequent renewal ability, good oxygen carrying ability, unique shape and membrane flexibility, allow them to be used as natural carriers of drugs in the body. Erythrocyte carriers derived from autologous blood are even more promising drug delivery systems due to their immunogenic compatibility, safety, natural uniqueness, simple preparation, biodegradability and convenience of use in clinical practice. This review is focused on the achievements in the clinical application of targeted drug delivery systems based on osmotic methods of loading RBCs, with an emphasis on advancements in their industrial production. This article describes the basic methods used for encapsulating drugs into erythrocytes, key strategic approaches to the clinical use of drug-loaded erythrocytes obtained by hypotonic hemolysis. Moreover, clinical trials of erythrocyte carriers for the targeted delivery are discussed. This article explores the recent advancements and engineering approaches employed in the encapsulation of erythrocytes through hypotonic hemolysis methods, as well as the most promising inventions in this field. There is currently a shortage of reviews focused on the automation of drug loading into RBCs; therefore, our work fills this gap. Finally, further prospects for the development of engineering and technological solutions for the automatic production of drug-loaded RBCs were studied. Automated devices have the potential to provide the widespread production of RBC-encapsulated therapeutic drugs and optimize the process of targeted drug delivery in the body. Furthermore, they can expedite the widespread introduction of this innovative treatment method into clinical practice, thereby significantly expanding the effectiveness of treatment in both surgery and all areas of medicine.

The Influence of Caramel Carbon Quantum Dots and Caramel on Platelet Aggregation, Protein Glycation and Lipid Peroxidation

Caramel, defined as a coloring agent and as an antioxidant, is used in several kinds of food products and is consumed by many people in different amounts. In our research we showed that the caramelization of sucrose under special conditions leads to the formation of carbon quantum dots (CQDs). So, it makes sense that humans also consume this type of CQDs, and it is theoretically possible for these particles to affect the body. Despite an increasing number of studies describing different types of CQDs, their biosafety is still not clearly understood. In our in vitro research, we examined the effects on platelet aggregation, protein glycation and lipid peroxidation of CQDs and caramel formed from a 20% sucrose solution. In vitro aggregation tests were conducted using freshly collected whole rat blood in a multiplate platelet function analyzer and measurer of electric impedance. The cytotoxic effect of the tested solutions on blood platelets was evaluated based on the release of lactate dehydrogenase. The formation of glycated bovine serum albumin was measured as fluorescence intensity and fructosamine level. The reducing power of the solutions was determined in adipose tissue, and their effect on lipid peroxidation in adipose tissue in vitro was also assessed. By measuring the intensity of hemolysis after incubation in solutions with red blood cell, we assessed their influence on the integration of the red blood cell membrane. All tests were performed in comparison with glucose and fructose and other frequently used sweeteners, such as erythritol and xylitol. Our study showed that caramel and CQDs formed from caramel may influence the glycation process and integrity of the red blood cell membrane, but unlike glucose and fructose, they decrease lipid peroxidation and may reduce Fe (III). Additionally, it is unlikely that they affect platelet aggregation. Compared to glucose and fructose, they may be safer for patients with metabolic disorders; however, further research is needed on the safety and biological activity of caramel and CQD.

Organic and Biogenic Nanocarriers as Bio-Friendly Systems for Bioactive Compounds' Delivery: State-of-the Art and Challenges

"Green" strategies to build up novel organic nanocarriers with bioperformance are modern trends in nanotechnology. In this way, the valorization of bio-wastes and the use of living systems to develop multifunctional organic and biogenic nanocarriers (OBNs) have revolutionized the nanotechnological and biomedical fields. This paper is a comprehensive review related to OBNs for bioactives' delivery, providing an overview of the reports on the past two decades. In the first part, several classes of bioactive compounds and their therapeutic role are briefly presented. A broad section is dedicated to the main categories of organic and biogenic nanocarriers. The major challenges regarding the eco-design and the fate of OBNs are suggested to overcome some toxicity-related drawbacks. Future directions and opportunities, and finding "green" solutions for solving the problems related to nanocarriers, are outlined in the final of this paper. We believe that through this review, we will capture the attention of the readers and will open new perspectives for new solutions/ideas for the discovery of more efficient and "green" ways in developing novel bioperformant nanocarriers for transporting bioactive agents.

Compatibility of Nucleobases Containing Pt(II) Complexes with Red Blood Cells for Possible Drug Delivery Applications

The therapeutic advantages of some platinum complexes as major anticancer chemotherapeutic agents and of nucleoside analogue-based compounds as essential antiviral/antitumor drugs are widely recognized. Red blood cells (RBCs) offer a potential new strategy for the targeted release of therapeutic agents due to their biocompatibility, which can protect loaded drugs from inactivation in the blood, thus improving biodistribution. In this study, we evaluated the feasibility of loading model nucleobase-containing Pt(II) complexes into human RBCs that were highly stabilized by four N-donors and susceptible to further modification for possible antitumor/antiviral applications. Specifically, platinum-based nucleoside derivatives [PtII(dien)(N7-Guo)]2+, [PtII(dien)(N7-dGuo)]2+, and [PtII(dien)(N7-dGTP)] (dien = diethylenetriamine; Guo = guanosine; dGuo = 2'-deoxy-guanosine; dGTP = 5'-(2'-deoxy)-guanosine-triphosphate) were investigated. These Pt(II) complexes were demonstrated to be stable species suitable for incorporation into RBCs. This result opens avenues for the possible incorporation of other metalated nucleobases analogues, with potential antitumor and/or antiviral activity, into RBCs.