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Hartman CB, Dube PS, Legoabe LJ, Van Pelt N, Matheeussen A, Caljon G, Beteck RM. Novel quinoline derivatives with broad-spectrum antiprotozoal activities. Arch Pharm (Weinheim) 2024; 357:e2300319. [PMID: 38396284 DOI: 10.1002/ardp.202300319] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2023] [Revised: 01/29/2024] [Accepted: 02/01/2024] [Indexed: 02/25/2024]
Abstract
Several quinoline derivatives incorporating arylnitro and aminochalcone moieties were synthesized and evaluated in vitro against a broad panel of trypanosomatid protozoan parasites responsible for sleeping sickness (Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense), nagana (Trypanosoma brucei brucei), Chagas disease (Trypanosoma cruzi), and leishmaniasis (Leishmania infantum). Several of the compounds demonstrated significant antiprotozoal activity. Specifically, compounds 2c, 2d, and 4i displayed submicromolar activity against T. b. rhodesiense with half-maximal effective concentration (EC50) values of 0.68, 0.8, and 0.19 µM, respectively, and with a high selectivity relative to human lung fibroblasts and mouse primary macrophages (∼100-fold). Compounds 2d and 4i also showed considerable activity against T. b. brucei with EC50 values of 1.4 and 0.4 µM, respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carla B Hartman
- Centre of Excellence for Pharmaceutical Sciences, North-West University, Potchefstroom, South Africa
| | - Phelelisiwe S Dube
- Centre of Excellence for Pharmaceutical Sciences, North-West University, Potchefstroom, South Africa
| | - Lesetja J Legoabe
- Centre of Excellence for Pharmaceutical Sciences, North-West University, Potchefstroom, South Africa
| | - Natascha Van Pelt
- Laboratory of Microbiology, Parasitology and Hygiene, Infla-Med Centre of Excellence, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - An Matheeussen
- Laboratory of Microbiology, Parasitology and Hygiene, Infla-Med Centre of Excellence, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Guy Caljon
- Laboratory of Microbiology, Parasitology and Hygiene, Infla-Med Centre of Excellence, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Richard M Beteck
- Centre of Excellence for Pharmaceutical Sciences, North-West University, Potchefstroom, South Africa
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Ogolla KO, Bwana BK, Mang’era CM, Onyango T, Otiende MY, Ochieng B, Hassanali A, Mugambi JM, Omondi P, Mireji PO. Putative bloodmeal sources in Glossina austeni tsetse fly of Arabuko Sokoke National Reserve in Kenya. PLoS One 2024; 19:e0299243. [PMID: 38446817 PMCID: PMC10917249 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0299243] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2023] [Accepted: 02/06/2024] [Indexed: 03/08/2024] Open
Abstract
Tsetse flies, the sole biological vectors of trypanosomiasis, are predominantly controlled using visual traps and targets baited with attractant lures. Formulation of the lures is informed by compositions of odors from vertebrate hosts preferred by specific tsetse species. However, there are no effective lures for Glossina austeni, a major vector of trypanosomiasis along eastern-coastal region of Africa. Formulation of the lure can be informed by knowledge of G. austeni, preferred vertebrate hosts. We thus sought to understand these hosts by assessment of putative bloodmeal sources of this tsetse fly in Arabuko Sokoke National Reserve where this species is naturally present. We sampled tsetse flies using NGU traps, isolated non-teneral G. austeni flies based on their feeding status, and identified vertebrate source of bloodmeals in their midgut contents using vertebrate 16S rRNA-PCR High-Resolution Melting analysis. We analyzed the relative vertebrate species frequencies in the bloodmeals using Fisher's exact tests. Overall, we trapped 122 flies, most of which (66.39%) were non-teneral, among which we successfully identified the vertebrate bloodmeals in 30 samples. Specifically, we detected putative suni antelope (Neotragus moschatus), harnessed bushbuck (Tragelaphus scriptus), buffalo (Syncerus caffer) and cattle (Bos taurus) derived bloodmeals. Putative suni antelope bloodmeals were significantly more frequent (63.22%), than those of the harnessed bushbuck (23.33%), buffalo (10.00%) or cattle (3.33%) (p < 0.05 Fisher's exact tests) among the samples analyzed. Suni antelope thus appears to predominate vertebrate bloodmeal source for G. austeni in the reserve, coincident with findings reported elsewhere, and is therefore a viable candidate for bioprospecting for G. austeni responsive attractants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kennedy O. Ogolla
- Biotechnology Research Institute, Kenya Agricultural and, Livestock Research Organization, Kikuyu, Kenya
| | - Billiah K. Bwana
- Biotechnology Research Institute, Kenya Agricultural and, Livestock Research Organization, Kikuyu, Kenya
| | - Clarence M. Mang’era
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Egerton University, Njoro, Kenya
| | - Tevin Onyango
- Wildlife Research and Training Institute, Naivasha, Kenya
| | | | - Benard Ochieng
- Wildlife Research and Training Institute, Naivasha, Kenya
| | - Ahmed Hassanali
- Biotechnology Research Institute, Kenya Agricultural and, Livestock Research Organization, Kikuyu, Kenya
| | - John M. Mugambi
- Biotechnology Research Institute, Kenya Agricultural and, Livestock Research Organization, Kikuyu, Kenya
| | - Patrick Omondi
- Wildlife Research and Training Institute, Naivasha, Kenya
| | - Paul O. Mireji
- Biotechnology Research Institute, Kenya Agricultural and, Livestock Research Organization, Kikuyu, Kenya
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Kargbo A, Jallow M, Vieira TSWJ, Amoutchi AI, Koua HK, Osman AM, Vieira RFDC. Diversity of Glossinidae (Diptera) species in The Gambia in relation to vegetation. REVISTA BRASILEIRA DE PARASITOLOGIA VETERINARIA = BRAZILIAN JOURNAL OF VETERINARY PARASITOLOGY : ORGAO OFICIAL DO COLEGIO BRASILEIRO DE PARASITOLOGIA VETERINARIA 2024; 33:e012623. [PMID: 38381888 PMCID: PMC10927271 DOI: 10.1590/s1984-29612024010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2023] [Accepted: 12/19/2023] [Indexed: 02/23/2024]
Abstract
Glossina species are known to transmit African Trypanosomiasis, one of the most important infectious diseases for both livestock and humans in sub-Saharan Africa. Therefore, the aim of this study was to characterize trapped Glossina spp. from The Gambia using morphological and molecular techniques in relation to the vegetation cover types. A line transect survey was carried out in all the administrative regions of The Gambia. Tsetse fly trapping was carried out for 14 days during each season using line transect. A total of 220 Glossina spp. specimens (117 F and 103 M) were captured, and DNA was extracted from the legs of 100 randomly selected Glossina spp. Further, DNA samples were tested by a conventional PCR assay. A total of 135/220 (61%; 95% CI: 54.6-67.8%) and 85/220 (39%; 95% CI: 32.2-45.4%) flies were identified as Glossina morsitans submorsitans and Glossina palpalis gambiensis, respectively, with most caught during wet season (53.6%) and more females (53.2%) than males. Results of the morphological identification agreed with those of molecular identification. The type of vegetation cover significantly influenced the caught of tsetse flies. Animals and humans at the various trapping sites are at risk of being bitten by tsetse flies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alpha Kargbo
- WASCAL-Graduate Research Program in Climate Change and Biodiversity, Universite Felix Houphouet-Boigny, Abidjan, Cote d’Ivoire
- Department of Physical and Natural Sciences, University of The Gambia, Brikama Campus, The Gambia
| | - Mamudou Jallow
- Department of Physical and Natural Sciences, University of The Gambia, Brikama Campus, The Gambia
| | - Thallitha Samih Wischral Jayme Vieira
- Center for Computational Intelligence to Predict Health and Environmental Risks - CIPHER, University of North Carolina at Charlotte, Charlotte, NC, USA
| | - Amien Isaac Amoutchi
- WASCAL-Graduate Research Program in Climate Change and Biodiversity, Universite Felix Houphouet-Boigny, Abidjan, Cote d’Ivoire
| | - Herve Koukoua Koua
- Laboratoire de Zoologie et Biologie Animale, Université de Cocody, Abidjan, Côte d’Ivoire
| | - Aamir Muse Osman
- Laboratório de Doenças Transmitidas por Vetores, Departamento de Medicina Veterinária, Universidade Federal do Paraná - UFPR, Curitiba, PR, Brasil
- Somali One Health Centre, Abrar University, Mogadishu, Somalia
- Department of Animal Health and Veterinary Services, Ministry of Livestock, Forestry, and Range, Mogadishu, Somalia
| | - Rafael Felipe da Costa Vieira
- Center for Computational Intelligence to Predict Health and Environmental Risks - CIPHER, University of North Carolina at Charlotte, Charlotte, NC, USA
- Department of Public Health Sciences, University of North Carolina at Charlotte, Charlotte, NC, USA
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Ikeogu N, Olayinka-Adefemi F, Edechi C, Onyilagha C, Jia P, Marshall A, Ode J, Uzonna J. Crosspteryx fibrifuga leaf extract enhances host resistance to Trypanosoma congolense infection in mice by regulating host immune response and disrupting the activity of parasite superoxide dismutase enzyme. Front Microbiol 2023; 14:1275365. [PMID: 37954253 PMCID: PMC10635443 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2023.1275365] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2023] [Accepted: 10/13/2023] [Indexed: 11/14/2023] Open
Abstract
African trypanosomiasis, a neglected tropical disease, is caused by diverse species of the protozoan parasite belonging to the genus Trypanosoma. Although anti-trypanosomal medications exist, the increase in drug resistance and persistent antigenic variation has necessitated the development of newer and more efficacious therapeutic agents which are selectively toxic to the parasite. In this study, we assessed the trypanocidal efficacy of Crosspteryx fibrifuga leaf extract (C.f/L-extract) in vitro. Following treatment of T. congolense parasites with C.f/L-extract, we observed a significant decrease in parasite number and an elevation in the expression of the apoptotic markers, Annexin V and 7-Aminoactinomycin D (7AAD). Interestingly, at the same concentration (50 μg/mL), C.f/L-extract was not cytotoxic to murine whole splenocytes. We also observed a significant increase in pro-inflammatory cytokines and nitric oxide secretion by bone marrow derived macrophages following treatment with C.f/L-extract (10 μg/mL and 50 μg/mL) compared to PBS treated controls, suggesting that the extract possesses an immune regulatory effect. Treatment of T. congolense infected mice with C.f/L-extract led to significant decrease in parasite numbers and a modest increase in mouse survival compared to PBS treated controls. In addition, there was a significant increase in CD4+IFN-γ+ T cells and a decrease in CD4+IL-10+ T cells in the spleens of T. congolense infected mice treated with C.f/L-extract. Interestingly, C.f/L-extract treatment decreased the activity of superoxide dismutase (an enzyme that protects unicellular organisms from oxidative stress) in T. congolense parasites but not in splenocytes. Collectively, our study has identified C.f/L-extract as a potential anti-trypanosomal agent that warrant further investigation and possibly explored as a treatment option for T. congolense infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nnamdi Ikeogu
- Department of Immunology, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, Canada
| | | | - Chidalu Edechi
- Department of Pathology, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, Canada
| | - Chukwunonso Onyilagha
- National Centre for Foreign Animal Disease, Canadian Food Inspection Agency, Winnipeg, MB, Canada
| | - Ping Jia
- Department of Immunology, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, Canada
| | - Aaron Marshall
- Department of Immunology, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, Canada
| | - Julius Ode
- Department of Veterinary Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Abuja, Abuja, Nigeria
| | - Jude Uzonna
- Department of Immunology, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, Canada
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Đaković S, Zeelen JP, Gkeka A, Chandra M, van Straaten M, Foti K, Zhong J, Vlachou EP, Aresta-Branco F, Verdi JP, Papavasiliou FN, Stebbins CE. A structural classification of the variant surface glycoproteins of the African trypanosome. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2023; 17:e0011621. [PMID: 37656766 PMCID: PMC10501684 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0011621] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2023] [Revised: 09/14/2023] [Accepted: 08/23/2023] [Indexed: 09/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Long-term immune evasion by the African trypanosome is achieved through repetitive cycles of surface protein replacement with antigenically distinct versions of the dense Variant Surface Glycoprotein (VSG) coat. Thousands of VSG genes and pseudo-genes exist in the parasite genome that, together with genetic recombination mechanisms, allow for essentially unlimited immune escape from the adaptive immune system of the host. The diversity space of the "VSGnome" at the protein level was thought to be limited to a few related folds whose structures were determined more than 30 years ago. However, recent progress has shown that the VSGs possess significantly more architectural variation than had been appreciated. Here we combine experimental X-ray crystallography (presenting structures of N-terminal domains of coat proteins VSG11, VSG21, VSG545, VSG558, and VSG615) with deep-learning prediction using Alphafold to produce models of hundreds of VSG proteins. We classify the VSGnome into groups based on protein architecture and oligomerization state, contextualize recent bioinformatics clustering schemes, and extensively map VSG-diversity space. We demonstrate that in addition to the structural variability and post-translational modifications observed thus far, VSGs are also characterized by variations in oligomerization state and possess inherent flexibility and alternative conformations, lending additional variability to what is exposed to the immune system. Finally, these additional experimental structures and the hundreds of Alphafold predictions confirm that the molecular surfaces of the VSGs remain distinct from variant to variant, supporting the hypothesis that protein surface diversity is central to the process of antigenic variation used by this organism during infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara Đaković
- Division of Structural Biology of Infection and Immunity, German Cancer Research Center, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Johan P. Zeelen
- Division of Structural Biology of Infection and Immunity, German Cancer Research Center, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Anastasia Gkeka
- Division of Immune Diversity, German Cancer Research Center, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Monica Chandra
- Division of Structural Biology of Infection and Immunity, German Cancer Research Center, Heidelberg, Germany
- Division of Immune Diversity, German Cancer Research Center, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Monique van Straaten
- Division of Structural Biology of Infection and Immunity, German Cancer Research Center, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Konstantina Foti
- Division of Structural Biology of Infection and Immunity, German Cancer Research Center, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Janet Zhong
- Division of Structural Biology of Infection and Immunity, German Cancer Research Center, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Evi P. Vlachou
- Division of Immune Diversity, German Cancer Research Center, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Francisco Aresta-Branco
- Division of Structural Biology of Infection and Immunity, German Cancer Research Center, Heidelberg, Germany
- Division of Immune Diversity, German Cancer Research Center, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Joseph P. Verdi
- Division of Immune Diversity, German Cancer Research Center, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - F. Nina Papavasiliou
- Division of Immune Diversity, German Cancer Research Center, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - C. Erec Stebbins
- Division of Structural Biology of Infection and Immunity, German Cancer Research Center, Heidelberg, Germany
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Okello I, Mafie E, Nzalawahe J, Eastwood G, Mboera LEG, Hakizimana JN, Ogola K. Trypanosoma Congolense Resistant to Trypanocidal Drugs Homidium and Diminazene and their Molecular Characterization in Lambwe, Kenya. Acta Parasitol 2023; 68:130-144. [PMID: 36441294 DOI: 10.1007/s11686-022-00640-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2022] [Accepted: 11/03/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE African animal trypanosomiasis (AAT) is a disease affecting livestock in sub-Saharan Africa. The use of trypanocidal agents is common practice to control AAT. This study aimed to identify drug-resistant Trypanosoma congolense in Lambwe, Kenya, and assess if molecular test backed with mice tests is reliable in detecting drug sensitivity. METHODS Blood samples were collected from cattle, in Lambwe, subjected to buffy coat extraction and Trypanosoma spp. detected under a microscope. Field and archived isolates were subjected to molecular characterization. Species-specific T. congolense and TcoAde2 genes were amplified using PCR to detect polymorphisms. Phylogenetic analysis were performed. Four T. congolense isolates were evaluated individually in 24 test mice per isolate. Test mice were then grouped (n=6) per treatement with diminazene, homidium, isometamidium, and controls. Mice were subsequently assessed for packed cell volume (PCV) and relapses using microscopy. RESULTS Of 454 samples, microscopy detected 11 T. congolense spp, eight had TcoAde2 gene, six showed polymorphisms in molecular assay. Phylogenetic analysis grouped isolates into five. Two archived isolates were homidium resistant, one was also diminazene resistant in mice. Two additional isolates were sensitive to all the drugs. Interestingly, one sensitive isolate lacked polymorphisms, while the second lacked TcoAde2, indicating the gene is not involved in drug sensitivity. Decline in PCV was pronounced in relapsed isolates. CONCLUSION T. congolense associated with homidium and diminazene resistance exist in Lambwe. The impact can be their spread and AAT increase. Polymorphisms are present in Lambwe strains. TcoAde2 is unlikely involved in drug sensitivity. Molecular combined with mice tests is reliable drug sensitivity test and can be applied to other genes. Decline in PCV in infected-treated host could suggest drug resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ivy Okello
- Africa Centre of Excellence for Infectious Diseases of Humans and Animals in East and Southern Africa, SACIDS Foundation for One Health, P.O. Box 3297, Morogoro, Tanzania. .,Department of Veterinary Microbiology, Parasitology and Biotechnology, Sokoine University of Agriculture, Chuo Kikuu, P.O. BOX 3019, Morogoro, Tanzania.
