1
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Bunney TD, Kampyli C, Gregory A, Katan M. Characterisation of molecular mechanisms for PLCγ2 disease-linked variants. Adv Biol Regul 2024; 94:101053. [PMID: 39313402 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbior.2024.101053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2024] [Accepted: 09/18/2024] [Indexed: 09/25/2024]
Abstract
The phospholipase C enzyme PLCγ2 is best characterised in the context of immune cell regulation. Furthermore, many mutations discovered in PLCγ2 have been linked to the development of complex immune disorders as well as resistance to ibrutinib treatment in chronic lymphocytic leukaemia. Importantly, it has also been found that a rare variant of PLCγ2 (P522R) has a protective role in Alzheimer's disease (AD). Despite initial characterisation of these disease-linked variants, a comprehensive understanding of their differences and underpinning molecular mechanisms, needed to facilitate therapeutic efforts, is lacking. Here, we used available structural insights for PLCγ enzymes to further analyse PLCγ2 M1141K mutation, representative for mutations in immune disorders and cancer resistance, and the AD-protective variant, PLCγ2 P522R. Together with several other mutations in the autoinhibitory interface, the PLCγ2 M1141K mutation was strongly activating in a cell-based assay, under basal and stimulated conditions. Measurements of PLC activity in various in vitro assays demonstrated enhanced activity of PLCγ2 M1141K while the activity of PLCγ2 P522R was not significantly different from the WT. Similar trends were observed in several other assays, including direct liposome binding. However, an enhanced rate of phosphorylation of a functionally important tyrosine by Btk in vitro was observed for PLCγ2 P522R variants. To further assess implications of these in vitro findings in a cellular context relevant for the PLCγ2 P522R variant, microglia (BV2) stable cell lines were generated and analysed under growth conditions. The PLC activity in cells expressing PLCγ2 P522R at physiologically relevant levels was clearly enhanced compared to the WT, and differences in cell morphology observed. These data, combined with the structural insights, suggest that the PLCγ2 P522R variant has subtle, localised structural changes that do not directly affect the PLC activity by compromising autoinhibition, as determined for PLCγ2 M1141K. It is also likely that in contrast to the PLCγ2 M1141K, the functional impact of the P522R substitution completely depends on further interactions with upstream kinases and other regulatory proteins in a relevant cellular context, where changes in the PLCγ2 P522R variant could facilitate processes such as phosphorylation and protein-protein interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tom D Bunney
- Institute of Structural and Molecular Biology, Division of Biosciences, University College London, London, UK
| | - Charis Kampyli
- Institute of Structural and Molecular Biology, Division of Biosciences, University College London, London, UK
| | - Ashley Gregory
- Institute of Structural and Molecular Biology, Division of Biosciences, University College London, London, UK
| | - Matilda Katan
- Institute of Structural and Molecular Biology, Division of Biosciences, University College London, London, UK.
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2
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Simmonds E, Leonenko G, Yaman U, Bellou E, Myers A, Morgan K, Brookes K, Hardy J, Salih D, Escott-Price V. Chromosome X-wide association study in case control studies of pathologically confirmed Alzheimer's disease in a European population. Transl Psychiatry 2024; 14:358. [PMID: 39231932 PMCID: PMC11375158 DOI: 10.1038/s41398-024-03058-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2023] [Revised: 08/20/2024] [Accepted: 08/22/2024] [Indexed: 09/06/2024] Open
Abstract
Although there are several genome-wide association studies available which highlight genetic variants associated with Alzheimer's disease (AD), often the X chromosome is excluded from the analysis. We conducted an X-chromosome-wide association study (XWAS) in three independent studies with a pathologically confirmed phenotype (total 1970 cases and 1113 controls). The XWAS was performed in males and females separately, and these results were then meta-analysed. Four suggestively associated genes were identified which may be of potential interest for further study in AD, these are DDX53 (rs12006935, OR = 0.52, p = 6.9e-05), IL1RAPL1 (rs6628450, OR = 0.36, p = 4.2e-05; rs137983810, OR = 0.52, p = 0.0003), TBX22 (rs5913102, OR = 0.74, p = 0.0003) and SH3BGRL (rs186553004, OR = 0.35, p = 0.0005; rs113157993, OR = 0.52, p = 0.0003), which replicate across at least two studies. The SNP rs5913102 in TBX22 achieves chromosome-wide significance in meta-analysed data. DDX53 shows highest expression in astrocytes, IL1RAPL1 is most highly expressed in oligodendrocytes and neurons and SH3BGRL is most highly expressed in microglia. We have also identified SNPs in the NXF5 gene at chromosome-wide significance in females (rs5944989, OR = 0.62, p = 1.1e-05) but not in males (p = 0.83). The discovery of relevant AD associated genes on the X chromosome may identify AD risk differences and similarities based on sex and lead to the development of sex-stratified therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emily Simmonds
- Dementia Research Institute, Cardiff University, Cardiff, UK
| | - Ganna Leonenko
- Dementia Research Institute, Cardiff University, Cardiff, UK
| | - Umran Yaman
- Institute of Neurology, University College London, London, UK
| | - Eftychia Bellou
- Dementia Research Institute, Cardiff University, Cardiff, UK
| | - Amanda Myers
- Department of Cell Biology, University of Miami, Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, USA
| | | | - Keeley Brookes
- Biosciences, School of Science and Technology, Nottingham Trent University, Nottingham, UK
| | - John Hardy
- Institute of Neurology, University College London, London, UK
| | - Dervis Salih
- Institute of Neurology, University College London, London, UK
| | - Valentina Escott-Price
- Dementia Research Institute, Cardiff University, Cardiff, UK.
- Division of Psychological Medicine and Clinical Neurosciences, School of Medicine, Cardiff University, Cardiff, UK.
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3
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Kim H, Yeo C, Hong JY, Jeon WJ, Kim H, Lee J, Lee YJ, Baek SH, Ha IH. Raphanus sativus Linne Protects Human Nucleus Pulposus Cells against H 2O 2-Induced Damage by Inhibiting TREM2. BIOLOGY 2024; 13:602. [PMID: 39194540 DOI: 10.3390/biology13080602] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2024] [Revised: 08/06/2024] [Accepted: 08/08/2024] [Indexed: 08/29/2024]
Abstract
Intervertebral disc degeneration (IDD) progresses owing to damage and depletion of nucleus pulposus (NP) cells. Cytoprotection mitigates oxidative stress, nutrient deprivation, and mechanical stress, which lead to cell damage and necrosis. We aimed to examine the protective effect of Raphanus sativus Linne (RSL), common radish, against oxidative stress by H2O2 in human NP cells and whether the RSL extracts can inhibit triggering receptor expressed on myeloid cells 2 (TREM2), an inducer of apoptosis and degeneration in NP cells. We administered hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) to cultured human NP cells treated with RSL extracts. We used immunoblotting and quantitative PCR to investigate expression of the apoptosis-associated proteins in cultured cells. RSL significantly enhanced cell survival by suppressing the activation of cleaved caspase-3 and Bax. In contrast, RSL extract increased Bcl2 concentration to downregulate apoptosis. Additionally, RSL treatment notably enhanced the mRNA levels of ACAN and Col2a1 while significantly reducing those of ADAMTS-4, ADAMTS-5, MMP3, and MMP13, key genes involved in NP degeneration. While H2O2 elevated TREM2 expression, causing disc degeneration, RSL downregulated TREM2 expression. Thus, our findings imply that RSL supports human NP cells under oxidative stress and regulates the pathways underlying disc degeneration, particularly TREM2, and that RSL extracts may potentially prevent IDD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hyunseong Kim
- Jaseng Spine and Joint Research Institute, Jaseng Medical Foundation, Seoul 06110, Republic of Korea
| | - Changhwan Yeo
- Jaseng Spine and Joint Research Institute, Jaseng Medical Foundation, Seoul 06110, Republic of Korea
| | - Jin Young Hong
- Jaseng Spine and Joint Research Institute, Jaseng Medical Foundation, Seoul 06110, Republic of Korea
| | - Wan-Jin Jeon
- Jaseng Spine and Joint Research Institute, Jaseng Medical Foundation, Seoul 06110, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyun Kim
- Jaseng Spine and Joint Research Institute, Jaseng Medical Foundation, Seoul 06110, Republic of Korea
| | - Junseon Lee
- Jaseng Spine and Joint Research Institute, Jaseng Medical Foundation, Seoul 06110, Republic of Korea
| | - Yoon Jae Lee
- Jaseng Spine and Joint Research Institute, Jaseng Medical Foundation, Seoul 06110, Republic of Korea
| | - Seung Ho Baek
- College of Korean Medicine, Dongguk University, 32 Dongguk-ro, Ilsandong-gu, Goyang-si 10326, Republic of Korea
| | - In-Hyuk Ha
- Jaseng Spine and Joint Research Institute, Jaseng Medical Foundation, Seoul 06110, Republic of Korea
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4
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Bharadwaj S, Groza Y, Mierzwicka JM, Malý P. Current understanding on TREM-2 molecular biology and physiopathological functions. Int Immunopharmacol 2024; 134:112042. [PMID: 38703564 DOI: 10.1016/j.intimp.2024.112042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2024] [Revised: 04/05/2024] [Accepted: 04/05/2024] [Indexed: 05/06/2024]
Abstract
Triggering receptor expressed on myeloid cells 2 (TREM-2), a glycosylated receptor belonging to the immunoglobin superfamily and especially expressed in the myeloid cell lineage, is frequently explained as a reminiscent receptor for both adaptive and innate immunity regulation. TREM-2 is also acknowledged to influence NK cell differentiation via the PI3K and PLCγ signaling pathways, as well as the partial activation or direct inhibition of T cells. Additionally, TREM-2 overexpression is substantially linked to cell-specific functions, such as enhanced phagocytosis, reduced toll-like receptor (TLR)-mediated inflammatory cytokine production, increased transcription of anti-inflammatory cytokines, and reshaped T cell function. Whereas TREM-2-deficient cells exhibit diminished phagocytic function and enhanced proinflammatory cytokines production, proceeding to inflammatory injuries and an immunosuppressive environment for disease progression. Despite the growing literature supporting TREM-2+ cells in various diseases, such as neurodegenerative disorders and cancer, substantial facets of TREM-2-mediated signaling remain inadequately understood relevant to pathophysiology conditions. In this direction, herein, we have summarized the current knowledge on TREM-2 biology and cell-specific TREM-2 expression, particularly in the modulation of pivotal TREM-2-dependent functions under physiopathological conditions. Furthermore, molecular regulation and generic biological relevance of TREM-2 are also discussed, which might provide an alternative approach for preventing or reducing TREM-2-associated deformities. At last, we discussed the TREM-2 function in supporting an immunosuppressive cancer environment and as a potential drug target for cancer immunotherapy. Hence, summarized knowledge of TREM-2 might provide a window to overcome challenges in clinically effective therapies for TREM-2-induced diseases in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shiv Bharadwaj
- Laboratory of Ligand Engineering, Institute of Biotechnology of the Czech Academy of Sciences, BIOCEV Research Center, Průmyslová 595, 252 50 Vestec, Czech Republic.