| | - Eliakunda Mafie
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology, Parasitology and Biotechnology, Sokoine University of Agriculture, Chuo Kikuu, P.O. BOX 3019, Morogoro, Tanzania
| | - Jahashi Nzalawahe
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology, Parasitology and Biotechnology, Sokoine University of Agriculture, Chuo Kikuu, P.O. BOX 3019, Morogoro, Tanzania
| | - Gillian Eastwood
- Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture & Life Sciences, Virginia Polytechnic Institute & State University, Blacksburg, VA, USA
| | - Leonard E G Mboera
- Africa Centre of Excellence for Infectious Diseases of Humans and Animals in East and Southern Africa, SACIDS Foundation for One Health, P.O. Box 3297, Morogoro, Tanzania
| | - Jean Nepomuscene Hakizimana
- Africa Centre of Excellence for Infectious Diseases of Humans and Animals in East and Southern Africa, SACIDS Foundation for One Health, P.O. Box 3297, Morogoro, Tanzania.,Department of Veterinary Microbiology, Parasitology and Biotechnology, Sokoine University of Agriculture, Chuo Kikuu, P.O. BOX 3019, Morogoro, Tanzania
| | - Kennedy Ogola
- Pharmacology & Molecular Laboratory, Agricultural & Livestock Research Organization, Biotechnology Research Institute, P. O. Box 362, Kikuyu, Kenya
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Moh KO, Luka SA, Ndams IS, Lawal IA, Sani D, Obeta SS, Oderinde GP, Dingwoke EJ, Adamude FA, Ubhenin AE, Umar S. Molecular and phylogenetic analysis of a type K1 strain Trypanosoma evansi isolate from Nigerian cattle: An evaluation of the therapeutic effects of compounds from Brassica oleracea on the histopathology of infected wister rats. Biochem Biophys Rep 2023; 33:101424. [PMID: 36660764 PMCID: PMC9843214 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrep.2023.101424] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2022] [Revised: 01/04/2023] [Accepted: 01/05/2023] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Understanding the pathogenesis of animal trypanosomiasis can be improved by studying the genetics of bovine trypanosomes. Pathogenic animal trypanosomes are a major impediment to livestock production, with negative economic consequences spreading beyond Sub-Saharan Africa to subtropical regions of Northern Africa, Southeast Asia, and Central and South America. An atypical K1 strain of Trypanosoma evansi (T. evansi) isolates from infected cattle in Nigeria was analyzed. The therapeutic effect of phenolic-rich compounds on the histopathology of wistar rats infected with the K1 strain was studied. Methods The K1 strain T. evansi was analyzed molecularly using PCR and sequence analysis of the Spacer-1 ribosomal RNA gene. To assess the evolutionary relationship, this was phylogenetically compared to other species studied in different parts of the world. Thirty adult male wistar rats were divided into six groups of five each. Animals in group A served as the standard control (not infected). Group B animals were infected but not treated. Group C animals were infected and given 3.5 mg/kg body weight of the standard drug diminazene aceturate. Animals in groups D, E, and F were infected and treated with phenolic-rich compounds isolated from Brassica oleracea (B. oleracea) at concentrations of 100, 200, and 400 mg/kg body weight, respectively. The phytochemicals were extracted using standard analytical procedures, and GCMS analysis revealed the presence of phenolic-rich compounds. The animals were given 0.2 mg/ml trypanosome intraperitoneally, diluted with normal saline. The vital organs of the animals were harvested and histologically examined. Results The nested PCR amplification of the trypanosome's ITS-1 region revealed a DNA amplicon of 627 base pairs. The rRNA nucleotide sequence was deposited in GenBank under the accession number MN462960. Basic Local Alignment search of the obtained ITS-1 rRNA sequences revealed that the K1 strain trypanosome and other strains from different regions have an evolutionary relationship. The phenolic-rich compounds had protective effects on the organs of infected animals, resulting in a decrease in parasitemia levels. They have anti-trypanosome activities at the minimum and maximum effective doses of 200 and 400 mg/kg body weight, respectively. Conclusions The K1 strain T. evansi was isolated from naturally infected cattle in this study. The results indicate that phenolic-rich compounds have anti trypanosoma activities capable of healing organ damage caused by trypanosomiasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kingsley Onyekachi Moh
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Life Sciences, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Kaduna State, Nigeria,Corresponding author. Department of Biology, Faculty of Life Sciences, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria.
| | - Sodangi Abdulkarim Luka
- Department of Zoology, Faculty of Life Sciences, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Kaduna State, Nigeria
| | - Iliya Shehu Ndams
- Department of Zoology, Faculty of Life Sciences, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Kaduna State, Nigeria
| | - Idris Alao Lawal
- Department of Veterinary Parasitology and Entomology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Kaduna State, Nigeria
| | - Dahiru Sani
- Department of Veterinary Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Kaduna State, Nigeria
| | - Sylvester Sunday Obeta
- Department of Veterinary Parasitology and Entomology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Abuja, Nigeria
| | - Gbenga Peter Oderinde
- Department of Human Anatomy, Faculty of Basic Medical Sciences, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Kaduna State, Nigeria
| | - Emeka John Dingwoke
- UNESCO-International Center for Biotechnology, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Enugu State, Nigeria
| | - Fatima Amin Adamude
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Federal University Lafia, Nasarawa State, Nigeria
| | - Abraham Ehinomhen Ubhenin
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Federal University Lafia, Nasarawa State, Nigeria
| | - Saifullahi Umar
- Department of Pharmacognosy and Drug Development, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Bayero University Kano, Kano State, Nigeria
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Mathewos M, Endale H, Fesseha H. Study on the prevalence and associated risk factors of bovine trypanosomiasis in Zaba Gazo Woreda, Southern Ethiopia. Res Vet Sci 2022; 152:53-57. [DOI: 10.1016/j.rvsc.2022.07.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2022] [Revised: 07/13/2022] [Accepted: 07/15/2022] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Kizza D, Ocaido M, Mugisha A, Azuba R, Nalubwama S, Nalule S, Onyuth H, Musinguzi SP, Waiswa C. The economic cost of bovine trypanosomosis in pastoral and ago pastoral communities surrounding Murchision Falls National park, Buliisa district, Uganda. BMC Vet Res 2022; 18:372. [PMID: 36253776 PMCID: PMC9578198 DOI: 10.1186/s12917-022-03468-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2022] [Revised: 09/27/2022] [Accepted: 10/05/2022] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: Animal diseases that are endemic like tsetse transmitted trypanosomosis cause the continuous expenditure of financial resources of livestock farmers and loss of productivity of livestock. Estimating the cost of controlling animal trypanosomosis can provide evidence for priority setting and targeting cost-effective control strategies. Methodology: A cross-sectional survey to estimate the economic cost of bovine trypanosomosis was conducted in cattle-keeping communities living around Murchision falls National Park, in Buliisa district Uganda. Data was collected on herd structure, the cost of treatment and control, prevalence of morbidity and mortality rates due to trypanosomosis, and salvage sales losses in cattle herds in the last year. Results: In this study, 55.4% (n = 87) of the households reported their cattle had been affected by trypanosomosis during the previous last year. There was a high economic cost of trypanosomosis (USD 653) per household in cattle-keeping communities in Buliisa district of which 83% and 9% were due to mortality and milk loss respectively/ High mortality loss was due to low investment in treatment. The study showed that prophylactic treatment 3 times a year of the whole herd of cattle using Samorin ® (Isometamidium chloride) at a cost of USD 110 could drastically reduce cattle mortality loss due to trypanosomosis due to trypanosomosis with a return on investment of USD 540 annually per herd. This could be coupled with strategic restricted insecticide spraying of cattle with deltamethrin products. Conclusion: The results show a high economic cost of trypanosomosis in cattle-keeping communities in Buliisa district, with cattle mortality contributing the largest proportion of the economic cost. The high mortality loss was due to low investment in treatment of sick cattle.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Kizza
- Department of Livestock and Industrial Resources, College of Veterinary Medicine Animal Resources and Biosecurity, Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda.
| | - Michael Ocaido
- Department of Wildlife, Aquatic and Animal Resources, College of Veterinary Medicine Animal Resources and Biosecurity, Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Anthony Mugisha
- Department of Livestock and Industrial Resources, College of Veterinary Medicine Animal Resources and Biosecurity, Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Rose Azuba
- Department of Livestock and Industrial Resources, College of Veterinary Medicine Animal Resources and Biosecurity, Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Sylvia Nalubwama
- Department of Livestock and Industrial Resources, College of Veterinary Medicine Animal Resources and Biosecurity, Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Sarah Nalule
- Department of Wildlife, Aquatic and Animal Resources, College of Veterinary Medicine Animal Resources and Biosecurity, Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Howard Onyuth
- Department of Wildlife, Aquatic and Animal Resources, College of Veterinary Medicine Animal Resources and Biosecurity, Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Simon Peter Musinguzi
- Faculty of Agriculture Department of Agricultural Production, Kyambogo University, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Charles Waiswa
- Department of Veterinary Pharmacy, Clinical and Comparative Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine Animal Resources and Biosecurity, Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda
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Boundenga L, Mombo IM, Augustin MO, Barthélémy N, Nzassi PM, Moukodoum ND, Rougeron V, Prugnolle F. Molecular Identification of Trypanosome Diversity in Domestic Animals Reveals the Presence of Trypanosoma brucei gambiense in Historical Foci of Human African Trypanosomiasis in Gabon. Pathogens 2022; 11:pathogens11090992. [PMID: 36145424 PMCID: PMC9502807 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens11090992] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2022] [Revised: 08/21/2022] [Accepted: 08/29/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Human African Trypanosomiasis (HAT) is an infectious disease caused by protozoan parasites belonging to the Trypanosoma genus. In sub-Saharan Africa, there is a significant threat as many people are at risk of infection. Despite this, HAT is classified as a neglected tropical disease. Over the last few years, several studies have reported the existence of a wide diversity of trypanosome species circulating in African animals. Thus, domestic and wild animals could be reservoirs of potentially dangerous trypanosomes for human populations. However, very little is known about the role of domestic animals in maintaining the transmission cycle of human trypanosomes in central Africa, especially in Gabon, where serious cases of infection are recorded each year, sometimes leading to hospitalization or death of patients. Komo-Mondah, located within Estuaries (Gabonese province), stays the most active HAT disease focus in Gabon, with a mean of 20 cases per year. In this study, we evaluated the diversity and prevalence of trypanosomes circulating in domestic animals using the Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) technique. We found that 19.34% (53/274) of the domestic animals we studied were infected with trypanosomes. The infection rates varied among taxa, with 23.21% (13/56) of dogs, 16.10% (19/118) of goats, and 21.00% (21/100) of sheep infected. In addition, we have observed a global mixed rate of infections of 20.75% (11/53) among infected individuals. Molecular analyses revealed that at least six Trypanosome species circulate in domestic animals in Gabon (T. congolense, T. simiae, T. simiae Tsavo, T. theileri, T. vivax, T. brucei (including T. brucei brucei, and T. brucei gambiense)). In conclusion, our study showed that domestic animals constitute important potential reservoirs for trypanosome parasites, including T. brucei gambiense, which is responsible for HAT.
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Affiliation(s)
- Larson Boundenga
- International Centre for Medical Research in Franceville (CIRMF), Franceville BP 769, Gabon
- Department of Anthropology, Durham University, South Road, Durham DH1 3LE, UK
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +241-62521281
| | - Illich Manfred Mombo
- International Centre for Medical Research in Franceville (CIRMF), Franceville BP 769, Gabon
| | | | - Ngoubangoye Barthélémy
- International Centre for Medical Research in Franceville (CIRMF), Franceville BP 769, Gabon
- Department of Anthropology, Durham University, South Road, Durham DH1 3LE, UK
| | - Patrice Makouloutou Nzassi
- International Centre for Medical Research in Franceville (CIRMF), Franceville BP 769, Gabon
- Department of Animal Biology and Ecology, Tropical Ecology Research Institute (IRET-CENAREST), Libreville BP 13354, Gabon
| | - Nancy D. Moukodoum
- International Centre for Medical Research in Franceville (CIRMF), Franceville BP 769, Gabon
| | - Virginie Rougeron
- REHABS, International Research Laboratory, CNRS-NMU-UCBL, George Campus, Nelson Mandela University, George 6529, South Africa
| | - Franck Prugnolle
- REHABS, International Research Laboratory, CNRS-NMU-UCBL, George Campus, Nelson Mandela University, George 6529, South Africa
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11
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Olaniyan OF, Secka A, Kaya I. Integrated assessment of trypanosomosis challenge on cow health and milk based on The Gambia's agropastoralism. Acta Trop 2022; 232:106520. [PMID: 35588781 DOI: 10.1016/j.actatropica.2022.106520] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2022] [Revised: 05/13/2022] [Accepted: 05/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
To improve understanding of African Animal Trypanosomosis (AAT) and associated host-parasite relationship's challenges on cow and milk, The Gambia was examined given its enzootic status. Based on an integrated assessment framework, semi-structured questionnaires which were pre-tested and then administered in five regions were used. Relationships among the investigated variables were statistically explored with Pearson chi-square test and strength of association quantified with Phi or Cramer's V coefficient. Rough coat, eye and nose discharge, loss of appetite and weight were more consistently observed as signs of AAT in infected lactating cows. Older cows with more than three calving (75.8%) were indicated as the most susceptible and there is no fixed number of times (85.2%) a cow is treated for AAT in a year. The most commonly recognized effect (91.7%) of AAT is milk reduction. Statistically significant positive but moderate relationship exist between milk reduction and late dry season (phi coefficient of 0.221), between milk contamination and early dry season (phi coefficient of 0.226), and also between wateriness and rainy season (phi coefficient of 0.220). Milk discolouration is not statistically related to any season with highest AAT infection rates. The need for integrated assessment of veterinary challenges based on factors such as herd affiliation status, ethnic affiliation, and farmers' objectives before preventive veterinary and production interventions are designed or implemented is implied. Useful information to advance research in this direction are presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olawale F Olaniyan
- Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Ege University, Izmir 35040, Turkey; West Africa Livestock Innovation Centre, PMB 14, Banjul, Gambia.
| | - Arss Secka
- West Africa Livestock Innovation Centre, PMB 14, Banjul, Gambia
| | - Ibrahim Kaya
- Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Ege University, Izmir 35040, Turkey
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12
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Okello I, Mafie E, Eastwood G, Nzalawahe J, Mboera LEG. African Animal Trypanosomiasis: A Systematic Review on Prevalence, Risk Factors and Drug Resistance in Sub-Saharan Africa. JOURNAL OF MEDICAL ENTOMOLOGY 2022; 59:1099-1143. [PMID: 35579072 DOI: 10.1093/jme/tjac018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2021] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
African animal trypanosomiasis (AAT) a parasitic disease of livestock in sub-Saharan Africa causing tremendous loses. Sub-Saharan continental estimation of mean prevalence in both large and small domestic animals, risk factors, tsetse and non-tsetse prevalence and drug resistance is lacking. A review and meta-analysis was done to better comprehend changes in AAT prevalence and drug resistance. Publish/Perish software was used to search and extract peer-reviewed articles in Google scholar, PubMed and CrossRef. In addition, ResearchGate and African Journals Online (AJOL) were used. Screening and selection of articles from 2000-2021 was performed according to Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA). Articles 304 were retrieved; on domestic animals 192, tsetse and non-tsetse vectors 44, risk factors 49 and trypanocidal drug resistance 30. Prevalence varied by, host animals in different countries, diagnostic methods and species of Trypanosoma. Cattle had the highest prevalence with Ethiopia and Nigeria leading, T. congolense (11.80-13.40%) and T. vivax (10.50-18.80%) being detected most. This was followed by camels and pigs. Common diagnostic method used was buffy coat microscopy. However; polymerase chain reaction (PCR), CATT and ELISA had higher detection rates. G. pallidipes caused most infections in Eastern regions while G. palpalis followed by G. mortisans in Western Africa. Eastern Africa reported more non-tsetse biting flies with Stomoxys leading. Common risk factors were, body conditions, breed type, age, sex and seasons. Ethiopia and Nigeria had the highest trypanocidal resistance 30.00-35.00% and highest AAT prevalence. Isometamidium and diminazene showed more resistance with T. congolense being most resistant species 11.00-83.00%.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ivy Okello
- SACIDS Africa Centre of Excellence for Infectious Diseases of Humans and Animals in East and Southern Africa, P.O. Box 3297, Morogoro, Tanzania
- Sokoine University of Agriculture, Department of Veterinary Microbiology, Parasitology and Biotechnology, Chuo Kikuu, Morogoro, Tanzania
| | - Eliakunda Mafie
- Sokoine University of Agriculture, Department of Veterinary Microbiology, Parasitology and Biotechnology, Chuo Kikuu, Morogoro, Tanzania
| | - Gillian Eastwood
- Virginia Polytechnic Institute & State University, College of Agriculture & Life Sciences, Blacksburg, VA, USA
| | - Jahashi Nzalawahe
- Sokoine University of Agriculture, Department of Veterinary Microbiology, Parasitology and Biotechnology, Chuo Kikuu, Morogoro, Tanzania
| | - Leonard E G Mboera
- SACIDS Africa Centre of Excellence for Infectious Diseases of Humans and Animals in East and Southern Africa, P.O. Box 3297, Morogoro, Tanzania
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13
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Antitrypanosomal and Anthelminthic Properties of Ethanol Extracts of Carica papaya Linn. and Ceiba pentandra (L) Gaertn. J CHEM-NY 2022. [DOI: 10.1155/2022/5251930] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The most common diseases that affect low-income countries are helminthosis and trypanosomosis. In Ghana, and in many other African countries, herbal treatment of various diseases is still common. In the present study, we sought to determine the antitrypanosomal and anthelminthic activities of Carica papaya and Ceiba pentandra. The ethanol extracts of Carica papaya stem bark (PPSe) and leaves (PPLe) and ethanol extracts of Ceiba pentandra stem bark (CPSe) and leaves (CPLe) were screened against Trypanosoma brucei brucei and Pheretima posthuma worms in vitro. CPSe exhibited strong antitrypanosomal activity, while the other extracts exhibited moderate activity against T. b. brucei. All the extracts showed weak selective indices (SI) when tested on Jurkat cell lines, which is indicative of a potential toxic effect. When the extracts were screened against P. posthuma worms, only PPSe and CPSe were able to kill the worms after the exposure time at concentrations of 2.5, 5, and 10 mg/mL. PPSe was again the only extract that potentiated the anthelminthic activity of albendazole against P. posthuma worms. Preliminary phytochemical screening and GC-MS analysis revealed the presence of compounds with antitrypanosomal and anthelminthic properties. The results confirmed the potential of C. papaya and C. pentandra as remedies for trypanosomosis and helminthosis and also gives credence to their folkloric use.