| | - Yaroslava Groza
- Laboratory of Ligand Engineering, Institute of Biotechnology of the Czech Academy of Sciences, BIOCEV Research Center, Průmyslová 595, 252 50 Vestec, Czech Republic
| | - Joanna M Mierzwicka
- Laboratory of Ligand Engineering, Institute of Biotechnology of the Czech Academy of Sciences, BIOCEV Research Center, Průmyslová 595, 252 50 Vestec, Czech Republic
| | - Petr Malý
- Laboratory of Ligand Engineering, Institute of Biotechnology of the Czech Academy of Sciences, BIOCEV Research Center, Průmyslová 595, 252 50 Vestec, Czech Republic.
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5
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Ahmed H, Wang Y, Griffiths WJ, Levey AI, Pikuleva I, Liang SH, Haider A. Brain cholesterol and Alzheimer's disease: challenges and opportunities in probe and drug development. Brain 2024; 147:1622-1635. [PMID: 38301270 PMCID: PMC11068113 DOI: 10.1093/brain/awae028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2023] [Revised: 12/20/2023] [Accepted: 01/13/2024] [Indexed: 02/03/2024] Open
Abstract
Cholesterol homeostasis is impaired in Alzheimer's disease; however, attempts to modulate brain cholesterol biology have not translated into tangible clinical benefits for patients to date. Several recent milestone developments have substantially improved our understanding of how excess neuronal cholesterol contributes to the pathophysiology of Alzheimer's disease. Indeed, neuronal cholesterol was linked to the formation of amyloid-β and neurofibrillary tangles through molecular pathways that were recently delineated in mechanistic studies. Furthermore, remarkable advances in translational molecular imaging have now made it possible to probe cholesterol metabolism in the living human brain with PET, which is an important prerequisite for future clinical trials that target the brain cholesterol machinery in Alzheimer's disease patients-with the ultimate aim being to develop disease-modifying treatments. This work summarizes current concepts of how the biosynthesis, transport and clearance of brain cholesterol are affected in Alzheimer's disease. Further, current strategies to reverse these alterations by pharmacotherapy are critically discussed in the wake of emerging translational research tools that support the assessment of brain cholesterol biology not only in animal models but also in patients with Alzheimer's disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hazem Ahmed
- Department of Radiology and Biomedical Imaging, Yale School of Medicine, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06510, USA
- Center for Radiopharmaceutical Sciences ETH-PSI-USZ, Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences ETH, 8093 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Yuqin Wang
- Institute of Life Science, Swansea University Medical School, Swansea SA2 8PP, UK
| | - William J Griffiths
- Institute of Life Science, Swansea University Medical School, Swansea SA2 8PP, UK
| | - Allan I Levey
- Department of Neurology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
| | - Irina Pikuleva
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH 44106, USA
| | - Steven H Liang
- Department of Radiology and Imaging Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
| | - Ahmed Haider
- Department of Radiology and Imaging Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
- Department of Radiology, Division of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, University Hospital Zurich, University of Zurich, 8091 Zurich, Switzerland
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6
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Zgorzynska E. TREM2 in Alzheimer's disease: Structure, function, therapeutic prospects, and activation challenges. Mol Cell Neurosci 2024; 128:103917. [PMID: 38244651 DOI: 10.1016/j.mcn.2024.103917] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2023] [Revised: 01/12/2024] [Accepted: 01/15/2024] [Indexed: 01/22/2024] Open
Abstract
Triggering receptor expressed on myeloid cells 2 (TREM2) is a membrane glycoprotein that plays a crucial role in the regulation of microglial survival, activation, phagocytosis, as well as in the maintenance of brain homeostasis and the inflammatory response to injury or neurodegeneration. This review provides a comprehensive overview of TREM2 structure and functions, highlighting the role of its variants in the development and progression of Alzheimer's disease (AD), a devastating neurodegenerative disease that affects millions of people worldwide. Additionally, the article discusses the potential of TREM2 as a therapeutic target in AD, analyzing the current state of research and future prospects. Given the significant challenges associated with the activation of TREM2, particularly due to its diverse isoforms and the delicate balance required to modulate the immune response without triggering hyperactivation, this review aims to enhance our understanding of TREM2 in AD and inspire further research into this promising yet challenging therapeutic target.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emilia Zgorzynska
- Department of Cell-to-Cell Communication, Medical University of Lodz, Mazowiecka 6/8, 92-215 Lodz, Poland.
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7
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Bull D, Matte JC, Navarron CM, McIntyre R, Whiting P, Katan M, Ducotterd F, Magno L. The hypermorphic PLCγ2 S707Y variant dysregulates microglial cell function - Insight into PLCγ2 activation in brain health and disease, and opportunities for therapeutic modulation. Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Basis Dis 2024; 1870:166978. [PMID: 38061598 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbadis.2023.166978] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2023] [Revised: 10/29/2023] [Accepted: 11/27/2023] [Indexed: 12/30/2023]
Abstract
Phospholipase C-gamma 2 (PLCγ2) is highly expressed in hematopoietic and immune cells, where it is a key signalling node enabling diverse cellular functions. Within the periphery, gain-of-function (GOF) PLCγ2 variants, such as the strongly hypermorphic S707Y, cause severe immune dysregulation. The milder hypermorphic mutation PLCγ2 P522R increases longevity and confers protection in central nervous system (CNS) neurodegenerative disorders, implicating PLCγ2 as a novel therapeutic target for treating these CNS indications. Currently, nothing is known about what consequences strong PLCγ2 GOF has on CNS functionality, and more precisely on the specific biological functions of microglia. Using the PLCγ2 S707Y variant as a model of chronic activation we investigated the functional consequences of strong PLCγ2 GOF on human microglia. PLCγ2 S707Y expressing human inducible pluripotent stem cells (hiPSC)-derived microglia exhibited hypermorphic enzymatic activity under both basal and stimulated conditions, compared to PLCγ2 wild type. Despite the increase in PLCγ2 enzymatic activity, the PLCγ2 S707Y hiPSC-derived microglia display diminished functionality for key microglial processes including phagocytosis and cytokine secretion upon inflammatory challenge. RNA sequencing revealed a downregulation of genes related to innate immunity and response, providing molecular support for the phenotype observed. Our data suggests that chronic activation of PLCγ2 elicits a detrimental phenotype that is contributing to unfavourable CNS functions, and informs on the therapeutic window for targeting PLCγ2 in the CNS. Drug candidates targeting PLCγ2 will need to precisely mimic the effects of the PLCγ2 P522R variant on microglial function, but not those of the PLCγ2 S707Y variant.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Bull
- Alzheimer's Research UK UCL Drug Discovery Institute, University College London, The Cruciform Building, Gower Street, London WC1E 6BT, United Kingdom
| | - Julie C Matte
- Wellcome Sanger Institute, Hinxton, Cambridgeshire CB10 1SA, United Kingdom
| | - Carmen M Navarron
- Alzheimer's Research UK UCL Drug Discovery Institute, University College London, The Cruciform Building, Gower Street, London WC1E 6BT, United Kingdom
| | - Rebecca McIntyre
- Wellcome Sanger Institute, Hinxton, Cambridgeshire CB10 1SA, United Kingdom
| | - Paul Whiting
- Institute of Neurology, University College London, Queen Square, London WC1N 3BG, United Kingdom
| | - Matilda Katan
- Institute of Structural and Molecular Biology, Division of Biosciences, University College London, Gower Street, London WC1E 6BT, United Kingdom
| | - Fiona Ducotterd
- Alzheimer's Research UK UCL Drug Discovery Institute, University College London, The Cruciform Building, Gower Street, London WC1E 6BT, United Kingdom
| | - Lorenza Magno
- Alzheimer's Research UK UCL Drug Discovery Institute, University College London, The Cruciform Building, Gower Street, London WC1E 6BT, United Kingdom.