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Serem EK, Bargul JL, Ngari MM, Abdullahi OA, Mburu DM. Farmers' knowledge, perceptions, and practices on animal trypanosomosis and the tsetse fly vector: A cross-sectional study around Kenya's Arabuko-Sokoke Forest Reserve at the livestock-wildlife interface. OPEN RESEARCH AFRICA 2022; 5:22. [PMID: 37600566 PMCID: PMC10439355 DOI: 10.12688/openresafrica.13397.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 05/13/2022] [Indexed: 08/22/2023]
Abstract
Background: Animal African trypanosomosis (AAT) is a veterinary disease caused by trypanosomes transmitted cyclically by tsetse flies. AAT causes huge agricultural losses in sub-Saharan Africa. Both tsetse flies and trypanosomosis (T&T) are endemic in the study area inhabited by smallholder livestock farmers at the livestock-wildlife interface around Arabuko-Sokoke Forest Reserve (ASFR) in Kilifi County on the Kenyan coast. We assessed farmers' knowledge, perceptions and control practices towards T&T. Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted during November and December 2017 to collect data from 404 randomly selected cattle-rearing households using a structured questionnaire. Descriptive statistics were used to determine farmers' knowledge, perceptions, and control practices towards T&T. Demographic factors associated with knowledge of T&T were assessed using a logistic regression model. Results: Participants consisted of 53% female, 77% married, 30% elderly (>55 years), and the majority (81%) had attained primary education or below. Most small-scale farmers (98%) knew the tsetse fly by its local name, and 76% could describe the morphology of the adult tsetse fly by size in comparison to the housefly's ( Musca domestica). Only 16% of the farmers knew tsetse flies as vectors of livestock diseases. Higher chances of adequate knowledge on T&T were associated with the participants' (i) age of 15-24 years (aOR 2.88 (95% CI 1.10-7.52), (ii) level of education including secondary (aOR 2.46 (95% CI 1.43-4.24)) and tertiary (aOR 3.80 (95% CI 1.54-9.37)), and (iii) employment status: self-employed farmers (aOR 6.54 (95% CI 4.36-9.80)). Conclusions: Our findings suggest that small-scale farmers around ASFR have limited knowledge of T&T. It is envisaged that efforts geared towards training of the farmers would bridge this knowledge gap and sharpen the perceptions and disease control tactics to contribute to the prevention and control of T&T.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erick K Serem
- Department of Public Health, School of Health and Human Sciences, Pwani University, Kilifi, P.O Box 195-80108 Kilifi, Kenya
- Pwani University Bioscience Research Centre (PUBReC), Pwani University, Kilifi, P.O Box 195-80108, Kenya
| | - Joel L Bargul
- Department of Biochemistry, Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology (JKUAT), Nairobi, P.O Box 62000-00200, Kenya
- Animal Health Theme, International Centre of Insect Physiology and Ecology (icipe), Nairobi, P.O Box 30772-00100, Kenya
| | - Moses M Ngari
- Department of Public Health, School of Health and Human Sciences, Pwani University, Kilifi, P.O Box 195-80108 Kilifi, Kenya
- KEMRI/Wellcome Trust Research Programme, Clinical Trials Facility, Kilifi, P.O Box 230-80108, Kenya
| | - Osman A Abdullahi
- Department of Public Health, School of Health and Human Sciences, Pwani University, Kilifi, P.O Box 195-80108 Kilifi, Kenya
- Pwani University Bioscience Research Centre (PUBReC), Pwani University, Kilifi, P.O Box 195-80108, Kenya
| | - David M Mburu
- Pwani University Bioscience Research Centre (PUBReC), Pwani University, Kilifi, P.O Box 195-80108, Kenya
- Department of Biological Sciences, Pwani University, Kilifi, P.O Box 195-80108, Kenya
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15
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Tauheed AM, Mamman M, Ahmed A, Suleiman MM, Balogun EO. Antitrypanosomal properties of Anogeissus leiocarpa extracts and their inhibitory effect on trypanosome alternative oxidase. PHYTOMEDICINE PLUS : INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PHYTOTHERAPY AND PHYTOPHARMACOLOGY 2022; 2:100223. [PMID: 37378019 PMCID: PMC10295807 DOI: 10.1016/j.phyplu.2022.100223] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/29/2023]
Abstract
Background African trypanosomiasis is a protozoan disease with huge socio-economic burden to sub-Saharan African exceeding US$4.6 annual loss. To mitigate the incidence of trypanosomal drug resistance, efforts are geared towards discovery of molecules, especially from natural products, with potential to inhibit important molecular target (trypanosome alternative oxidase, TAO) in trypanosomes that are critical to their survival. Method Crude methanol extract of Anogeissus leiocarpa was subjected to in vitro bioassay-guided antitrypanosomal assay to identify the most active extract with trypanocidal activity. The most active extract was run on a column chromatography yielding five fractions, F1-F5. The fractions were assayed for inhibitory effect on TAO. The most promising TAO inhibitor was subjected to antitrypanosomal evaluation by trypanosome count, drug incubation infectivity test (DIIT) and in vivo studies. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) was used to identify and quantify phytochemical constituents of the potential TAO-inhibiting fraction. Results Ethyl acetate extract (EtOAc) significantly (p<0.05) produced trypanocidal effect and was the most active extract. Of the five fractions, only F4 significantly (p<0.05) inhibited TAO compared to the control. F4 completely immobilised the trypanosomes up to 0.5 μg/μl, yielding an EC50 of 0.024 μg/μl compared to the 0.502 μg/μl of diminazene aceturate positive control group. The DIIT showed that F4 was significantly (p<0.05) potent up to 0.1 μg/μl. F4 significantly (p<0.05) suppressed parasite multiplication in systemic circulation of the treated rats and significantly (p<0.05) maintained high PCV when compared to the 5% DMSO group. Furthermore, F4 significantly (p<0.05) lowered serum concentrations of malondialdehyde. Phytoconstituents identified by the GC-MS include tetradecene; cetene; 3-(benzylthio) acrylic acid, methyl ester; 1-octadecene; 9-heptadecanone; hexadecanoic acid, methyl ester; dibutyl phthalate; eicosene; octadecenoic acid, methyl ester; oleic acid; 2-methyl-Z,Z-3,13-octadecadienol; 1-docosene; 3-phenylthiane, s-oxide; phenol, 3-methyl; phthalic acid, di(2-propylpentyl) ester and 1,4-benzenedicarboxylic acid, bis (2-ethylhexyl) ester. Conclusion F4 from EtOAc contains six carbohydrates (9.58%), two free fatty acids (6.48%), five fatty acid esters (27.73%), two aromatic compounds (50.63%) and one organosulphide (5.61%). It inhibited TAO and demonstrated antitrypanosomal effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abdullah M. Tauheed
- Department of Veterinary Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Kaduna State, Nigeria
| | - Mohammed Mamman
- Department of Veterinary Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Kaduna State, Nigeria
| | - Abubakar Ahmed
- Department of Pharmacognosy and Drug Development, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Kaduna State, Nigeria
| | - Mohammed M. Suleiman
- Department of Veterinary Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Kaduna State, Nigeria
| | - Emmanuel O. Balogun
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Life Sciences, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Kaduna State, Nigeria
- Africa Centre of Excellence for Neglected Tropical Diseases and Forensic Biotechnology (ACENTDFB), Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria
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16
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Maxamhud S, Lindahl JF, Mugenyi A, Echodu R, Waiswa C, Roesel K. Seasonal Monitoring of Glossina Species Occurrence, Infection Rates, and Trypanosoma Species Infections in Pigs in West Nile Region, Uganda. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2022; 22:101-107. [PMID: 35175139 DOI: 10.1089/vbz.2020.2744] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction: Trypanosomiasis is a parasitic infection caused by the protozoa Trypanosoma. It is exclusively associated with Glossina species habitats and, therefore, restricted to specific geographical settings. It affects a wide range of hosts, including humans. Animals may carry different Trypanosoma spp. while being asymptomatic. They are, therefore, potentially important in unpremeditated disease transmission. Aim: The aim of this study was to study the potential impact of the government tsetse fly control program, and to elucidate the role of pigs in the Trypanosoma epidemiology in the West Nile region in Uganda. Methods: A historically important human African trypanosomiasis (HAT) hotspot was selected, with sampling in sites with and without a government tsetse fly control program. Pigs were screened for infection with Trypanosoma and tsetse traps were deployed to monitor vector occurrence, followed by tsetse fly dissection and microscopy to establish infection rates with Trypanosoma. Pig blood samples were further analyzed to identify possible Trypanosoma infections using internal transcribed spacer (ITS)-PCR. Results: Using microscopy, Trypanosoma was detected in 0.56% (7/1262) of the sampled pigs. Using ITS-PCR, 114 of 341 (33.4%) pig samples were shown to be Trypanosoma vivax positive. Of the 360 dissected tsetse flies, 13 (3.8%) were positive for Trypanosoma under the microscope. The difference in captured tsetse flies in the government intervention sites in comparison with the control sites was significant (p < 0.05). Seasonality did not play a substantial role in the tsetse fly density (p > 0.05). Conclusion: This study illustrated the impact of a government control program with low vector abundance in a historical HAT hotspot in Uganda. The study could not verify that pigs in the area were carriers for the causative agent for HAT, but showed a high prevalence of the animal infectious agent T. vivax.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sadiya Maxamhud
- Department of Medical Biochemistry and Microbiology, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Johanna F Lindahl
- Department of Medical Biochemistry and Microbiology, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden.,Department of Biosciences, International Livestock Research Institute, Nairobi, Kenya.,Department of Clinical Sciences, Swedish University of Agricultural Science, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Albert Mugenyi
- Coordinating Office for Control of Trypanosomiasis in Uganda, Ministry of Agriculture, Animal Industry and Fisheries, Makerere, Uganda
| | - Richard Echodu
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Gulu University, Gulu, Uganda
| | - Charles Waiswa
- Coordinating Office for Control of Trypanosomiasis in Uganda, Ministry of Agriculture, Animal Industry and Fisheries, Makerere, Uganda.,Department of Pharmacy, Clinical and Comparative Studies, School of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Resources, Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Kristina Roesel
- Department of Biosciences, International Livestock Research Institute, Nairobi, Kenya.,Department of Veterinary Medicine, Institute for Parasitology and Tropical Veterinary Medicine, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
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Naitore C, Villinger J, Kibet CK, Kalayou S, Bargul JL, Christoffels A, Masiga DK. The developmentally dynamic microRNA transcriptome of Glossina pallidipes tsetse flies, vectors of animal trypanosomiasis. BIOINFORMATICS ADVANCES 2021; 2:vbab047. [PMID: 36699416 PMCID: PMC9710702 DOI: 10.1093/bioadv/vbab047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2021] [Revised: 11/25/2021] [Accepted: 12/24/2021] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
Summary MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are single stranded gene regulators of 18-25 bp in length. They play a crucial role in regulating several biological processes in insects. However, the functions of miRNA in Glossina pallidipes, one of the biological vectors of African animal trypanosomosis in sub-Saharan Africa, remain poorly characterized. We used a combination of both molecular biology and bioinformatics techniques to identify miRNA genes at different developmental stages (larvae, pupae, teneral and reproductive unmated adults, gravid females) and sexes of G. pallidipes. We identified 157 mature miRNA genes, including 12 novel miRNAs unique to G. pallidipes. Moreover, we identified 93 miRNA genes that were differentially expressed by sex and/or in specific developmental stages. By combining both miRanda and RNAhybrid algorithms, we identified 5550 of their target genes. Further analyses with the Gene Ontology term and KEGG pathways for these predicted target genes suggested that the miRNAs may be involved in key developmental biological processes. Our results provide the first repository of G. pallidipes miRNAs across developmental stages, some of which appear to play crucial roles in tsetse fly development. Hence, our findings provide a better understanding of tsetse biology and a baseline for exploring miRNA genes in tsetse flies. Availability and implementation Raw sequence data are available from NCBI Sequence Read Archives (SRA) under Bioproject accession number PRJNA590626. Supplementary information Supplementary data are available at Bioinformatics Advances online.
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Affiliation(s)
- Careen Naitore
- International Centre of Insect Physiology and Ecology (icipe), P.O. Box 30772, Nairobi 00100, Kenya,Department of Biochemistry, Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology (JKUAT), P.O. Box 62000, Nairobi 00200, Kenya
| | - Jandouwe Villinger
- International Centre of Insect Physiology and Ecology (icipe), P.O. Box 30772, Nairobi 00100, Kenya,To whom correspondence should be addressed. or
| | - Caleb K Kibet
- International Centre of Insect Physiology and Ecology (icipe), P.O. Box 30772, Nairobi 00100, Kenya
| | - Shewit Kalayou
- International Centre of Insect Physiology and Ecology (icipe), P.O. Box 30772, Nairobi 00100, Kenya
| | - Joel L Bargul
- International Centre of Insect Physiology and Ecology (icipe), P.O. Box 30772, Nairobi 00100, Kenya,Department of Biochemistry, Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology (JKUAT), P.O. Box 62000, Nairobi 00200, Kenya
| | - Alan Christoffels
- South African Medical Research Council Bioinformatics Unit, South African National Bioinformatics Institute (SANBI), University of the Western Cape, Bellville 7530, South Africa
| | - Daniel K Masiga
- International Centre of Insect Physiology and Ecology (icipe), P.O. Box 30772, Nairobi 00100, Kenya,To whom correspondence should be addressed. or
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18
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Prevalence of Trypanosoma congolense and Trypanosoma vivax in Lira District, Uganda. BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2021; 2021:7284042. [PMID: 34222483 PMCID: PMC8219416 DOI: 10.1155/2021/7284042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2020] [Revised: 02/24/2021] [Accepted: 06/03/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Trypanosomes are the causative agents of animal African trypanosomiasis (AAT) and human African trypanosomiasis (HAT), the former affecting domestic animals prevalent in Sub-Saharan Africa. The main species causing AAT in cattle are T. congolense, T. vivax, and T. b. brucei. Northern Uganda has been politically unstable with no form of vector control in place. The return of displaced inhabitants led to the restocking of cattle from AAT endemic areas. It was thus important to estimate the burden of trypanosomiasis in the region. This study was designed to compare the prevalence of animal African trypanosomes in cattle in Lira District using microscopy and polymerase chain reaction amplification (PCR) methods. In this cross-sectional study, a total of 254 cattle from the three villages of Acanakwo A, Barropok, and Acungkena in Lira District, Uganda, were selected by simple random sampling technique and screened for trypanosomiasis using microscopy and PCR methods. The prevalence of trypanosomiasis according to microscopic results was 5/254 (2.0%) as compared to 11/254 (4.3%) trypanosomiasis prevalence according to PCR analysis. The prevalence of trypanosomiasis infection in the animal studied is 11/254 (4.3%). Trypanosoma congolense was the most dominant trypanosome species with a proportion of 9/11 (81.8%), followed by T. vivax 1/11 (9.1%) and mixed infection of T. congolense/T. vivax1/11 (9.1%). Barropok village had the highest prevalence of trypanosomiasis with 6/11 (54.5%). There is a statistically significant relationship (OR = 6.041; 95% CI: 1.634-22.331; p < 0.05) between abnormal PCV and trypanosome infection. Polymerase reaction amplification was the most reliable diagnostic method due to its high sensitivity and specificity as compared to the conventional microscopic method. Polymerase reaction amplification appears to have adequate accuracy to substitute the use of a microscope where facilities allow. This study, therefore, underscores the urgent need for local surveillance schemes more especially at the grassroots in Uganda to provide data for reference guideline development needed for the control of trypanosomiasis in Uganda.
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Ibrahim MAM, Weber JS, Ngomtcho SCH, Signaboubo D, Berger P, Hassane HM, Kelm S. Diversity of trypanosomes in humans and cattle in the HAT foci Mandoul and Maro, Southern Chad-A matter of concern for zoonotic potential? PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2021; 15:e0009323. [PMID: 34106914 PMCID: PMC8224965 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0009323] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2020] [Revised: 06/24/2021] [Accepted: 03/23/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND African trypanosomes are parasites mainly transmitted by tsetse flies. They cause trypanosomiasis in humans (HAT) and animals (AAT). In Chad, HAT/AAT are endemic. This study investigates the diversity and distribution of trypanosomes in Mandoul, an isolated area where a tsetse control campaign is ongoing, and Maro, an area bordering the Central African Republic (CAR) where the control had not started. METHODS 717 human and 540 cattle blood samples were collected, and 177 tsetse flies were caught. Trypanosomal DNA was detected using PCR targeting internal transcribed spacer 1 (ITS1) and glycosomal glyceraldehyde-3 phosphate dehydrogenase (gGAPDH), followed by amplicon sequencing. RESULTS Trypanosomal DNA was identified in 14 human samples, 227 cattle samples, and in tsetse. Besides T. b. gambiense, T. congolense was detected in human in Maro. In Mandoul, DNA from an unknown Trypanosoma sp.-129-H was detected in a human with a history of a cured HAT infection and persisting symptoms. In cattle and tsetse samples from Maro, T. godfreyi and T. grayi were detected besides the known animal pathogens, in addition to T. theileri (in cattle) and T. simiae (in tsetse). Furthermore, in Maro, evidence for additional unknown trypanosomes was obtained in tsetse. In contrast, in the Mandoul area, only T. theileri, T. simiae, and T. vivax DNA was identified in cattle. Genetic diversity was most prominent in T. vivax and T. theileri. CONCLUSION Tsetse control activities in Mandoul reduced the tsetse population and thus the pathogenic parasites. Nevertheless, T. theileri, T. vivax, and T. simiae are frequent in cattle suggesting transmission by other insect vectors. In contrast, in Maro, transhumance to/from Central African Republic and no tsetse control may have led to the high diversity and frequency of trypanosomes observed including HAT/AAT pathogenic species. Active HAT infections stress the need to enforce monitoring and control campaigns. Additionally, the diverse trypanosome species in humans and cattle indicate the necessity to investigate the infectivity of the unknown trypanosomes regarding their zoonotic potential. Finally, this study should be widened to other trypanosome hosts to capture the whole diversity of circulating trypanosomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mahamat Alhadj Moussa Ibrahim
- Centre for Biomolecular Interactions Bremen, Department of Biology and Chemistry, University of Bremen, Bremen, Germany
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Exacts and Applied sciences, University of N’Djamena, N’Djamena, Chad
- * E-mail: (MAMI); (SK)
| | - Judith Sophie Weber
- Centre for Biomolecular Interactions Bremen, Department of Biology and Chemistry, University of Bremen, Bremen, Germany
- Centre for Marine Environmental Sciences MARUM, University of Bremen, Bremen, Germany
| | - Sen Claudine Henriette Ngomtcho
- Centre for Biomolecular Interactions Bremen, Department of Biology and Chemistry, University of Bremen, Bremen, Germany
- Department of Microbiology, Haematology and Immunology, Faculty of medicine and pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Dschang, Dschang, Cameroon
| | - Djoukzoumka Signaboubo
- Centre for Biomolecular Interactions Bremen, Department of Biology and Chemistry, University of Bremen, Bremen, Germany
| | - Petra Berger
- Centre for Biomolecular Interactions Bremen, Department of Biology and Chemistry, University of Bremen, Bremen, Germany
| | | | - Sørge Kelm
- Centre for Biomolecular Interactions Bremen, Department of Biology and Chemistry, University of Bremen, Bremen, Germany
- * E-mail: (MAMI); (SK)
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20
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Kizza D, Ocaido M, Mugisha A, Azuba R, Nalule S, Onyuth H, Musinguzi SP, Nalubwama S, Waiswa C. Knowledge, attitudes and practices on bovine trypanosomosis control in pastoral and agro pastoral communities surrounding Murchison Falls National Park, Uganda. Trop Anim Health Prod 2021; 53:309. [PMID: 33963468 DOI: 10.1007/s11250-021-02752-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2021] [Accepted: 05/02/2021] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
A mixed method survey was conducted among pastoral and agro pastoral communities surrounding Murchison Falls National Park, Uganda to assess knowledge, attitudes and practices about control of bovine trypanosomosis. A total of 96.8% (n = 152) of the participants had seen tsetse flies, and close to 91.7% (n = 116) of the participants had heard about bovine trypanosomosis. Bovine trypanosomosis was reported as a major disease in their area by about 73.9% (n = 116). There was a significant difference (P < 0.05) in the level of awareness and perception about tsetse and bovine trypanosomosis across the study sub counties. The majority of the farmers (60.5%) stated that grazing near national parks was the main cause of bovine trypanosomosis. A small proportion of farmers associated sharing grazing land and watering points with wildlife (19.1%) and grazing cattle in tsetse fly-infested areas (8.3%) as the causes of trypanosomosis. The communities in the study sub counties were aware of at least one or two clinical signs of bovine trypanosomosis. Spraying cattle with insecticide and avoiding grazing animals in tsetse-infested areas were the control practices. Curative trypanocides were mainly used to treat their cattle against trypanosomosis. Bush clearing, targets and traps as tsetse fly control measures were less practiced by the farmers. Treatment of cattle was based on observation of clinical signs due to absence of blood diagnostic facilities. Implementing regular tsetse fly population monitoring surveys and promotion of disease rapid diagnostic tools at farm level as long-term strategies are key for effective control of the disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Kizza
- Department of Livestock and Industrial Resources, College of Veterinary Medicine Animal Resources and Biosecurity, Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda.
| | - Michael Ocaido
- Department of Wildlife, Aquatic and Animal Resources, College of Veterinary Medicine Animal Resources and Biosecurity, Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Anthony Mugisha
- Department of Livestock and Industrial Resources, College of Veterinary Medicine Animal Resources and Biosecurity, Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Rose Azuba
- Department of Livestock and Industrial Resources, College of Veterinary Medicine Animal Resources and Biosecurity, Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Sarah Nalule
- Department of Wildlife, Aquatic and Animal Resources, College of Veterinary Medicine Animal Resources and Biosecurity, Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Howard Onyuth
- Department of Wildlife, Aquatic and Animal Resources, College of Veterinary Medicine Animal Resources and Biosecurity, Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Simon Peter Musinguzi
- Department of Animal Sciences, Faculty of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences, Kabale University, Kabale, Uganda
| | - Sylvia Nalubwama
- Department of Livestock and Industrial Resources, College of Veterinary Medicine Animal Resources and Biosecurity, Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Charles Waiswa
- Department of Veterinary Pharmacy, Clinical and Comparative Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine Animal Resources and Biosecurity, Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda
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21
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Richards S, Morrison LJ, Torr SJ, Barrett MP, Manangwa O, Mramba F, Auty H. Pharma to farmer: field challenges of optimizing trypanocide use in African animal trypanosomiasis. Trends Parasitol 2021; 37:831-843. [PMID: 33962879 DOI: 10.1016/j.pt.2021.04.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2021] [Revised: 04/05/2021] [Accepted: 04/08/2021] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Trypanocides are a key control component of African animal trypanosomiasis (AAT) in tsetse-infested areas of sub-Saharan Africa. While farmers are dependent upon trypanocides, recent research highlights their inappropriate and ineffective use, problems with drug quality, and treatment failure. There are currently gaps in knowledge and investment in inexpensive AAT diagnostics, understanding of drug resistance, and the effective use of trypanocides in the field. Without this important knowledge it is difficult to develop best practice and policy for existing drugs or to inform development and use of new drugs. There needs to be better understanding of the drivers and behavioural practices around trypanocide use so that they can be incorporated into sustainable solutions needed for the development of effective control of AAT.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shauna Richards
- Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health & Comparative Medicine, College of Medical, Veterinary & Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK.
| | - Liam J Morrison
- Roslin Institute, Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Steve J Torr
- Department of Vector Biology, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool, UK
| | - Michael P Barrett
- Wellcome Centre for Integrative Parasitology, Institute of Infection, Inflammation & Immunity, College of Medical, Veterinary & Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | | | - Furaha Mramba
- Tanzania Veterinary Laboratory Agency, Dar Es Salaam, Tanzania
| | - Harriet Auty
- Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health & Comparative Medicine, College of Medical, Veterinary & Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
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Eyasu T, Mekuria S, Sheferaw D. Seasonal prevalence of trypanosomosis, Glossina density and infection along the escarpment of Omo River, Loma district, southern Ethiopia. Heliyon 2021; 7:e06667. [PMID: 33997365 PMCID: PMC8095118 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2021.e06667] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2021] [Revised: 02/10/2021] [Accepted: 03/29/2021] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The temporal information of trypanosomosis and tsetse apparent density is very limited in the southern part of the country. So, the study was conducted to estimate the temporal, dry and wet seasons, prevalence of cattle trypanosomosis, and tsetse fly apparent density and its infection by trypanosome along the escarpment of Omo River, Loma district, Southern Ethiopia. Methods A total of 964 cattle (482 in each seasons) were examined for trypanosomosis using buffy coat technique. For Glossina and biting flies study a total of 80 odor-baited, acetone and aged cow urine, NGU traps were deployed around the watering and grazing areas. Results The overall prevalence of cattle trypanosomosis was 4.98% of which 3.1% and 6.8% accounted to dry and wet seasons, respectively. The prevalence of trypanosomosis was significantly higher during wet season (OR = 1.93, P < 0.05), in poor body condition (OR = 3.71, P < 0.05) and in black coat colour (OR = 13.18, P < 0.05) animals. Two species of Trypanosome, T. congolense and T. vivax, were circulating in the area both in dry and wet seasons. A total of 327 Glossina (126 G. pallidipes and 201 G. fuscipes) were traped by using odour baited 80 NGU traps. The overall apparent density of Glossina was 4.1 Flies/Trap/Day. Relatively higher Glossina/Trap/Day caught in wet season (4.9 Flies/Trap/Day) than dry season (3.3 Flies/Trap/Day). Two species of Glossina namely G. pallidipes and G. fuscipes were distributed in the study areas. From the flies caught 127 Glossina were randomly selected and dissected. The overall proportion of Glossina infection was 15% with higher proportion of infection in wet season (19.6%) than the dry season (11.3%). Higher infection proportion was observed in G. pallidipes. Conclusion Trypansomosis is the major challenge for cattle productivity in the district. So to reduce the impact trypanosomosis and Glossina active community participation can play a key role.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Desie Sheferaw
- Hawassa University Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ethiopia
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23
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Greif G, Rodriguez M, Bontempi I, Robello C, Alvarez-Valin F. Different kinetoplast degradation patterns in American Trypanosoma vivax strains: Multiple independent origins or fast evolution? Genomics 2021; 113:843-853. [PMID: 33418079 DOI: 10.1016/j.ygeno.2020.12.037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2020] [Revised: 12/05/2020] [Accepted: 12/28/2020] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
We analyzed the kinetoplast (mitochondrial genome) of Trypanosoma vivax strains from America and Africa to determine their precise architecture and to understand their adaptive response to mechanical transmission. The use of long-read based assemblies that retain individuality of tandem repeats, without erasing inter-copy variability, allowed us to investigate the evolutionary dynamics of repetitive kinetoplast-DNA. This analysis revealed that repeat elements located in edges of repeat clusters are less active in terms of renewal, whereas internal copies appear to undergo a permanent process of birth-and-death. Comparing different American strains with the African Y486 strain, we found that in the former, protein coding genes from the maxicircle contain several function disrupting mutations that with very few exceptions are present in one or the other American strain but not in both, suggesting the absence of common ancestry for most of the genomic changes that led to their loss of oxidative phosphorylation capacity. Analysis of another component of kinetoplast, the minicircles, revealed great loss of diversity, and loss of their encoded guideRNAs. Both groups of American strains retain minimal sets required to edit the still functional A6-APTase and RPS12 genes. The extensive maxi- and minicircle divergence suggests a history of multiple introduction events in America of strains that probably started to degrade their kinetoplast in Africa. The notion that kinetoplast degradation began after incursion in America would imply a pace of accumulation of genetic changes considerably faster than other trypanosomatids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gonzalo Greif
- Laboratorio de Interacciones Hospedero-Patógeno/Unidad de Biología Molecular, Institut Pasteur de Montevideo, Montevideo, Uruguay.
| | - Matias Rodriguez
- Sección Biomatemática-Laboratorio de Genómica Evolutiva, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de la República Uruguay, Montevideo, Uruguay; Institute of Bioinformatics, University of Münster, Germany
| | - Ivan Bontempi
- Laboratorio de Tecnología Inmunológica, Facultad de Bioquímica y Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Nacional del Litoral, Santa Fe, Argentina
| | - Carlos Robello
- Laboratorio de Interacciones Hospedero-Patógeno/Unidad de Biología Molecular, Institut Pasteur de Montevideo, Montevideo, Uruguay; Departamento de Bioquímica, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de la República Uruguay, Montevideo, Uruguay
| | - Fernando Alvarez-Valin
- Sección Biomatemática-Laboratorio de Genómica Evolutiva, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de la República Uruguay, Montevideo, Uruguay.
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Benaissa MH, Mimoune N, Bentria Y, Kernif T, Boukhelkhal A, Youngs CR, Kaidi R, Faye B, Halis Y. Seroprevalence and risk factors for Trypanosoma evansi, the causative agent of surra, in the dromedary camel (Camelus dromedarius) population in Southeastern Algeria. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2020; 87:e1-e9. [PMID: 33354976 PMCID: PMC7756738 DOI: 10.4102/ojvr.v87i1.1891] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2020] [Revised: 09/24/2020] [Accepted: 10/14/2020] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Surra, caused by Trypanosoma evansi, is a re-emerging animal trypanosomosis, which is of special concern for camel-rearing regions of Africa and Asia. Surra decreases milk yield, lessens animal body condition score and reduces market value of exported animals resulting in substantial economic losses. A cross-sectional seroprevalence study of dromedary camels was conducted in Algeria, and major risk factors associated with infection were identified by collecting data on animal characteristics and herd management practices. The seroprevalence of T. evansi infection was determined in sera of 865 camels from 82 herds located in eastern Algeria using an antibody test (card agglutination test for Trypanosomiasis – CATT/T. evansi). Individual and herd seroprevalence were 49.5% and 73.2%, respectively, indicating substantial exposure of camels to T. evansi in the four districts studied. Five significant risk factors for T. evansi hemoparasite infection were identified: geographical area, herd size, husbandry system, accessibility to natural water sources and type of watering. There was no association between breed, sex or age with T. evansi infection. Results of this study provide baseline information that will be useful for launching control programmes in the region and potentially elsewhere.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohammed H Benaissa
- Scientific and Technical Research Centre for Arid Areas (CRSTRA), Biophysical Station, Nezla, Touggourt.