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8
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Garaschuk O, Verkhratsky A. Calcium Signalling in Microglia. ADVANCES IN NEUROBIOLOGY 2024; 37:123-133. [PMID: 39207689 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-031-55529-9_7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/04/2024]
Abstract
Intracellular Ca2+ signalling represents the substrate of microglial excitability. Spatially and temporally organised changes in the free cytoplasmic Ca2+ concentration ([Ca2+]i) are generated in response to physiological and pathological stimuli. Parameters of these intracellular Ca2+ signals are defined by Ca2+ signalling toolkits that may change with age or context therefore increasing adaptive capabilities of microglia. Main Ca2+ signalling pathways in microglial cells are associated with dynamic endoplasmic reticulum Ca2+ stores and with plasmalemmal Ca2+ entry mediated by several sets of Ca2+-permeable channels including transient receptor potential (TRP) channels, ORAI channels and P2X4/7 purinoceptors. Microglial Ca2+ dynamics is also linked to TREM2 signalling cascade, contributing to neuroprotection in neurodegenerative diseases. Microglial Ca2+ signals act as reliable and precise sensors of brain dyshomeostasis and pathological insults.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olga Garaschuk
- Institute of Physiology, Department Neurophysiology, Eberhard Karls University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany.
| | - Alexei Verkhratsky
- Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, The University of Manchester, Manchester, UK.
- Department of Neurosciences, University of the Basque Country, Leioa, Spain.
- Department of Stem Cell Biology, State Research Institute Centre for Innovative Medicine, LT-01102, Vilnius, Lithuania.
- IKERBASQUE, Basque Foundation for Science, Bilbao, Spain.
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9
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Liu CC, Wang N, Chen Y, Inoue Y, Shue F, Ren Y, Wang M, Qiao W, Ikezu TC, Li Z, Zhao J, Martens Y, Doss SV, Rosenberg CL, Jeevaratnam S, Jia L, Raulin AC, Qi F, Zhu Y, Alnobani A, Knight J, Chen Y, Linares C, Kurti A, Fryer JD, Zhang B, Wu LJ, Kim BYS, Bu G. Cell-autonomous effects of APOE4 in restricting microglial response in brain homeostasis and Alzheimer's disease. Nat Immunol 2023; 24:1854-1866. [PMID: 37857825 DOI: 10.1038/s41590-023-01640-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2022] [Accepted: 09/06/2023] [Indexed: 10/21/2023]
Abstract
Microglial involvement in Alzheimer's disease (AD) pathology has emerged as a risk-determining pathogenic event. While apolipoprotein E (APOE) is known to modify AD risk, it remains unclear how microglial apoE impacts brain cognition and AD pathology. Here, using conditional mouse models expressing apoE isoforms in microglia and central nervous system-associated macrophages (CAMs), we demonstrate a cell-autonomous effect of apoE3-mediated microglial activation and function, which are negated by apoE4. Expression of apoE3 in microglia/CAMs improves cognitive function, increases microglia surrounding amyloid plaque and reduces amyloid pathology and associated toxicity, whereas apoE4 expression either compromises or has no effects on these outcomes by impairing lipid metabolism. Single-cell transcriptomic profiling reveals increased antigen presentation and interferon pathways upon apoE3 expression. In contrast, apoE4 expression downregulates complement and lysosomal pathways, and promotes stress-related responses. Moreover, in the presence of mouse endogenous apoE, microglial apoE4 exacerbates amyloid pathology. Finally, we observed a reduction in Lgals3-positive responsive microglia surrounding amyloid plaque and an increased accumulation of lipid droplets in APOE4 human brains and induced pluripotent stem cell-derived microglia. Our findings establish critical isoform-dependent effects of microglia/CAM-expressed apoE in brain function and the development of amyloid pathology, providing new insight into how apoE4 vastly increases AD risk.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chia-Chen Liu
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, USA.
- Neurodegenerative Diseases Research Unit, Biogen, Cambridge, MA, USA.
| | - Na Wang
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, USA
- Department of Neurology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
| | - Yuanxin Chen
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, USA
| | - Yasuteru Inoue
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, USA
| | - Francis Shue
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, USA
| | - Yingxue Ren
- Department of Quantitative Health Sciences, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, USA
| | - Minghui Wang
- Department of Genetics and Genomic Sciences, Mount Sinai Center for Transformative Disease Modeling, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA
| | - Wenhui Qiao
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, USA
| | | | - Zonghua Li
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, USA
| | - Jing Zhao
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, USA
| | - Yuka Martens
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, USA
| | - Sydney V Doss
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, USA
| | | | | | - Lin Jia
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, USA
| | | | - Fangfang Qi
- Department of Neurology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
| | - Yiyang Zhu
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, USA
| | - Alla Alnobani
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, USA
| | - Joshua Knight
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, USA
| | - Yixing Chen
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, USA
| | - Cynthia Linares
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, USA
| | - Aishe Kurti
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, USA
| | - John D Fryer
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Scottsdale, AZ, USA
| | - Bin Zhang
- Department of Genetics and Genomic Sciences, Mount Sinai Center for Transformative Disease Modeling, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA
| | - Long-Jun Wu
- Department of Neurology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
| | - Betty Y S Kim
- Department of Neurosurgery, The Brain Tumor Center, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Guojun Bu
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, USA.
- Division of Life Science, The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Hong Kong, China.
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10
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Pan K, Garaschuk O. The role of intracellular calcium-store-mediated calcium signals in in vivo sensor and effector functions of microglia. J Physiol 2023; 601:4203-4215. [PMID: 35315518 DOI: 10.1113/jp279521] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2021] [Accepted: 03/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
Under physiological conditions microglia, the immune sentinels of the brain, constantly monitor their microenvironment. In the case of danger, damage or cell/tissue dyshomeostasis, they react with changes in process motility, polarization, directed process movement, morphology and gene expression profile; release pro- and anti-inflammatory mediators; proliferate; and clean brain parenchyma by means of phagocytosis. Based on recent transcriptomic and in vivo Ca2+ imaging data, we argue that the local cell/tissue dyshomeostasis is sensed by microglia via intracellular Ca2+ signals, many of which are mediated by Ca2+ release from the intracellular Ca2+ stores. These signals encode the strength, duration and spatiotemporal pattern of the stimulus and, at the same time, relay this information further to trigger the respective Ca2+ -dependent effector pathways. We also point to the fact that microglial Ca2+ signalling is sexually dimorphic and undergoes profound changes across the organism's lifespan. Interestingly, the first changes in microglial Ca2+ signalling are visible already in 9- to 11-month-old mice, roughly corresponding to 40-year-old humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kuang Pan
- Institute of Physiology, Department of Neurophysiology, Eberhard Karls University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Olga Garaschuk
- Institute of Physiology, Department of Neurophysiology, Eberhard Karls University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
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11
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Tsai AP, Dong C, Lin PBC, Oblak AL, Viana Di Prisco G, Wang N, Hajicek N, Carr AJ, Lendy EK, Hahn O, Atkins M, Foltz AG, Patel J, Xu G, Moutinho M, Sondek J, Zhang Q, Mesecar AD, Liu Y, Atwood BK, Wyss-Coray T, Nho K, Bissel SJ, Lamb BT, Landreth GE. Genetic variants of phospholipase C-γ2 alter the phenotype and function of microglia and confer differential risk for Alzheimer's disease. Immunity 2023; 56:2121-2136.e6. [PMID: 37659412 PMCID: PMC10564391 DOI: 10.1016/j.immuni.2023.08.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2022] [Revised: 06/20/2023] [Accepted: 08/14/2023] [Indexed: 09/04/2023]
Abstract
Genetic association studies have demonstrated the critical involvement of the microglial immune response in Alzheimer's disease (AD) pathogenesis. Phospholipase C-gamma-2 (PLCG2) is selectively expressed by microglia and functions in many immune receptor signaling pathways. In AD, PLCG2 is induced uniquely in plaque-associated microglia. A genetic variant of PLCG2, PLCG2P522R, is a mild hypermorph that attenuates AD risk. Here, we identified a loss-of-function PLCG2 variant, PLCG2M28L, that confers an increased AD risk. PLCG2P522R attenuated disease in an amyloidogenic murine AD model, whereas PLCG2M28L exacerbated the plaque burden associated with altered phagocytosis and Aβ clearance. The variants bidirectionally modulated disease pathology by inducing distinct transcriptional programs that identified microglial subpopulations associated with protective or detrimental phenotypes. These findings identify PLCG2M28L as a potential AD risk variant and demonstrate that PLCG2 variants can differentially orchestrate microglial responses in AD pathogenesis that can be therapeutically targeted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andy P Tsai
- Stark Neurosciences Research Institute, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, USA; Wu Tsai Neurosciences Institute, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Chuanpeng Dong
- Department of Medical and Molecular Genetics, Center for Computational Biology and Bioinformatics, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, USA; Department of Genetics, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Peter Bor-Chian Lin
- Stark Neurosciences Research Institute, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, USA
| | - Adrian L Oblak
- Stark Neurosciences Research Institute, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, USA; Department of Radiology & Imaging Sciences, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, USA
| | - Gonzalo Viana Di Prisco
- Stark Neurosciences Research Institute, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, USA; Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, USA
| | - Nian Wang
- Stark Neurosciences Research Institute, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, USA; Department of Radiology & Imaging Sciences, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, USA
| | - Nicole Hajicek
- Department of Pharmacology, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Adam J Carr
- Division of Chemical Biology and Medicinal Chemistry, Eshelman School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Emma K Lendy
- Department of Biochemistry, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA
| | - Oliver Hahn
- Wu Tsai Neurosciences Institute, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Micaiah Atkins
- Wu Tsai Neurosciences Institute, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Aulden G Foltz
- Wu Tsai Neurosciences Institute, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Jheel Patel
- Stark Neurosciences Research Institute, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, USA
| | - Guixiang Xu
- Stark Neurosciences Research Institute, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, USA
| | - Miguel Moutinho
- Stark Neurosciences Research Institute, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, USA
| | - John Sondek
- Department of Pharmacology, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Qisheng Zhang
- Department of Pharmacology, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA; Division of Chemical Biology and Medicinal Chemistry, Eshelman School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Andrew D Mesecar
- Department of Biochemistry, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA
| | - Yunlong Liu
- Department of Medical and Molecular Genetics, Center for Computational Biology and Bioinformatics, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, USA
| | - Brady K Atwood
- Stark Neurosciences Research Institute, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, USA; Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, USA
| | - Tony Wyss-Coray
- Wu Tsai Neurosciences Institute, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Kwangsik Nho
- Department of Radiology & Imaging Sciences, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, USA
| | - Stephanie J Bissel
- Stark Neurosciences Research Institute, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, USA; Department of Medical and Molecular Genetics, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, USA
| | - Bruce T Lamb
- Stark Neurosciences Research Institute, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, USA; Department of Medical and Molecular Genetics, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, USA
| | - Gary E Landreth
- Stark Neurosciences Research Institute, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, USA; Department of Anatomy, Cell Biology and Physiology, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, USA.