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25
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Odeniran PO, Onifade AA, MacLeod ET, Ademola IO, Alderton S, Welburn SC. Mathematical modelling and control of African animal trypanosomosis with interacting populations in West Africa-Could biting flies be important in main taining the disease endemicity? PLoS One 2020; 15:e0242435. [PMID: 33216770 PMCID: PMC7679153 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0242435] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2020] [Accepted: 11/02/2020] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
African animal trypanosomosis (AAT) is transmitted cyclically by tsetse flies and mechanically by biting flies (tabanids and stomoxyines) in West Africa. AAT caused by Trypanosoma congolense, T. vivax and T. brucei brucei is a major threat to the cattle industry. A mathematical model involving three vertebrate hosts (cattle, small ruminants and wildlife) and three vector flies (Tsetse flies, tabanids and stomoxyines) was described to identify elimination strategies. The basic reproduction number (R0) was obtained with respect to the growth rate of infected wildlife (reservoir hosts) present around the susceptible population using a next generation matrix technique. With the aid of suitable Lyapunov functions, stability analyses of disease-free and endemic equilibria were established. Simulation of the predictive model was presented by solving the system of ordinary differential equations to explore the behaviour of the model. An operational area in southwest Nigeria was simulated using generated pertinent data. The R0 < 1 in the formulated model indicates the elimination of AAT. The comprehensive use of insecticide treated targets and insecticide treated cattle (ITT/ITC) affected the feeding tsetse and other biting flies resulting in R0 < 1. The insecticide type, application timing and method, expertise and environmental conditions could affect the model stability. In areas with abundant biting flies and no tsetse flies, T. vivax showed R0 > 1 when infected wildlife hosts were present. High tsetse populations revealed R0 <1 for T. vivax when ITT and ITC were administered, either individually or together. Elimination of the transmitting vectors of AAT could cost a total of US$ 1,056,990 in southwest Nigeria. Hence, AAT in West Africa can only be controlled by strategically applying insecticides targeting all transmitting vectors, appropriate use of trypanocides, and institutionalising an appropriate barrier between the domestic and sylvatic areas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul Olalekan Odeniran
- Department of Veterinary Parasitology and Entomology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria
- Infection Medicine, Biomedical Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Scotland, United Kingdom
- * E-mail:
| | | | - Ewan Thomas MacLeod
- Infection Medicine, Biomedical Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Scotland, United Kingdom
| | - Isaiah Oluwafemi Ademola
- Department of Veterinary Parasitology and Entomology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria
| | - Simon Alderton
- Centre for Health Informatics, Computing and Statistics (CHICAS), Lancaster Medical School, Lancaster University, Lancaster, United Kingdom
| | - Susan Christina Welburn
- Infection Medicine, Biomedical Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Scotland, United Kingdom
- Zhejiang University - University of Edinburgh Joint Institute, Zhejiang University, Haining, China
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26
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Insights into the Control and Management of Human and Bovine African Trypanosomiasis in Zambia between 2009 and 2019-A Review. Trop Med Infect Dis 2020; 5:tropicalmed5030115. [PMID: 32664551 PMCID: PMC7559803 DOI: 10.3390/tropicalmed5030115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2020] [Revised: 06/18/2020] [Accepted: 07/08/2020] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Tsetse transmitted trypanosomiasis is a fatal disease commonly known as Nagana in cattle and sleeping sickness in humans. The disease threatens food security and has severe economic impact in Africa including most parts of Zambia. The level of effectiveness of commonly used African trypanosomiasis control methods has been reported in several studies. However, there have been no review studies on African trypanosomiasis control and management conducted in the context of One Health. This paper therefore seeks to fill this knowledge gap. A review of studies that have been conducted on African trypanosomiasis in Zambia between 2009 and 2019, with a focus on the control and management of trypanosomiasis was conducted. A total of 2238 articles were screened, with application of the search engines PubMed, PubMed Central and One Search. Out of these articles, 18 matched the required criteria and constituted the basis for the paper. An in-depth analysis of the 18 articles was conducted to identify knowledge gaps and evidence for best practices. Findings from this review provide stakeholders and health workers with a basis for prioritisation of African trypanosomiasis as an important neglected disease in Zambia and for formulation of One Health strategies for better control and/or management of the disease.
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Macleod OJS, Bart JM, MacGregor P, Peacock L, Savill NJ, Hester S, Ravel S, Sunter JD, Trevor C, Rust S, Vaughan TJ, Minter R, Mohammed S, Gibson W, Taylor MC, Higgins MK, Carrington M. A receptor for the complement regulator factor H increases transmission of trypanosomes to tsetse flies. Nat Commun 2020; 11:1326. [PMID: 32165615 PMCID: PMC7067766 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-020-15125-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2019] [Accepted: 02/15/2020] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Persistent pathogens have evolved to avoid elimination by the mammalian immune system including mechanisms to evade complement. Infections with African trypanosomes can persist for years and cause human and animal disease throughout sub-Saharan Africa. It is not known how trypanosomes limit the action of the alternative complement pathway. Here we identify an African trypanosome receptor for mammalian factor H, a negative regulator of the alternative pathway. Structural studies show how the receptor binds ligand, leaving inhibitory domains of factor H free to inactivate complement C3b deposited on the trypanosome surface. Receptor expression is highest in developmental stages transmitted to the tsetse fly vector and those exposed to blood meals in the tsetse gut. Receptor gene deletion reduced tsetse infection, identifying this receptor as a virulence factor for transmission. This demonstrates how a pathogen evolved a molecular mechanism to increase transmission to an insect vector by exploitation of a mammalian complement regulator.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olivia J S Macleod
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Cambridge, Tennis Court Road, Cambridge, CB2 1QW, UK
| | - Jean-Mathieu Bart
- Intertryp, IRD, Cirad, University of Montpellier, Montpellier, France
| | - Paula MacGregor
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Cambridge, Tennis Court Road, Cambridge, CB2 1QW, UK
| | - Lori Peacock
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Bristol, Bristol, BS8 1UG, UK
| | - Nicholas J Savill
- Institute for Immunology and Infection Research, School of Biological Sciences, University of Edinburgh, King's Buildings, West Mains Road, Edinburgh, EH9 3JT, UK
| | - Svenja Hester
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford, OX1 3QU, UK
| | - Sophie Ravel
- Intertryp, IRD, Cirad, University of Montpellier, Montpellier, France
| | - Jack D Sunter
- Department of Biological and Medical Sciences, Oxford Brookes University, Gipsy Lane, Oxford, OX3 0BP, UK
| | - Camilla Trevor
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Cambridge, Tennis Court Road, Cambridge, CB2 1QW, UK
- Department of Antibody Discovery and Protein Engineering, AstraZeneca R&D, Granta Park, Cambridge, CB21 6GH, UK
| | - Steven Rust
- Department of Antibody Discovery and Protein Engineering, AstraZeneca R&D, Granta Park, Cambridge, CB21 6GH, UK
| | - Tristan J Vaughan
- Department of Antibody Discovery and Protein Engineering, AstraZeneca R&D, Granta Park, Cambridge, CB21 6GH, UK
| | - Ralph Minter
- Department of Antibody Discovery and Protein Engineering, AstraZeneca R&D, Granta Park, Cambridge, CB21 6GH, UK
| | - Shabaz Mohammed
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford, OX1 3QU, UK
| | - Wendy Gibson
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Bristol, Bristol, BS8 1UG, UK
| | - Martin C Taylor
- Faculty of Infectious and Tropical diseases, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, WC1E 7HT, UK
| | - Matthew K Higgins
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford, OX1 3QU, UK.
| | - Mark Carrington
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Cambridge, Tennis Court Road, Cambridge, CB2 1QW, UK.
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Dingwoke EJ, Adamude FA, Chukwuocha CE, Ambi AA, Nwobodo NN, Sallau AB, Nzelibe HC. Inhibition of Trypanosoma evansi Protein-Tyrosine Phosphatase by Myristic Acid Analogues Isolated from Khaya senegalensis and Tamarindus indica. J Exp Pharmacol 2020; 11:135-148. [PMID: 31908547 PMCID: PMC6927228 DOI: 10.2147/jep.s226632] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2019] [Accepted: 11/08/2019] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Trypanosome infections still pose severe health and economic consequences, especially in the endemic regions of Sub-Saharan Africa. Trypanosome differentiation to the procyclic forms which lack the immune evasion mechanisms for survival in the bloodstream is prevented by tyrosine dephosphorylation which is catalyzed by protein-tyrosine phosphatase; thereby promoting survival of the parasites in the host. Inhibition of Protein-tyrosine phosphatase is a strategic therapeutic target that could attenuate trypanosomiasis. This study investigated the in vitro inhibitory effect of stem bark extracts of Khaya senegalensis and Tamarindus indica on the enzymatic activity of protein-tyrosine phosphatase. Methods All determinations were carried out following standard procedures for analytical experiments. The analogues of myristic acid that inhibited the enzymatic activity of protein-tyrosine phosphatase were isolated by bioassay-guided fractionation of stem bark extracts of Khaya senegalensis and Tamarindus indica. Results Analogues of myristic acid proved to be potent inhibitors of protein-tyrosine phosphatase. Double reciprocal (Lineweaver–Burk) plots of the initial velocity data indicated non-competitive inhibition with Ki of 0.67 mg/mL for Khaya senegalensis and 2.17 mg/mL for Tamarindus indica. The kinetic parameters for the cleavage of para-nitrophenylphosphate by the enzyme showed a KM of 3.44 mM and Vmax of 0.19 µmol/min. Sodium orthovanadate, the enzymes’ specific inhibitor, inhibited the enzyme competitively with Ki of 0.20 mg/mL. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry analysis of the stem bark bioactive fractions of Khaya senegalensis and Tamarindus indica revealed the presence of myristic acid analogues. Conclusion Analogues of myristic acid are potent inhibitors of protein-tyrosine phosphatase that could be developed as trypanocide to inhibit the enzymatic activity of protein-tyrosine phosphatase in order to prevent transmission of trypanosomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emeka John Dingwoke
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Life Sciences, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Kaduna State, Nigeria
| | - Fatima Amin Adamude
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Federal University Lafia, Nasarawa State, Nigeria
| | - Chimee Ethel Chukwuocha
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Life Sciences, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Kaduna State, Nigeria
| | - Ahmed Adamu Ambi
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Life Sciences, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Kaduna State, Nigeria
| | - Nwobodo Ndubuisi Nwobodo
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, College of Medicine, Enugu State University of Science and Technology, Enugu, Enugu State, Nigeria.,Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, College of Health Sciences, Nile University of Nigeria, Abuja, Nigeria
| | - Abdullahi Balarabe Sallau
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Life Sciences, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Kaduna State, Nigeria
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Wamwenje SAO, Wangwe II, Masila N, Mirieri CK, Wambua L, Kulohoma BW. Community-led data collection using Open Data Kit for surveillance of animal African trypanosomiasis in Shimba hills, Kenya. BMC Res Notes 2019; 12:151. [PMID: 30885271 PMCID: PMC6423862 DOI: 10.1186/s13104-019-4198-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2019] [Accepted: 03/13/2019] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Objective In Sub-Saharan Africa, there is an increase in trypanosome non-susceptibility to multiple trypanocides, but limited information on judicious trypanocide use is accessible to smallholder farmers and agricultural stakeholders in disease endemic regions, resulting in widespread multi-drug resistance. Huge economic expenses and the laborious nature of extensive field studies have hindered collection of the requisite large-scale prospective datasets required to inform disease management. We examined the efficacy of community-led data collection strategies using smartphones by smallholder farmers to acquire robust datasets from the trypanosomiasis endemic Shimba hills region in Kenya. We used Open Data Kit, an open-source smartphone application development software, to create a data collection App. Results Our study provides proof of concept for the viability of using smartphone Apps to remotely collect reliable large-scale information from smallholder farmers and veterinary health care givers in resource poor settings. We show that these datasets can be reliably collated remotely, analysed, and the findings can inform policies that improve farming practices and economic wellbeing while restricting widespread multi-drug resistance. Moreover, this strategy can be used to monitor and manage other infectious diseases in other rural, resource poor settings. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s13104-019-4198-z) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah A O Wamwenje
- Centre for Biotechnology and Bioinformatics, University of Nairobi, Nairobi, Kenya.,International Centre of Insect Physiology and Ecology, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Ibrahim I Wangwe
- Centre for Biotechnology and Bioinformatics, University of Nairobi, Nairobi, Kenya.,International Centre of Insect Physiology and Ecology, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Nicodemus Masila
- Kenya Tsetse and Trypanosomiasis Eradication Council (KENTTEC), Kwale County, Kenya
| | - Caroline K Mirieri
- Directorate of Veterinary Services, Vector Regulatory and Zoological Services, Makindu, Kenya
| | - Lillian Wambua
- Centre for Biotechnology and Bioinformatics, University of Nairobi, Nairobi, Kenya.,School of Biological Sciences, University of Nairobi, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Benard W Kulohoma
- Centre for Biotechnology and Bioinformatics, University of Nairobi, Nairobi, Kenya. .,International Centre of Insect Physiology and Ecology, Nairobi, Kenya.
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Nnadi CO, Ebiloma GU, Black JA, Nwodo NJ, Lemgruber L, Schmidt TJ, de Koning HP. Potent Antitrypanosomal Activities of 3-Aminosteroids against African Trypanosomes: Investigation of Cellular Effects and of Cross-Resistance with Existing Drugs. Molecules 2019; 24:E268. [PMID: 30642032 PMCID: PMC6359104 DOI: 10.3390/molecules24020268] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2018] [Revised: 01/07/2019] [Accepted: 01/08/2019] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Treatment of animal African trypanosomiasis (AAT) requires urgent need for safe, potent and affordable drugs and this has necessitated this study. We investigated the trypanocidal activities and mode of action of selected 3-aminosteroids against Trypanosoma brucei brucei. The in vitro activity of selected compounds of this series against T. congolense (Savannah-type, IL3000), T. b. brucei (bloodstream trypomastigote, Lister strain 427 wild-type (427WT)) and various multi-drug resistant cell lines was assessed using a resazurin-based cell viability assay. Studies on mode of antitrypanosomal activity of some selected 3-aminosteroids against Tbb 427WT were also carried out. The tested compounds mostly showed moderate-to-low in vitro activities and low selectivity to mammalian cells. Interestingly, a certain aminosteroid, holarrhetine (10, IC50 = 0.045 ± 0.03 µM), was 2 times more potent against T. congolense than the standard veterinary drug, diminazene aceturate, and 10 times more potent than the control trypanocide, pentamidine, and displayed an excellent in vitro selectivity index of 2130 over L6 myoblasts. All multi-drug resistant strains of T. b. brucei tested were not significantly cross-resistant with the purified compounds. The growth pattern of Tbb 427WT on long and limited exposure time revealed gradual but irrecoverable growth arrest at ≥ IC50 concentrations of 3-aminosteroids. Trypanocidal action was not associated with membrane permeabilization of trypanosome cells but instead with mitochondrial membrane depolarization, reduced adenosine triphosphate (ATP) levels and G₂/M cell cycle arrest which appear to be the result of mitochondrial accumulation of the aminosteroids. These findings provided insights for further development of this new and promising class of trypanocide against African trypanosomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charles O Nnadi
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Biology and Phytochemistry (IPBP), University of Münster, Pharma Campus Corrensstraße 48, D-48149 Münster, Germany.
- Department of Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Nigeria Nsukka, Enugu 410001, Nigeria.
| | - Godwin U Ebiloma
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8TA, UK.
- Department of Applied Biology, Kyoto Institute of Technology, Kyoto 606-8585, Japan.
| | - Jennifer A Black
- The Wellcome Trust Centre for Molecular Parasitology, Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8TA, UK.
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Ribeirão Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto 14049-900, Brazil.
| | - Ngozi J Nwodo
- Department of Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Nigeria Nsukka, Enugu 410001, Nigeria.
| | - Leandro Lemgruber
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8TA, UK.
| | - Thomas J Schmidt
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Biology and Phytochemistry (IPBP), University of Münster, Pharma Campus Corrensstraße 48, D-48149 Münster, Germany.
| | - Harry P de Koning
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8TA, UK.
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Modelling appropriate use of trypanocides to restrict wide-spread multi-drug resistance during chemotherapy of animal African trypanosomiasis. Parasitology 2018; 146:774-780. [PMID: 30567619 DOI: 10.1017/s0031182018002093] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
Trypanocide resistance remains a huge challenge in the management of animal African trypanosomiasis. Paucity of data on the prevalence of multi-drug resistant trypanosomes has greatly hindered optimal veterinary management practices. We use mathematical model predictions to highlight appropriate drug regimens that impede trypanocide resistance development in cattle. We demonstrate that using drugs in decreasing resistance order results in a negligible increase in number of cattle with resistant infection, in contrast to a more pronounced increase from trypanocide use in increasing resistance order. We demonstrate that the lowest levels of trypanocide resistance are achieved with combination therapy. We also show that increasing the number of cattle treated leads to a progressive reduction in the number of cattle with drug resistant infections for treatments of up to 80% of the cattle population for the combination treatment strategy. Our findings provide an initial evidence-based framework on some essential practices that promote optimal use of the handful of trypanocides. We anticipate that our modest forecasts will improve therapeutic outcomes by appropriately informing on the best choice, and combination of drugs that minimize treatment failure rates.
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Ebhodaghe F, Ohiolei J, Isaac C. A systematic review and meta-analysis of small ruminant and porcine trypanosomiasis prevalence in sub-Saharan Africa (1986 to 2018). Acta Trop 2018; 188:118-131. [PMID: 30179607 DOI: 10.1016/j.actatropica.2018.08.034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2018] [Revised: 08/24/2018] [Accepted: 08/25/2018] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
The appraisal of the disease burden of African animal trypanosomiasis (AAT) in some livestock at country level could invite a re-evaluation of trypanosomiasis-control strategy. This study thus estimates small ruminant and porcine trypanosomiasis prevalence in sub-Saharan African countries. It also describes Trypanosoma species prevalence in small ruminants and pigs and attempts identification of factors explaining between-study variations in prevalence. Articles reporting animal trypanosomiasis prevalence in sheep, goats, and pigs in countries within sub-Saharan Africa were retrieved from different databases (PubMed, Science Direct, Google Scholar, and African Journal Online) and reference lists of relevant literatures. A total of 85 articles from 13 countries published between 1986 and 2018 were included in the analysis. Overall random-effects meta-analytic mean prevalence estimates were: 7.67% (95% CI: 5.22-10.49), 5.84% (95% CI: 3.81-8.23), and 19.46% (95% CI: 14.61-24.80) respectively, for sheep, goats, and pigs with substantial heterogeneity (I2 = >95.00%. p < 0.0001) noted between studies. Ovine, caprine, and porcine prevalence were highest in Tanzania (91.67%. 95% CI: 76.50-99.84), Equatorial Guinea (27%. 95% CI: 0-81.09), and Cameroon (47%. 95% CI: 29.67-66.06), respectively. Trypanosoma brucei s. l., T. vivax, and T. congolense were the most prevalent in the livestock. Trypanosoma brucei subspecies (T. b. gambiense and T. b. rhodesiense) occurred in all three livestock being mostly prevalent in pigs. Country of study was a significant predictor of trypanosomiasis prevalence in each livestock in addition to time and sample size for caprine hosts, diagnostic technique for both caprine and ovine hosts, and sample size for porcine hosts. The pattern of animal trypanosomiasis prevalence in the studied livestock reflects their susceptibility to trypanosomal infections and tsetse fly host feeding preferences. In conclusion, sheep, goats, and especially pigs are reservoirs of human infective trypanosomes in sub-Saharan Africa; consequently, their inclusion in sleeping sickness control programmes could enhance the goal of the disease elimination.
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Ebhodaghe F, Isaac C, Ohiolei JA. A meta-analysis of the prevalence of bovine trypanosomiasis in some African countries from 2000 to 2018. Prev Vet Med 2018; 160:35-46. [PMID: 30388996 DOI: 10.1016/j.prevetmed.2018.09.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2018] [Revised: 08/13/2018] [Accepted: 09/18/2018] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Bovine trypanosomiasis is a disease of cattle. In sub-Saharan Africa, the disease mean prevalence estimates are unknown in most endemic countries. We therefore performed a meta-analysis with the aim of estimating national mean prevalence of bovine trypanosomiasis in endemic countries across sub-Saharan Africa. Relevant articles reporting bovine trypanosomiasis prevalence were retrieved through systematic literature search and scanning of articles reference-lists. Eligibility criteria included that articles reported sample size, prevalence, and diagnostic technique adopted. Overall, data from 180 eligible articles from 19 countries satisfied the inclusion criteria. Meta-analysis of prevalence data based on the random-effects model resulted in an overall mean prevalence of 15.10% (95% CI: 13.22-17.08). National prevalence estimates were generally high except those of Benin and Senegal where estimates ranked below 10.00%. Significant heterogeneity (I2 = 98.75%. p = <0.0001) was noted between studies, and univariate meta-regression analysis identified choice of diagnostic method being major contributor to observed heterogeneity (R2 = 36.37%); while country of study (R2 = 9.57%) and sample size (R2 = 3.47%) had marginal effect on heterogeneity. In spite of past and ongoing control activities, bovine trypanosomiasis remains highly prevalent in most endemic sub-Saharan African countries. Nevertheless, dearth of epidemiological data in some countries and the use of less sensitive diagnostic tools limit reliable estimation of the disease prevalence. Therefore, there is the need to intensify efforts in aspects of surveillance and increased application of molecular diagnostic tool(s) across endemic locations as this would raise the chances of achieving a near-accurate estimate of the disease prevalence which is the first step to attempting eradication.
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Affiliation(s)
- F Ebhodaghe
- African Regional Postgraduate Programme in Insect Science, West African Sub-Regional Centre, University of Ghana Legon, Accra, Ghana; Department of Zoology, Ambrose Alli University, Ekpoma, Nigeria.
| | - C Isaac
- Department of Zoology, Ambrose Alli University, Ekpoma, Nigeria.
| | - J A Ohiolei
- Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, China.
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Molecular identification of bovine trypanosomes in relation to cattle sources in southwest Nigeria. Parasitol Int 2018; 68:1-8. [PMID: 30243980 DOI: 10.1016/j.parint.2018.09.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2018] [Revised: 09/18/2018] [Accepted: 09/18/2018] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Bovine trypanosomosis is a problem in the livestock industry in Nigeria. A longitudinal survey of cattle sampled during the wet and dry seasons was conducted from April 2016 to March 2017. Blood samples were collected by random sampling from 745 cattle in southwest Nigeria and screened for trypanosomes by internal transcribed spacer-polymerase chain reaction (ITS-PCR). Cattle positive for Trypanozoon DNA were further screened with the Rode Trypanozoon antigen type (RoTat) 1.2 PCR and Trypanosoma brucei gambiense glycoprotein (TgsGP) genes for T. evansi and T. b. gambiense respectively. Trypanosome DNA was amplified in 23.8% (95%CI: 20.8-26.9) of cattle with significantly higher prevalence in wet season (95%CI: 22.9-30.8) when compared to the dry season (95%CI: 14.3-23.6). A high prevalence was observed in Fulani cattle farms 54.1% (95%CI: 42.78-64.93%) while the prevalence was lower in institutional farms 14.7% (95%CI: 10.10-20.97%). Trypanosoma vivax was the most prevalent trypanosome observed (11.54% (95%CI: 9.44-14.04%)), followed by T. congolense 8.5% (95%CI: 6.67-10.67%) T. b. brucei 4.8% (95%CI: 3.51-6.62%) and T. evansi 1.74% (95%CI: 1.02-2.96%). Mixed infections were observed in 2.8% (95%CI: 1.85-4.27%) of cattle. Seasonal variation revealed a predominance of T. congolense and T. vivax in wet and dry season, respectively. The high prevalence of Trypanosoma species in cattle indicates a need for expanded surveillance for AAT in southwest Nigeria. Migration, settlement patterns, increased marketing and management types were some of the risk factors identified for AAT.
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Pinto Torres JE, Goossens J, Ding J, Li Z, Lu S, Vertommen D, Naniima P, Chen R, Muyldermans S, Sterckx YGJ, Magez S. Development of a Nanobody-based lateral flow assay to detect active Trypanosoma congolense infections. Sci Rep 2018; 8:9019. [PMID: 29899344 PMCID: PMC5998082 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-26732-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2018] [Accepted: 04/17/2018] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Animal African trypanosomosis (AAT), a disease affecting livestock, is caused by parasites of the Trypanosoma genus (mainly T. vivax and T. congolense). AAT is widespread in Sub-Saharan Africa, where it continues to impose a heavy socio-economic burden as it renders development of sustainable livestock rearing very strenuous. Active case-finding and the identification of infected animals prior to initiation of drug treatment requires the availability of sensitive and specific diagnostic tests. In this paper, we describe the development of two heterologous sandwich assay formats (ELISA and LFA) for T. congolense detection through the use of Nanobodies (Nbs). The immunisation of an alpaca with a secretome mix from two T. congolense strains resulted in the identification of a Nb pair (Nb44/Nb42) that specifically targets the glycolytic enzyme pyruvate kinase. We demonstrate that the Nb44/Nb42 ELISA and LFA can be employed to detect parasitaemia in plasma samples from experimentally infected mice and cattle and, additionally, that they can serve as ‘test-of-cure’ tools. Altogether, the findings in this paper present the development and evaluation of the first Nb-based antigen detection LFA to identify active T. congolense infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joar E Pinto Torres
- Research Unit for Cellular and Molecular Immunology (CMIM), VUB, Pleinlaan 2, B-1050, Brussels, Belgium.,Structural Biology Research Center (SBRC), VIB, Pleinlaan 2, B-1050, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Julie Goossens
- Research Unit for Cellular and Molecular Immunology (CMIM), VUB, Pleinlaan 2, B-1050, Brussels, Belgium.,Structural Biology Research Center (SBRC), VIB, Pleinlaan 2, B-1050, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Jianzu Ding
- Institute of Parasitic Diseases, Zhejiang Academy of Medical Sciences, Hangzhou, 310013, Zhejiang, China
| | - Zeng Li
- Research Unit for Cellular and Molecular Immunology (CMIM), VUB, Pleinlaan 2, B-1050, Brussels, Belgium.,Structural Biology Research Center (SBRC), VIB, Pleinlaan 2, B-1050, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Shaohong Lu
- Institute of Parasitic Diseases, Zhejiang Academy of Medical Sciences, Hangzhou, 310013, Zhejiang, China
| | - Didier Vertommen
- Department of Metabolism and Hormones, de Duve Institute, Université Catholique de Louvain, Avenue Hippocrate 75, B-1200, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Peter Naniima
- Institute of Virology, Structural Virology Group, Medizinische Hochschule Hannover, Carl-Neuberg-Strasse 1, 30625, Hannover, Germany
| | - Rui Chen
- Institute of Parasitic Diseases, Zhejiang Academy of Medical Sciences, Hangzhou, 310013, Zhejiang, China
| | - Serge Muyldermans
- Research Unit for Cellular and Molecular Immunology (CMIM), VUB, Pleinlaan 2, B-1050, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Yann G-J Sterckx
- Research Unit for Cellular and Molecular Immunology (CMIM), VUB, Pleinlaan 2, B-1050, Brussels, Belgium.,Structural Biology Research Center (SBRC), VIB, Pleinlaan 2, B-1050, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Stefan Magez
- Research Unit for Cellular and Molecular Immunology (CMIM), VUB, Pleinlaan 2, B-1050, Brussels, Belgium. .,Structural Biology Research Center (SBRC), VIB, Pleinlaan 2, B-1050, Brussels, Belgium. .,Ghent University Global Campus, Songdomunhwa-Ro 119, Yeonsu-Gu, 406-840, Incheon, South Korea.