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12
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Zhong L, Sheng X, Wang W, Li Y, Zhuo R, Wang K, Zhang L, Hu DD, Hong Y, Chen L, Rao H, Li T, Chen M, Lin Z, Zhang YW, Wang X, Yan XX, Chen X, Bu G, Chen XF. TREM2 receptor protects against complement-mediated synaptic loss by binding to complement C1q during neurodegeneration. Immunity 2023; 56:1794-1808.e8. [PMID: 37442133 DOI: 10.1016/j.immuni.2023.06.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 27.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2022] [Revised: 10/22/2022] [Accepted: 06/19/2023] [Indexed: 07/15/2023]
Abstract
Triggering receptor expressed on myeloid cells 2 (TREM2) is strongly linked to Alzheimer's disease (AD) risk, but its functions are not fully understood. Here, we found that TREM2 specifically attenuated the activation of classical complement cascade via high-affinity binding to its initiator C1q. In the human AD brains, the formation of TREM2-C1q complexes was detected, and the increased density of the complexes was associated with lower deposition of C3 but higher amounts of synaptic proteins. In mice expressing mutant human tau, Trem2 haploinsufficiency increased complement-mediated microglial engulfment of synapses and accelerated synaptic loss. Administration of a 41-amino-acid TREM2 peptide, which we identified to be responsible for TREM2 binding to C1q, rescued synaptic impairments in AD mouse models. We thus demonstrate a critical role for microglial TREM2 in restricting complement-mediated synaptic elimination during neurodegeneration, providing mechanistic insights into the protective roles of TREM2 against AD pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li Zhong
- Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Disease and Aging Research, Institute of Neuroscience, School of Medicine, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361102, Fujian, China.
| | - Xuan Sheng
- Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Disease and Aging Research, Institute of Neuroscience, School of Medicine, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361102, Fujian, China
| | - Wanbing Wang
- Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Disease and Aging Research, Institute of Neuroscience, School of Medicine, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361102, Fujian, China
| | - Yanzhong Li
- Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Disease and Aging Research, Institute of Neuroscience, School of Medicine, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361102, Fujian, China
| | - Rengong Zhuo
- Xiamen Key Laboratory of Chiral Drugs, School of Medicine, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361102, Fujian, China; Shenzhen Research Institute of Xiamen University, Shenzhen 518063, Guangdong, China
| | - Kai Wang
- Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Disease and Aging Research, Institute of Neuroscience, School of Medicine, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361102, Fujian, China
| | - Lianshuai Zhang
- Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Disease and Aging Research, Institute of Neuroscience, School of Medicine, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361102, Fujian, China
| | - Dan-Dan Hu
- Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Disease and Aging Research, Institute of Neuroscience, School of Medicine, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361102, Fujian, China
| | - Yujuan Hong
- Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Disease and Aging Research, Institute of Neuroscience, School of Medicine, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361102, Fujian, China
| | - Linting Chen
- Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Disease and Aging Research, Institute of Neuroscience, School of Medicine, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361102, Fujian, China
| | - Hengjun Rao
- Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Disease and Aging Research, Institute of Neuroscience, School of Medicine, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361102, Fujian, China
| | - Tingting Li
- Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Disease and Aging Research, Institute of Neuroscience, School of Medicine, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361102, Fujian, China
| | - Muyang Chen
- Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Disease and Aging Research, Institute of Neuroscience, School of Medicine, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361102, Fujian, China
| | - Zhihao Lin
- Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Disease and Aging Research, Institute of Neuroscience, School of Medicine, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361102, Fujian, China
| | - Yun-Wu Zhang
- Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Disease and Aging Research, Institute of Neuroscience, School of Medicine, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361102, Fujian, China
| | - Xin Wang
- Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Disease and Aging Research, Institute of Neuroscience, School of Medicine, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361102, Fujian, China; Shenzhen Research Institute of Xiamen University, Shenzhen 518063, Guangdong, China
| | - Xiao-Xin Yan
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Central South University Xiangya Medical School, Changsha 410013, Hunan, China
| | - Xiaochun Chen
- Department of Neurology, Fujian Medical University Union Hospital, Fuzhou 350001, Fujian, China; Fujian Key Laboratory of Molecular Neurology, Institute of Neuroscience, Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou 350001, Fujian, China
| | - Guojun Bu
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL 32224, USA
| | - Xiao-Fen Chen
- Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Disease and Aging Research, Institute of Neuroscience, School of Medicine, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361102, Fujian, China; Shenzhen Research Institute of Xiamen University, Shenzhen 518063, Guangdong, China.
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13
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Qiu J, Wei L, Su Y, Tang Y, Peng G, Wu Y, He Y, Liu H, Guo W, Wu Z, Xu P, Mo M. Lipid Metabolism Disorder in Cerebrospinal Fluid Related to Parkinson's Disease. Brain Sci 2023; 13:1166. [PMID: 37626522 PMCID: PMC10452343 DOI: 10.3390/brainsci13081166] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2023] [Revised: 07/26/2023] [Accepted: 07/29/2023] [Indexed: 08/27/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Abnormal accumulation of lipids is found in dopamine neurons and resident microglia in the substantia nigra of patients with Parkinson's disease (PD). The accumulation of lipids is an important risk factor for PD. Previous studies have mainly focussed on lipid metabolism in peripheral blood, but little attention has been given to cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). We drew the lipidomic signature in CSF from PD patients and evaluated the role of lipids in CSF as biomarkers for PD diagnosis. METHODS Based on lipidomic approaches, we investigated and compared lipid metabolism in CSF from PD patients and healthy controls without dyslipidaemia in peripheral blood and explored the relationship of lipids between CSF and serum by Pearson correlation analysis. RESULTS A total of 231 lipid species were detected and classified into 13 families in the CSF. The lipid families, including phosphatidylcholine (PC), sphingomyelin (SM) and cholesterol ester (CE), had significantly increased expression compared with the control. Hierarchical clustering was performed to distinguish PD patients based on the significantly changed expression of 34 lipid species. Unsupervised and supervised methods were used to refine this classification. A total of 12 lipid species, including 3-hydroxy-dodecanoyl-carnitine, Cer(d18:1/24:1), CE(20:4), CE(22:6), PC(14:0/18:2), PC(O-18:3/20:2), PC(O-20:2/24:3), SM(d18:0/16:0), SM(d18:2/14:0), SM(d18:2/24:1), SM(d18:1/20:1) and SM(d18:1/12:0), were selected to draw the lipidomic signature of PD. Correlation analysis was performed and showed that the CE family and CE (22:6) in CSF had a positive association with total cholesterol in the peripheral blood from PD patients but not from healthy controls. CONCLUSIONS Our results revealed that the lipidomic signature in CSF may be considered a potential biomarker for PD diagnosis, and increased CE, PC and SM in CSF may reveal pathological changes in PD patients, such as blood-brain barrier leakage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiewen Qiu
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou 510120, China; (J.Q.); (L.W.); (Y.S.); (Y.T.); (G.P.); (Y.H.); (H.L.); (W.G.); (Z.W.)
| | - Lijian Wei
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou 510120, China; (J.Q.); (L.W.); (Y.S.); (Y.T.); (G.P.); (Y.H.); (H.L.); (W.G.); (Z.W.)
| | - Yilin Su
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou 510120, China; (J.Q.); (L.W.); (Y.S.); (Y.T.); (G.P.); (Y.H.); (H.L.); (W.G.); (Z.W.)
| | - Yuting Tang
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou 510120, China; (J.Q.); (L.W.); (Y.S.); (Y.T.); (G.P.); (Y.H.); (H.L.); (W.G.); (Z.W.)
| | - Guoyou Peng
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou 510120, China; (J.Q.); (L.W.); (Y.S.); (Y.T.); (G.P.); (Y.H.); (H.L.); (W.G.); (Z.W.)
| | - Yimin Wu
- Department of General Medicine, Fengxian Community Health Service Center, Shanghai 210499, China;
| | - Yan He
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou 510120, China; (J.Q.); (L.W.); (Y.S.); (Y.T.); (G.P.); (Y.H.); (H.L.); (W.G.); (Z.W.)
| | - Hanqun Liu
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou 510120, China; (J.Q.); (L.W.); (Y.S.); (Y.T.); (G.P.); (Y.H.); (H.L.); (W.G.); (Z.W.)
| | - Wenyuan Guo
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou 510120, China; (J.Q.); (L.W.); (Y.S.); (Y.T.); (G.P.); (Y.H.); (H.L.); (W.G.); (Z.W.)
| | - Zhuohu Wu
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou 510120, China; (J.Q.); (L.W.); (Y.S.); (Y.T.); (G.P.); (Y.H.); (H.L.); (W.G.); (Z.W.)
| | - Pingyi Xu
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou 510120, China; (J.Q.); (L.W.); (Y.S.); (Y.T.); (G.P.); (Y.H.); (H.L.); (W.G.); (Z.W.)
| | - Mingshu Mo
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou 510120, China; (J.Q.); (L.W.); (Y.S.); (Y.T.); (G.P.); (Y.H.); (H.L.); (W.G.); (Z.W.)
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14
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He S, Qiu S, Pan M, Palavicini JP, Wang H, Li X, Bhattacharjee A, Barannikov S, Bieniek KF, Dupree JL, Han X. Central nervous system sulfatide deficiency as a causal factor for bladder disorder in Alzheimer's disease. Clin Transl Med 2023; 13:e1332. [PMID: 37478300 PMCID: PMC10361545 DOI: 10.1002/ctm2.1332] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2023] [Revised: 07/02/2023] [Accepted: 07/10/2023] [Indexed: 07/23/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Despite being a brain disorder, Alzheimer's disease (AD) is often accompanied by peripheral organ dysregulations (e.g., loss of bladder control in late-stage AD), which highly rely on spinal cord coordination. However, the causal factor(s) for peripheral organ dysregulation in AD remain elusive. METHODS The central nervous system (CNS) is enriched in lipids. We applied quantitative shotgun lipidomics to determine lipid profiles of human AD spinal cord tissues. Additionally, a CNS sulfatide (ST)-deficient mouse model was used to study the lipidome, transcriptome and peripheral organ phenotypes of ST loss. RESULTS We observed marked myelin lipid reduction in the spinal cord of AD subjects versus cognitively normal individuals. Among which, levels of ST, a myelin-enriched lipid class, were strongly and negatively associated with the severity of AD. A CNS myelin-specific ST-deficient mouse model was used to further identify the causes and consequences of spinal cord lipidome changes. Interestingly, ST deficiency led to spinal cord lipidome and transcriptome profiles highly resembling those observed in AD, characterized by decline of multiple myelin-enriched lipid classes and enhanced inflammatory responses, respectively. These changes significantly disrupted spinal cord function and led to substantial enlargement of urinary bladder in ST-deficient mice. CONCLUSIONS Our study identified CNS ST deficiency as a causal factor for AD-like lipid dysregulation, inflammation response and ultimately the development of bladder disorders. Targeting to maintain ST levels may serve as a promising strategy for the prevention and treatment of AD-related peripheral disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sijia He
- Barshop Institute for Longevity and Aging StudiesUniversity of Texas Health San AntonioSan AntonioTexasUSA
| | - Shulan Qiu
- Barshop Institute for Longevity and Aging StudiesUniversity of Texas Health San AntonioSan AntonioTexasUSA
| | - Meixia Pan
- Barshop Institute for Longevity and Aging StudiesUniversity of Texas Health San AntonioSan AntonioTexasUSA
| | - Juan P. Palavicini
- Barshop Institute for Longevity and Aging StudiesUniversity of Texas Health San AntonioSan AntonioTexasUSA
- Division of DiabetesDepartment of MedicineUniversity of Texas Health San AntonioSan AntonioTexasUSA
| | - Hu Wang
- Barshop Institute for Longevity and Aging StudiesUniversity of Texas Health San AntonioSan AntonioTexasUSA
| | - Xin Li
- Barshop Institute for Longevity and Aging StudiesUniversity of Texas Health San AntonioSan AntonioTexasUSA
| | - Anindita Bhattacharjee
- Barshop Institute for Longevity and Aging StudiesUniversity of Texas Health San AntonioSan AntonioTexasUSA
| | - Savannah Barannikov
- Department of PathologyGlenn Biggs Institute for Alzheimer's and Neurodegenerative DiseasesUniversity of Texas Health San AntonioSan AntonioTexasUSA
| | - Kevin F. Bieniek
- Department of PathologyGlenn Biggs Institute for Alzheimer's and Neurodegenerative DiseasesUniversity of Texas Health San AntonioSan AntonioTexasUSA
| | - Jeffrey L. Dupree
- Department of Anatomy and NeurobiologyVirginia Commonwealth UniversityRichmondVirginiaUSA
- Research DivisionMcGuire Veterans Affairs Medical CenterRichmondVirginiaUSA
| | - Xianlin Han
- Barshop Institute for Longevity and Aging StudiesUniversity of Texas Health San AntonioSan AntonioTexasUSA
- Division of DiabetesDepartment of MedicineUniversity of Texas Health San AntonioSan AntonioTexasUSA
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15
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Andrews SJ, Renton AE, Fulton-Howard B, Podlesny-Drabiniok A, Marcora E, Goate AM. The complex genetic architecture of Alzheimer's disease: novel insights and future directions. EBioMedicine 2023; 90:104511. [PMID: 36907103 PMCID: PMC10024184 DOI: 10.1016/j.ebiom.2023.104511] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 88.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2023] [Accepted: 02/20/2023] [Indexed: 03/12/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a complex multifactorial neurodegenerative disorder and the most common form of dementia. AD is highly heritable, with heritability estimates of ∼70% from twin studies. Progressively larger genome-wide association studies (GWAS) have continued to expand our knowledge of AD/dementia genetic architecture. Until recently these efforts had identified 39 disease susceptibility loci in European ancestry populations. RECENT DEVELOPMENTS Two new AD/dementia GWAS have dramatically expanded the sample sizes and the number of disease susceptibility loci. The first increased total sample size to 1,126,563-with an effective sample size of 332,376-by predominantly including new biobank and population-based dementia datasets. The second, expands on an earlier GWAS from the International Genomics of Alzheimer's Project (IGAP) by increasing the number of clinically-defined AD cases/controls in addition to incorporating biobank dementia datasets, resulting in a total sample size to 788,989 and an effective sample size of 382,472. Collectively both GWAS identified 90 independent variants across 75 AD/dementia susceptibility loci, including 42 novel loci. Pathway analyses indicate the susceptibility loci are enriched for genes involved in amyloid plaque and neurofibrillary tangle formation, cholesterol metabolism, endocytosis/phagocytosis, and the innate immune system. Gene prioritization efforts for the novel loci identified 62 candidate causal genes. Many of the candidate genes from known and newly discovered loci play key roles in macrophages and highlight phagocytic clearance of cholesterol-rich brain tissue debris by microglia (efferocytosis) as a core pathogenetic hub and putative therapeutic target for AD. WHERE NEXT?: While GWAS in European ancestry populations have substantially enhanced our understanding of AD genetic architecture, heritability estimates from population based GWAS cohorts are markedly smaller than those from twin studies. While this missing heritability is likely due to a combination of factors, it highlights that our understanding of AD genetic architecture and genetic risk mechanisms remains incomplete. These knowledge gaps result from several underexplored areas in AD research. First, rare variants remain understudied due to methodological issues in identifying them and the cost of generating sufficiently powered whole exome/genome sequencing datasets. Second, sample sizes of non-European ancestry populations in AD GWAS remain small. Third, GWAS of AD neuroimaging and cerebrospinal fluid endophenotypes remains limited due to low compliance and high costs associated with measuring amyloid-β and tau levels and other disease-relevant biomarkers. Studies generating sequencing data, including diverse populations, and incorporating blood-based AD biomarkers are set to substantially improve our knowledge of AD genetic architecture.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shea J Andrews
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA.
| | - Alan E Renton
- Department of Genetics and Genomic Sciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA
| | - Brian Fulton-Howard
- Department of Genetics and Genomic Sciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA
| | - Anna Podlesny-Drabiniok
- Department of Genetics and Genomic Sciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA
| | - Edoardo Marcora
- Department of Genetics and Genomic Sciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA
| | - Alison M Goate
- Department of Genetics and Genomic Sciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA
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16
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Meneses AD, Koga S, Li Z, O’Leary J, Li F, Chen K, Murakami A, Qiao W, Kurti A, Heckman MG, White L, Xie M, Chen Y, Finch NA, Lim MJ, Delenclos M, DeTure MA, Linares C, Martin NB, Ikezu TC, van Blitterswijk MM, Wu LJ, McLean PJ, Rademakers R, Ross OA, Dickson DW, Bu G, Zhao N. APOE2 Exacerbates TDP-43 Related Toxicity in the Absence of Alzheimer Pathology. Ann Neurol 2023; 93:830-843. [PMID: 36546684 PMCID: PMC10471132 DOI: 10.1002/ana.26580] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2022] [Revised: 11/21/2022] [Accepted: 12/14/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Recent evidence supports a link between increased TDP-43 burden and the presence of an APOE4 gene allele in Alzheimer's disease (AD); however, it is difficult to conclude the direct effect of APOE on TDP-43 pathology due to the presence of mixed AD pathologies. The goal of this study is to address how APOE isoforms impact TDP-43 pathology and related neurodegeneration in the absence of typical AD pathologies. METHODS We overexpressed human TDP-43 via viral transduction in humanized APOE2, APOE3, APOE4 mice, and murine Apoe-knockout (Apoe-KO) mice. Behavior tests were performed across ages. Animals were harvested at 11 months of age and TDP-43 overexpression-related neurodegeneration and gliosis were assessed. To further address the human relevance, we analyzed the association of APOE with TDP-43 pathology in 160 postmortem brains from autopsy-confirmed amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and frontotemporal lobar degeneration with motor neuron disease (FTLD-MND) in the Mayo Clinic Brain Bank. RESULTS We found that TDP-43 overexpression induced motor function deficits, neuronal loss, and gliosis in the motor cortex, especially in APOE2 mice, with much milder or absent effects in APOE3, APOE4, or Apoe-KO mice. In the motor cortex of the ALS and FTLD-MND postmortem human brains, we found that the APOE2 allele was associated with more severe TDP-43-positive dystrophic neurites. INTERPRETATION Our data suggest a genotype-specific effect of APOE on TDP-43 proteinopathy and neurodegeneration in the absence of AD pathology, with the strongest association seen with APOE2. ANN NEUROL 2023;93:830-843.