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Meyer A, Holt HR, Oumarou F, Chilongo K, Gilbert W, Fauron A, Mumba C, Guitian J. Integrated cost-benefit analysis of tsetse control and herd productivity to inform control programs for animal African trypanosomiasis. Parasit Vectors 2018. [PMID: 29514668 PMCID: PMC5842553 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-018-2679-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Animal African trypanosomiasis (AAT) and its tsetse vector are responsible for annual losses estimated in billions of US dollars ($). Recent years have seen the implementation of a series of multinational interventions. However, actors of AAT control face complex resource allocation decisions due to the geographical range of AAT, diversity of ecological and livestock systems, and range of control methods available. Methods The study presented here integrates an existing tsetse abundance model with a bio-economic herd model that captures local production characteristics as well as heterogeneities in AAT incidence and breed. These models were used to predict the impact of tsetse elimination on the net value of cattle production in the districts of Mambwe, in Zambia, and Faro et Déo in Cameroon. The net value of cattle production under the current situation was used as a baseline, and compared with alternative publicly funded control programmes. In Zambia, the current baseline is AAT control implemented privately by cattle owners (Scenario Z0). In Cameroon, the baseline (Scenario C0) is a small-scale publicly funded tsetse control programme and privately funded control at farm level. The model was run for 10 years, using a discount rate of 5%. Results Compared to Scenario C0, benefit-cost ratios (BCR) of 4.5 (4.4–4.7) for Scenario C1 (tsetse suppression using insecticide treatment of cattle (ITC) and traps + maintenance with ITC barrier), and 3.8 (3.6–4.0) for Scenario C2 (tsetse suppression using ITC and traps + maintenance with barrier of targets), were estimated in Cameroon. For Zambia, the benefit-cost ratio calculated for Scenarios Z1 (targets, ITC barrier), Z2 (targets, barrier traps), Z3 (aerial spraying, ITC barrier), and Z4 (aerial spraying, barrier traps) were 2.3 (1.8 - 2.7), 2.0 (1.6-2.4), 2.8 (2.3–3.3) and 2.5 (2.0–2.9), respectively. Sensitivity analysis showed that the profitability of the projects is relatively resistant to variations in the costs of the interventions and their technical efficiency. Conclusions It is envisioned that the methodologies presented here will be useful for the evaluation and design of existing and future control programmes, ensuring they have tangible benefits in the communities they are targeting. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s13071-018-2679-x) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anne Meyer
- Department of Pathobiology and Population Sciences, Royal Veterinary College, Hatfield, UK
| | - Hannah R Holt
- Department of Pathobiology and Population Sciences, Royal Veterinary College, Hatfield, UK.
| | - Farikou Oumarou
- Mission Spéciale d'Eradication des Glossines, Ngaoundéré, Cameroon
| | - Kalinga Chilongo
- Department of Veterinary Services, Tsetse and Trypanosomiasis Control Unit, Ministry of Fisheries and Livestock, Lusaka, Zambia
| | - William Gilbert
- Department of Pathobiology and Population Sciences, Royal Veterinary College, Hatfield, UK
| | - Albane Fauron
- Department of Pathobiology and Population Sciences, Royal Veterinary College, Hatfield, UK
| | - Chisoni Mumba
- Department of Disease Control, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Zambia, P.O. Box 32379, Lusaka, Zambia
| | - Javier Guitian
- Department of Pathobiology and Population Sciences, Royal Veterinary College, Hatfield, UK
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Degneh E, Shibeshi W, Terefe G, Asres K, Ashenafi H. Bovine trypanosomosis: changes in parasitemia and packed cell volume in dry and wet seasons at Gidami District, Oromia Regional State, western Ethiopia. Acta Vet Scand 2017; 59:59. [PMID: 28893322 PMCID: PMC5594549 DOI: 10.1186/s13028-017-0327-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2017] [Accepted: 09/06/2017] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Animal trypanosomosis is one of the major disease problems affecting agricultural productivity in Ethiopia. The impact of the disease is believed to vary with season and agro-ecologies in line with fly vector distribution. A cross-sectional study on bovine trypanosomosis was conducted from November 2015 to June 2016, in seven selected villages of Gidami district, Oromia Regional State, western Ethiopia. A total of 930 blood samples were collected and subjected to parasitological and hematological analysis. RESULT The overall prevalence of bovine trypanosomosis was 14.1%. The seasonal prevalence shows 9.06% in early dry and 18.4% in early rainy seasons. Three trypanosome species, Trypanosoma congolense, Trypanosoma vivax and Trypanosoma brucei were identified in the examined animals. T. congolense followed by T. vivax were the predominant species (respectively 59.0 and 35.9% in early dry season and 62.0 and 22.8% in early rainy season). The prevalence of T. vivax remained similar in both early dry and early rainy seasons in both lowland and midland agroecologies whereas T. congolense was more dominant in the lowland area in both seasons compared to mid land study sites. The disease was more prevalent in lowland (23.9%) compared to midland (11.1%) during early rainy season (P < 0.001) whereas no significant difference was observed between the two agroecologies during early dry season (P = 0.165). Packed cell volume (PCV) was much lower in parasitemic animals than in aparasitemic cattle whereas the mean PCV value for parasitemic animals (20.36%; 95% CI 19.56 to 21.16) in early dry season was similar to values in early rainy season (20.46%, 95% CI 18.84 to 21.08%). A similar situation was noticed for animals in both low land and mid land study sites. CONCLUSION Overall, the detection of trypanosomes in blood was significantly affected by agro-ecology, season and body condition of the animals. Special emphasis should be given to integrated trypanosomosis management in early rainy months where fly population is believed to start increasing.
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Kimaro EG, Toribio JALML, Mor SM. Climate change and cattle vector-borne diseases: Use of participatory epidemiology to investigate experiences in pastoral communities in Northern Tanzania. Prev Vet Med 2017; 147:79-89. [PMID: 29254730 DOI: 10.1016/j.prevetmed.2017.08.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2017] [Revised: 07/12/2017] [Accepted: 08/14/2017] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Climate change is predicted to increase incidence of vector-borne diseases in humans, however, little is known about the impact of such diseases in livestock. In the absence of historical data with which to examine the inter-relation between climate and disease, participatory epidemiological (PE) methods were used with Maasai pastoralists of Monduli District, northern Tanzania to establish local observations on two major vector-borne diseases of cattle, namely East Coast fever (ECF) and African animal trypanosomiasis (AAT). Data collection involving gender segregated groups (10 men groups and 9 women groups) occurred in 10 randomly selected villages between November 2014 and March 2015. ECF and AAT were ranked amongst the top 5 most important cattle diseases with strong agreement across informant groups (Kendall's W=0.40 for men and 0.45 for women; p<0.01). Matrix scoring for both men and women groups confirmed that Masaai easily recognize these diseases. All groups associated ECF with the wet and cool dry seasons. AAT was more variable throughout the year, with more cases reported in the long dry season. Likewise, pastoralists reported differences in seasonal occurrence of disease vectors (Rhipicephalus appendiculatus and Glossina spp.) by village. Comparing 2014-1984, participant groups consistently reported declines in rainfall, vegetation cover and quality pasture, as well as increases in severe droughts. Experiences with ECF/AAT and vector abundance between these time periods was more variable across villages, and likely relates to changes in climate and animal management practices over the last 30 years. This baseline study is the first to document the inter-relation between climate and cattle vector-borne disease from the pastoralist perspective. Findings from this study reveal a complex interplay between human, animal and environmental factors, understanding of which is urgently required to devise approaches to mitigate effects of climate change in these vulnerable areas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Esther G Kimaro
- Sydney School of Veterinary Science, The University of Sydney, Australia; Tropical Pesticides Research Institute, Livestock and Human Diseases Vector Control, Division, P.O. Box 3420, Arusha, Tanzania
| | | | - Siobhan M Mor
- Sydney School of Veterinary Science, The University of Sydney, Australia; Marie Bashir Institute for Infectious Diseases and Biosecurity, The University of Sydney, Australia.
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Stijlemans B, Radwanska M, De Trez C, Magez S. African Trypanosomes Undermine Humoral Responses and Vaccine Development: Link with Inflammatory Responses? Front Immunol 2017; 8:582. [PMID: 28596768 PMCID: PMC5442186 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2017.00582] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2017] [Accepted: 05/01/2017] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
African trypanosomosis is a debilitating disease of great medical and socioeconomical importance. It is caused by strictly extracellular protozoan parasites capable of infecting all vertebrate classes including human, livestock, and game animals. To survive within their mammalian host, trypanosomes have evolved efficient immune escape mechanisms and manipulate the entire host immune response, including the humoral response. This report provides an overview of how trypanosomes initially trigger and subsequently undermine the development of an effective host antibody response. Indeed, results available to date obtained in both natural and experimental infection models show that trypanosomes impair homeostatic B-cell lymphopoiesis, B-cell maturation and survival and B-cell memory development. Data on B-cell dysfunctioning in correlation with parasite virulence and trypanosome-mediated inflammation will be discussed, as well as the impact of trypanosomosis on heterologous vaccine efficacy and diagnosis. Therefore, new strategies aiming at enhancing vaccination efficacy could benefit from a combination of (i) early parasite diagnosis, (ii) anti-trypanosome (drugs) treatment, and (iii) anti-inflammatory treatment that collectively might allow B-cell recovery and improve vaccination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benoit Stijlemans
- Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Immunology, Vrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB), Brussels, Belgium.,Myeloid Cell Immunology Lab, VIB-UGent Center for Inflammation Research, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Magdalena Radwanska
- Laboratory for Biomedical Research, Ghent University Global Campus, Yeonsu-Gu, Incheon, South Korea
| | - Carl De Trez
- Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Immunology, Vrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB), Brussels, Belgium.,Structural Biology Research Centre (SBRC), VIB, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Stefan Magez
- Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Immunology, Vrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB), Brussels, Belgium.,Laboratory for Biomedical Research, Ghent University Global Campus, Yeonsu-Gu, Incheon, South Korea
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Meyer A, Holt HR, Selby R, Guitian J. Past and Ongoing Tsetse and Animal Trypanosomiasis Control Operations in Five African Countries: A Systematic Review. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2016; 10:e0005247. [PMID: 28027299 PMCID: PMC5222520 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0005247] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2016] [Revised: 01/09/2017] [Accepted: 12/12/2016] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Control operations targeting Animal African Trypanosomiasis and its primary vector, the tsetse, were covering approximately 128,000 km2 of Africa in 2001, which is a mere 1.3% of the tsetse infested area. Although extensive trypanosomiasis and tsetse (T&T) control operations have been running since the beginning of the 20th century, Animal African Trypanosomiasis is still a major constraint of livestock production in sub-Saharan Africa. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS We performed a systematic review of the existing literature describing T&T control programmes conducted in a selection of five African countries, namely Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Ethiopia, Uganda and Zambia, between 1980 and 2015. Sixty-eight documents were eventually selected from those identified by the database search. This was supplemented with information gathered through semi-structured interviews conducted with twelve key informants recruited in the study countries and selected based on their experience and knowledge of T&T control. The combined information from these two sources was used to describe the inputs, processes and outcomes from 23 major T&T control programmes implemented in the study countries. Although there were some data gaps, involvement of the target communities and sustainability of the control activities were identified as the two main issues faced by these programmes. Further, there was a lack of evaluation of these control programmes, as well as a lack of a standardised methodology to conduct such evaluations. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE Past experiences demonstrated that coordinated and sustained control activities require careful planning, and evidence of successes, failures and setbacks from past control programmes represent a mine of information. As there is a lack of evaluation of these programmes, these data have not been fully exploited for the design, analyses and justification of future control programmes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anne Meyer
- Department of Production and Population Health, Royal Veterinary College, Hatfield, United Kingdom
| | - Hannah R. Holt
- Department of Production and Population Health, Royal Veterinary College, Hatfield, United Kingdom
| | - Richard Selby
- Department of Vector Biology, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Javier Guitian
- Department of Production and Population Health, Royal Veterinary College, Hatfield, United Kingdom
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