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Affiliation(s)
- Axel D. Meneses
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, 32224, USA
- Clinical and Translational Science Graduate Program, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, 32224, USA
| | - Shunsuke Koga
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, 32224, USA
| | - Zonghua Li
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, 32224, USA
| | - Justin O’Leary
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, 32224, USA
| | - Fuyao Li
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, 32224, USA
| | - Kai Chen
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, 32224, USA
| | - Aya Murakami
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, 32224, USA
| | - Wenhui Qiao
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, 32224, USA
| | - Aishe Kurti
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, 32224, USA
| | - Michael G. Heckman
- Division of Clinical Trials and Biostatistics, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL 32224, USA
| | - Launia White
- Division of Clinical Trials and Biostatistics, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL 32224, USA
| | - Manling Xie
- Department of Neurology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, 55905, USA
| | - Yixing Chen
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, 32224, USA
| | - NiCole A. Finch
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, 32224, USA
| | - Melina J. Lim
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, 32224, USA
| | - Marion Delenclos
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, 32224, USA
| | - Michael A. DeTure
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, 32224, USA
| | - Cynthia Linares
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, 32224, USA
| | | | - Tadafumi C. Ikezu
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, 32224, USA
| | | | - Long-Jun Wu
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, 32224, USA
- Department of Neurology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, 55905, USA
- Neuroscience Graduate Program, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, 32224, USA
| | - Pamela J. McLean
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, 32224, USA
- Neuroscience Graduate Program, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, 32224, USA
| | - Rosa Rademakers
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, 32224, USA
- VIB Center for Molecular Neurology, VIB, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Owen A. Ross
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, 32224, USA
- Neuroscience Graduate Program, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, 32224, USA
| | - Dennis W. Dickson
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, 32224, USA
- Neuroscience Graduate Program, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, 32224, USA
| | - Guojun Bu
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, 32224, USA
- Neuroscience Graduate Program, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, 32224, USA
| | - Na Zhao
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, 32224, USA
- Neuroscience Graduate Program, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, 32224, USA
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17
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Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a genetically complex and heterogeneous disorder with multifaceted neuropathological features, including β-amyloid plaques, neurofibrillary tangles, and neuroinflammation. Over the past decade, emerging evidence has implicated both beneficial and pathological roles for innate immune genes and immune cells, including peripheral immune cells such as T cells, which can infiltrate the brain and either ameliorate or exacerbate AD neuropathogenesis. These findings support a neuroimmune axis of AD, in which the interplay of adaptive and innate immune systems inside and outside the brain critically impacts the etiology and pathogenesis of AD. In this review, we discuss the complexities of AD neuropathology at the levels of genetics and cellular physiology, highlighting immune signaling pathways and genes associated with AD risk and interactions among both innate and adaptive immune cells in the AD brain. We emphasize the role of peripheral immune cells in AD and the mechanisms by which immune cells, such as T cells and monocytes, influence AD neuropathology, including microglial clearance of amyloid-β peptide, the key component of β-amyloid plaque cores, pro-inflammatory and cytotoxic activity of microglia, astrogliosis, and their interactions with the brain vasculature. Finally, we review the challenges and outlook for establishing immune-based therapies for treating and preventing AD.
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Qiu J, Peng G, Tang Y, Li S, Liu Z, Zheng J, Wang Y, Liu H, Wei L, Su Y, Lin Y, Dai W, Zhang Z, Chen X, Ding L, Guo W, Zhu X, Xu P, Mo M. Lipid profiles in the cerebrospinal fluid of rats with 6-hydroxydopamine-induced lesions as a model of Parkinson's disease. Front Aging Neurosci 2023; 14:1077738. [PMID: 36742201 PMCID: PMC9895836 DOI: 10.3389/fnagi.2022.1077738] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2022] [Accepted: 12/30/2022] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Parkinson's disease (PD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disease with characteristic pathological abnormalities, including the loss of dopaminergic (DA) neurons, a dopamine-depleted striatum, and microglial activation. Lipid accumulation exhibits a close relationship with these pathologies in PD. Methods Here, 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) was used to construct a rat model of PD, and the lipid profile in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) obtained from model rats was analyzed using lipidomic approaches. Results Establishment of this PD model was confirmed by apomorphine-induced rotation behaviors, loss of DA neurons, depletion of dopamine in the striatum, and microglial activation after 6-OHDA-induced lesion generation. Unsupervised and supervised methods were employed for lipid analysis. A total of 172 lipid species were identified in CSF and subsequently classified into 18 lipid families. Lipid families, including eicosanoids, triglyceride (TG), cholesterol ester (CE), and free fatty acid (FFA), and 11 lipid species exhibited significantly altered profiles 2 weeks after 6-OHDA administration, and significant changes in eicosanoids, TG, CE, CAR, and three lipid species were noted 5 weeks after 6-OHDA administration. During the period of 6-OHDA-induced lesion formation, the lipid families and species showed concentration fluctuations related to the recovery of behavior and nigrostriatal abnormalities. Correlation analysis showed that the levels of eicosanoids, CE, TG families, and TG (16:0_20:0_18:1) exhibited positive relationships with apomorphine-induced rotation behaviors and negative relationships with tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) expression in the midbrain. Conclusion These results revealed that non-progressive nigrostriatal degeneration induced by 6-OHDA promotes the expression of an impairment-related lipidomic signature in CSF, and the level of eicosanoids, CE, TG families, and TG (16:0_20:0_18:1) in CSF may reveal pathological changes in the midbrain after 6-OHDA insult.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiewen Qiu
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Guoyou Peng
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Yuting Tang
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Shiyin Li
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Zengfu Liu
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Jiayun Zheng
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Yunxin Wang
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Hanqun Liu
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Lijian Wei
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Yilin Su
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Yuwan Lin
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Wei Dai
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Zhiling Zhang
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Xiang Chen
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Liuyan Ding
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Wenyuan Guo
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Xiaoqin Zhu
- Department of Physiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Pingyi Xu
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Mingshu Mo
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, China
- Department of Internal Medicine, Huilai People’s Hospital, Jieyang, China
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19
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Wang N, Wang M, Jeevaratnam S, Rosenberg C, Ikezu TC, Shue F, Doss SV, Alnobani A, Martens YA, Wren M, Asmann YW, Zhang B, Bu G, Liu CC. Opposing effects of apoE2 and apoE4 on microglial activation and lipid metabolism in response to demyelination. Mol Neurodegener 2022; 17:75. [PMID: 36419137 PMCID: PMC9682675 DOI: 10.1186/s13024-022-00577-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2022] [Accepted: 10/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Abnormal lipid accumulation has been recognized as a key element of immune dysregulation in microglia whose dysfunction contributes to neurodegenerative diseases. Microglia play essential roles in the clearance of lipid-rich cellular debris upon myelin damage or demyelination, a common pathogenic event in neuronal disorders. Apolipoprotein E (apoE) plays a pivotal role in brain lipid homeostasis; however, the apoE isoform-dependent mechanisms regulating microglial response upon demyelination remain unclear. METHODS To determine how apoE isoforms impact microglial response to myelin damage, 2-month-old apoE2-, apoE3-, and apoE4-targeted replacement (TR) mice were fed with normal diet (CTL) or 0.2% cuprizone (CPZ) diet for four weeks to induce demyelination in the brain. To examine the effects on subsequent remyelination, the cuprizone diet was switched back to regular chow for an additional two weeks. After treatment, brains were collected and subjected to immunohistochemical and biochemical analyses to assess the myelination status, microglial responses, and their capacity for myelin debris clearance. Bulk RNA sequencing was performed on the corpus callosum (CC) to address the molecular mechanisms underpinning apoE-mediated microglial activation upon demyelination. RESULTS We demonstrate dramatic isoform-dependent differences in the activation and function of microglia upon cuprizone-induced demyelination. ApoE2 microglia were hyperactive and more efficient in clearing lipid-rich myelin debris, whereas apoE4 microglia displayed a less activated phenotype with reduced clearance efficiency, compared with apoE3 microglia. Transcriptomic profiling revealed that key molecules known to modulate microglial functions had differential expression patterns in an apoE isoform-dependent manner. Importantly, apoE4 microglia had excessive buildup of lipid droplets, consistent with an impairment in lipid metabolism, whereas apoE2 microglia displayed a superior ability to metabolize myelin enriched lipids. Further, apoE2-TR mice had a greater extent of remyelination; whereas remyelination was compromised in apoE4-TR mice. CONCLUSIONS Our findings provide critical mechanistic insights into how apoE isoforms differentially regulate microglial function and the maintenance of myelin dynamics, which may inform novel therapeutic avenues for targeting microglial dysfunctions in neurodegenerative diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Na Wang
- grid.417467.70000 0004 0443 9942Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL 32224 USA
| | - Minghui Wang
- grid.59734.3c0000 0001 0670 2351Department of Genetics and Genomic Sciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029 USA
| | - Suren Jeevaratnam
- grid.417467.70000 0004 0443 9942Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL 32224 USA
| | - Cassandra Rosenberg
- grid.417467.70000 0004 0443 9942Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL 32224 USA
| | - Tadafumi C. Ikezu
- grid.417467.70000 0004 0443 9942Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL 32224 USA
| | - Francis Shue
- grid.417467.70000 0004 0443 9942Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL 32224 USA
| | - Sydney V. Doss
- grid.417467.70000 0004 0443 9942Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL 32224 USA
| | - Alla Alnobani
- grid.417467.70000 0004 0443 9942Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL 32224 USA
| | - Yuka A. Martens
- grid.417467.70000 0004 0443 9942Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL 32224 USA
| | - Melissa Wren
- grid.417467.70000 0004 0443 9942Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL 32224 USA
| | - Yan W. Asmann
- grid.417467.70000 0004 0443 9942Division of Biomedical Statistics and Informatics, Department of Health Sciences Research, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL 32224 USA
| | - Bin Zhang
- grid.59734.3c0000 0001 0670 2351Department of Genetics and Genomic Sciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029 USA
| | - Guojun Bu
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, 32224, USA.
| | - Chia-Chen Liu
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, 32224, USA.
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20
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Romero-Molina C, Garretti F, Andrews SJ, Marcora E, Goate AM. Microglial efferocytosis: Diving into the Alzheimer's disease gene pool. Neuron 2022; 110:3513-3533. [PMID: 36327897 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuron.2022.10.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2022] [Revised: 10/04/2022] [Accepted: 10/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
Genome-wide association studies and functional genomics studies have linked specific cell types, genes, and pathways to Alzheimer's disease (AD) risk. In particular, AD risk alleles primarily affect the abundance or structure, and thus the activity, of genes expressed in macrophages, strongly implicating microglia (the brain-resident macrophages) in the etiology of AD. These genes converge on pathways (endocytosis/phagocytosis, cholesterol metabolism, and immune response) with critical roles in core macrophage functions such as efferocytosis. Here, we review these pathways, highlighting relevant genes identified in the latest AD genetics and genomics studies, and describe how they may contribute to AD pathogenesis. Investigating the functional impact of AD-associated variants and genes in microglia is essential for elucidating disease risk mechanisms and developing effective therapeutic approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carmen Romero-Molina
- Ronald M. Loeb Center for Alzheimer's Disease, 1 Gustave L. Levy Place, New York, NY 10029-6574, USA; Department of Genetics & Genomic Sciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA
| | - Francesca Garretti
- Ronald M. Loeb Center for Alzheimer's Disease, 1 Gustave L. Levy Place, New York, NY 10029-6574, USA; Department of Genetics & Genomic Sciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA
| | - Shea J Andrews
- Ronald M. Loeb Center for Alzheimer's Disease, 1 Gustave L. Levy Place, New York, NY 10029-6574, USA; Department of Genetics & Genomic Sciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA; Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Edoardo Marcora
- Ronald M. Loeb Center for Alzheimer's Disease, 1 Gustave L. Levy Place, New York, NY 10029-6574, USA; Department of Genetics & Genomic Sciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA.
| | - Alison M Goate
- Ronald M. Loeb Center for Alzheimer's Disease, 1 Gustave L. Levy Place, New York, NY 10029-6574, USA; Department of Genetics & Genomic Sciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA.
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Li K, Ran B, Wang Y, Liu L, Li W. PLCγ2 impacts microglia-related effectors revealing variants and pathways important in Alzheimer’s disease. Front Cell Dev Biol 2022; 10:999061. [PMID: 36147734 PMCID: PMC9485805 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2022.999061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2022] [Accepted: 08/15/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is an irreversible neurodegenerative disease mainly characterized by memory loss and cognitive decline. The etiology of AD is complex and remains incompletely understood. In recent years, genome-wide association studies (GWAS) have increasingly highlighted the central role of microglia in AD pathology. As a trans-membrane receptor specifically present on the microglia in the central nervous system, phosphatidylinositol-specific phospholipase C gamma 2 (PLCγ2) plays an important role in neuroinflammation. GWAS data and corresponding pathological research have explored the effects of PLCG2 variants on amyloid burden and tau pathologies that underline AD. The link between PLCγ2 and other AD-related effectors in human and mouse microglia has also been established, placing PLCγ2 downstream of the triggering receptor expressed on myeloid cells 2 (TREM2), toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4), Bruton’s tyrosine kinase (BTK), and colony-stimulating factor 1 receptor (CSF1R). Because the research on PLCγ2’s role in AD is still in its early stages, few articles have been published, therefore in this paper, we integrate the relevant research published to date, review the structural features, expression patterns, and related pathways of PLCγ2, and summarize the recent studies on important PLCG2 variants related to AD. Furthermore, the possibility and challenge of using PLCγ2 to develop therapeutic drugs for AD are also discussed.
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22
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Benarroch E. What Is the Role of Microglial Metabolism in Inflammation and Neurodegeneration? Neurology 2022; 99:99-105. [PMID: 35851556 DOI: 10.1212/wnl.0000000000200920] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2022] [Accepted: 05/16/2022] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
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Microglial Tmem59 Deficiency Impairs Phagocytosis of Synapse and Leads to Autism-Like Behaviors in Mice. J Neurosci 2022; 42:4958-4979. [PMID: 35606143 PMCID: PMC9233448 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.1644-21.2022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2021] [Revised: 04/11/2022] [Accepted: 05/03/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Synaptic abnormality is an important pathologic feature of autism spectrum disorders (ASDs) and responsible for various behavioral defects in these neurodevelopmental disorders. Microglia are the major immune cells in the brain and also play an important role in synapse refinement. Although dysregulated synaptic pruning by microglia during the brain development has been associated with ASDs, the underlying mechanism has yet to be fully elucidated. Herein, we observed that expression of Transmembrane protein 59 (TMEM59), a protein recently shown to regulate microglial function, was decreased in autistic patients. Furthermore, we found that both male and female mice with either complete or microglia-specific loss of Tmem59 developed ASD-like behaviors. Microglial TMEM59-deficient mice also exhibited enhanced excitatory synaptic transmission, increased dendritic spine density, and elevated levels of excitatory synaptic proteins in synaptosomes. TMEM59-deficient microglia had impaired capacity for synapse engulfment both in vivo and in vitro. Moreover, we demonstrated that TMEM59 interacted with the C1q receptor CD93 and TMEM59 deficiency promoted CD93 protein degradation in microglia. Downregulation of CD93 in microglia also impaired synapse engulfment. These findings identify a crucial role of TMEM59 in modulating microglial function on synapse refinement during brain development and suggest that TMEM59 deficiency may contribute to ASDs through disrupting phagocytosis of excitatory synapse and thus distorting the excitatory-inhibitory (E/I) neuronal activity balance.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Microglia play an important role in synapse refinement. Dysregulated synaptic pruning by microglia during brain development has been associated with autism spectrum disorders (ASDs). However, the underlying mechanism has yet to be fully elucidated. Herein, we observe that the expression of Transmembrane protein 59 (TMEM59), an autophagy-related protein, is decreased in autistic patients. Moreover, we find ASD-like behaviors in mice with complete loss and with microglia-specific loss of Tmem59 Mechanistic studies reveal that TMEM59 deficiency in microglia impairs their synapse engulfment ability likely through destabilizing the C1q receptor CD93, thereby leading to enhanced excitatory neurotransmission and increased dendritic spine density. Our findings demonstrate a crucial role of microglial TMEM59 in early neuronal development and provide new insight into the etiology of ASDs.
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ApoE4 reduction: an emerging and promising therapeutic strategy for Alzheimer's disease. Neurobiol Aging 2022; 115:20-28. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2022.03.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2022] [Revised: 03/15/2022] [Accepted: 03/16/2022] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
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25
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Tsai AP, Dong C, Lin PBC, Messenger EJ, Casali BT, Moutinho M, Liu Y, Oblak AL, Lamb BT, Landreth GE, Bissel SJ, Nho K. PLCG2 is associated with the inflammatory response and is induced by amyloid plaques in Alzheimer's disease. Genome Med 2022; 14:17. [PMID: 35180881 PMCID: PMC8857783 DOI: 10.1186/s13073-022-01022-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2021] [Accepted: 02/07/2022] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Alzheimer's disease (AD) is characterized by robust microgliosis and phenotypic changes that accompany disease pathogenesis. Accumulating evidence from genetic studies suggests the importance of phospholipase C γ 2 (PLCG2) in late-onset AD (LOAD) pathophysiology. However, the role of PLCG2 in AD is still poorly understood. METHODS Using bulk RNA-Seq (N=1249) data from the Accelerating Medicines Partnership-Alzheimer's Disease Consortium (AMP-AD), we investigated whether PLCG2 expression increased in the brains of LOAD patients. We also evaluated the relationship between PLCG2 expression levels, amyloid plaque density, and expression levels of microglia specific markers (AIF1 and TMEM119). Finally, we investigated the longitudinal changes of PLCG2 expression in the 5xFAD mouse model of AD. To further understand the role of PLCG2 in different signaling pathways, differential gene expression and co-expression network analyses were performed using bulk RNA-Seq and microglial single-cell RNA-Seq data. To substantiate the human analyses, we performed differential gene expression analysis on wild-type (WT) and inactivated Plcg2 mice and used immunostaining to determine if the differentially expressed genes/pathways were altered by microglial cell coverage or morphology. RESULTS We observed significant upregulation of PLCG2 expression in three brain regions of LOAD patients and significant positive correlation of PLCG2 expression with amyloid plaque density. These findings in the human brain were validated in the 5xFAD amyloid mouse model, which showed disease progression-dependent increases in Plcg2 expression associated with amyloid pathology. Of note, increased Plcg2 expression levels in 5xFAD mice were abolished by reducing microglia. Furthermore, using bulk RNA-Seq data, we performed differential expression analysis by comparing cognitively normal older adults (CN) with 75th percentile (high) and 25th percentile (low) PLCG2 gene expression levels to identify pathways related to inflammation and the inflammatory response. The findings in the human brain were validated by differential expression analyses between WT and plcg2 inactivated mice. PLCG2 co-expression network analysis of microglial single-cell RNA-Seq data identified pathways related to the inflammatory response including regulation of I-kappaB/NF-kappa B signaling and response to lipopolysaccharide. CONCLUSIONS Our results provide further evidence that PLCG2 plays an important role in AD pathophysiology and may be a potential target for microglia-targeted AD therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andy P. Tsai
- Stark Neurosciences Research Institute, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN USA
| | - Chuanpeng Dong
- Department of Medical and Molecular Genetics, Center for Computational Biology and Bioinformatics, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN USA
| | - Peter Bor-Chian Lin
- Stark Neurosciences Research Institute, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN USA
| | - Evan J. Messenger
- Stark Neurosciences Research Institute, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN USA
| | - Brad T. Casali
- Stark Neurosciences Research Institute, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN USA
- Northeast Ohio Medical University, Rootstown, OH USA
| | - Miguel Moutinho
- Stark Neurosciences Research Institute, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN USA
| | - Yunlong Liu
- Department of Medical and Molecular Genetics, Center for Computational Biology and Bioinformatics, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN USA
| | - Adrian L. Oblak
- Stark Neurosciences Research Institute, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN USA
- Department of Radiology & Imaging Sciences, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN USA
| | - Bruce T. Lamb
- Stark Neurosciences Research Institute, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN USA
- Department of Medical and Molecular Genetics, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN USA
| | - Gary E. Landreth
- Stark Neurosciences Research Institute, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN USA
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN USA
| | - Stephanie J. Bissel
- Stark Neurosciences Research Institute, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN USA
- Department of Medical and Molecular Genetics, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN USA
| | - Kwangsik Nho
- Department of Radiology & Imaging Sciences, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN USA
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Li XX, Zhang F. Targeting TREM2 for Parkinson's Disease: Where to Go? Front Immunol 2022; 12:795036. [PMID: 35003116 PMCID: PMC8740229 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2021.795036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2021] [Accepted: 12/13/2021] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Parkinson’s disease (PD) is one of most common neurodegenerative disorders caused by a combination of environmental and genetic risk factors. Currently, numerous population genetic studies have shown that polymorphisms in myeloid cell-triggered receptor II (TREM2) are associated with a variety of neurodegenerative disorders. Recently, TREM2 has been verified to represent a promising candidate gene for PD susceptibility and progression. For example, the expression of TREM2 was apparently increased in the prefrontal cortex of PD patients. Moreover, the rare missense mutations in TREM2 (rs75932628, p.R47H) was confirmed to be a risk factor of PD. In addition, overexpression of TREM2 reduced dopaminergic neurodegeneration in the 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1, 2, 3, 6-tetrahydropyridine mouse model of PD. Due to the complex pathogenesis of PD, there is still no effective drug treatment. Thus, TREM2 has received increasing widespread attention as a potential therapeutic target. This review focused on the variation of TREM2 in PD and roles of TREM2 in PD pathogenesis, such as excessive-immune inflammatory response, α-Synuclein aggregation and oxidative stress, to further provide evidence for new immune-related biomarkers and therapies for PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiao-Xian Li
- Laboratory Animal Center and Key Laboratory of Basic Pharmacology of Ministry of Education, Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, China
| | - Feng Zhang
- Laboratory Animal Center and Key Laboratory of Basic Pharmacology of Ministry of Education, Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, China.,Joint International Research Laboratory of Ethnomedicine of Ministry of Education and Key Laboratory of Basic Pharmacology of Guizhou Province, Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, China
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27
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Jonas LA, Jain T, Li YM. Functional insight into LOAD-associated microglial response genes. Open Biol 2022; 12:210280. [PMID: 35078351 PMCID: PMC8790339 DOI: 10.1098/rsob.210280] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2021] [Accepted: 12/01/2021] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is characterized by the presence of amyloid beta (Aβ) plaques and neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs), neuronal and synaptic loss and inflammation of the central nervous system (CNS). The majority of AD research has been dedicated to the understanding of two major AD hallmarks (i.e. Aβ and NFTs); however, recent genome-wide association studies (GWAS) data indicate neuroinflammation as having a critical role in late-onset AD (LOAD) development, thus unveiling a novel avenue for AD therapeutics. Recent evidence has provided much support to the innate immune system's involvement with AD progression; however, much remains to be uncovered regarding the role of glial cells, specifically microglia, in AD. Moreover, numerous variants in immune and/or microglia-related genes have been identified in whole-genome sequencing and GWAS analyses, including such genes as TREM2, CD33, APOE, API1, MS4A, ABCA7, BIN1, CLU, CR1, INPP5D, PICALM and PLCG2. In this review, we aim to provide an insight into the function of the major LOAD-associated microglia response genes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lauren A. Jonas
- Weill Cornell, Weill Graduate School of Medical Sciences of Cornell University, New York, NY 10065, USA
- Chemical Biology Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY 10065, USA
| | - Tanya Jain
- Weill Cornell, Weill Graduate School of Medical Sciences of Cornell University, New York, NY 10065, USA
- Chemical Biology Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY 10065, USA
| | - Yue-Ming Li
- Weill Cornell, Weill Graduate School of Medical Sciences of Cornell University, New York, NY 10065, USA
- Chemical Biology Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY 10065, USA
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28
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Hu B, Duan S, Wang Z, Li X, Zhou Y, Zhang X, Zhang YW, Xu H, Zheng H. Insights Into the Role of CSF1R in the Central Nervous System and Neurological Disorders. Front Aging Neurosci 2021; 13:789834. [PMID: 34867307 PMCID: PMC8634759 DOI: 10.3389/fnagi.2021.789834] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2021] [Accepted: 10/26/2021] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
The colony-stimulating factor 1 receptor (CSF1R) is a key tyrosine kinase transmembrane receptor modulating microglial homeostasis, neurogenesis, and neuronal survival in the central nervous system (CNS). CSF1R, which can be proteolytically cleaved into a soluble ectodomain and an intracellular protein fragment, supports the survival of myeloid cells upon activation by two ligands, colony stimulating factor 1 and interleukin 34. CSF1R loss-of-function mutations are the major cause of adult-onset leukoencephalopathy with axonal spheroids and pigmented glia (ALSP) and its dysfunction has also been implicated in other neurodegenerative disorders including Alzheimer’s disease (AD). Here, we review the physiological functions of CSF1R in the CNS and its pathological effects in neurological disorders including ALSP, AD, frontotemporal dementia and multiple sclerosis. Understanding the pathophysiology of CSF1R is critical for developing targeted therapies for related neurological diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Banglian Hu
- Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Disease and Aging Research, School of Medicine, Institute of Neuroscience, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China
| | - Shengshun Duan
- Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Disease and Aging Research, School of Medicine, Institute of Neuroscience, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China
| | - Ziwei Wang
- Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Disease and Aging Research, School of Medicine, Institute of Neuroscience, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China
| | - Xin Li
- Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Disease and Aging Research, School of Medicine, Institute of Neuroscience, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China
| | - Yuhang Zhou
- Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Disease and Aging Research, School of Medicine, Institute of Neuroscience, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China
| | - Xian Zhang
- Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Disease and Aging Research, School of Medicine, Institute of Neuroscience, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China
| | - Yun-Wu Zhang
- Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Disease and Aging Research, School of Medicine, Institute of Neuroscience, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China
| | - Huaxi Xu
- Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Disease and Aging Research, School of Medicine, Institute of Neuroscience, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China
| | - Honghua Zheng
- Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Disease and Aging Research, School of Medicine, Institute of Neuroscience, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China.,Basic Medical Sciences, School of Medicine, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China
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Dutta S, Rahman S, Ahmad R, Kumar T, Dutta G, Banerjee S, Abubakar AR, Rowaiye AB, Dhingra S, Ravichandiran V, Kumar S, Sharma P, Haque M, Charan J. An evidence-based review of neuronal cholesterol role in dementia and statins as a pharmacotherapy in reducing risk of dementia. Expert Rev Neurother 2021; 21:1455-1472. [PMID: 34756134 DOI: 10.1080/14737175.2021.2003705] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Dementia is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder impairing memory and cognition. Alzheimer's Disease, followed by vascular dementia - the most typical form. Risk factors for vascular dementia include diabetes, cardiovascular disease, hyperlipidemia. Lipids' levels are significantly associated with vascular changes in the brain. AREAS COVERED The present article reviews the cholesterol metabolism in the brain, which includes: the synthesis, transport, storage, and elimination process. Additionally, it reviews the role of cholesterol in the pathogenesis of dementia and statin as a therapeutic intervention in dementia. In addition to the above, it further reviews evidence in support of as well as against statin therapy in dementia, recent updates of statin pharmacology, and demerits of use of statin pharmacotherapy. EXPERT OPINION Amyloid-β peptides and intraneuronal neurofibrillary tangles are markers of Alzheimer's disease. Evidence shows cholesterol modulates the functioning of enzymes associated with Amyloid-β peptide processing and synthesis. Lowering cholesterol using statin may help prevent or delay the progression of dementia. This paper reviews the role of statin in dementia and recommends extensive future studies, including genetic research, to obtain a precise medication approach for patients with dementia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Siddhartha Dutta
- Department of Pharmacology, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Rajkot, Gujrat, India
| | - Sayeeda Rahman
- School of Medicine, American University of Integrative Sciences, Bridgetown, Barbados
| | - Rahnuma Ahmad
- Department of Physiology, Medical College for Women and Hospital, Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Tarun Kumar
- Department of Pharmacology, All India Institute of Medical Sciences (AIIMS), Jodhpur, Rajasthan, India
| | - Gitashree Dutta
- Department of Community Medicine, Neigrihms, Shillong, India
| | | | - Abdullahi Rabiu Abubakar
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Bayero University, Kano, Nigeria
| | - Adekunle Babajide Rowaiye
- Department of Pharmaceutical Microbiology and Biotechnology, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka, Nigeria
| | - Sameer Dhingra
- Department of Pharmacy Practice, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research (NIPER), Hajipur, India
| | - Velayutham Ravichandiran
- Department of Natural Products, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research-Kolkata, Kolkata, India
| | - Santosh Kumar
- Department of Periodontology and Implantology, Karnavati University, Gandhinagar, India
| | - Paras Sharma
- Department of Pharmacognosy, BVM College of Pharmacy, Gwalior, India
| | - Mainul Haque
- Unit of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine and Defence Health, Universiti Pertahanan Nasional Malaysia (National Defence University of Malaysia), Kem Perdana Sungai Besi, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Jaykaran Charan
- Department of Pharmacology, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Rajkot, Gujrat, India
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