Prevalence and associated risk factors of anti-Coxiella burnetii antibodies in dairy cattle herds using bulk tank milk analysis in Kabylia area, north Algeria

Coxiella burnetii, or Q fever agent, has notable implications for human and livestock health. Infections in cattle primarily manifest through reproductive issues where infected animals shed the bacterium in birth fluids, placental tissues, and milk, serving as potential sources of transmission. Bovine herds become reservoirs, contributing to the environmental contamination of farming areas. Comprehensive studies on the prevalence, transmission routes, and associated risk factors among cattle contribute to the development of effective control strategies, ultimately safeguarding both livestock and public health.Here we determine the prevalence of Coxiella burnetii antibodies against in dairy cattle farms from Kabylia (northern Algeria) and identify the associated risk factors. Bulk tank milk samples from 184 farms were analyzed by indirect ELISA technique, 49 of them were tested positive which corresponds to a prevalence rate of 26.63% (95% CI 20.25-33.01%). Multivariate analysis by logistic regression showed that the risk factors associated with detection of anti-Coxiella burnetii antibodies are: cohabitation of cattle with small ruminants(OR = 3.74 95% CI [1.41-8.92]), exposure to prevailing winds (OR = 5.12 95% CI [2.11-13.45]), and the veterinarian visits frequency(OR = 5.67 95% CI [2.55-13.60]). These findings underscore the susceptibility of dairy cattle to Q fever in the Kabylia region, highlighting practices that pose risks. We recommend the implementation of hygienic measures and adherence to proper farming conditions to mitigate the transmission of Q fever and reduce the associated zoonotic risk.

Influence of the coincubation of post-thawed bull semen with elevated β-hydroxybutyrate concentrations on sperm characteristics

In this study, the relationships between post-thaw bull sperm characteristics and hyperketonemic conditions after coincubation with cow plasma or media were determined to investigate if such a condition could affect bull sperm characteristics. Two experiments were conducted. In experiment 1, blood samples were collected from 31 cows to prepare plasma. Cows were independently categorized into two groups according to plasma β-hydroxybutyrate (BHB) concentrations (above or below 1.2 mM). Thawed bull semen was diluted and incubated with diluted plasma; motility parameters were evaluated using Computer Assisted Semen Analysis (CASA). In experiment 2, a pooled sample of thawed semen was diluted and divided into three aliquots: without BHB (control) and treated with either 1.2 mM (1.2) or 3 mM (3) BHB. In addition to motility, flow cytometric analyses were carried out. In experiment 1, the overall motility decreased significantly in plasma containing high (≥1.2 mM) BHB compared to plasma containing low (<1.2 mM) BHB. In experiment 2, the overall motility tended to be lower in BHB (3 mM)-supplemented samples. The supplementation of 3 mM BHB increased the proportion of live superoxide-positive sperm and sperm with high mitochondrial potential, while the DNA fragmentation index decreased.

Ascorbic acid modulates testicular toxicity of Ampligo® 150 ZC insecticide in male rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus)

The present study was designed to evaluate the protective effects of ascorbic acid (AA) against lambda cyhalothrin insecticide formulation Ampligo® (AP)-induced testicular toxicity in rabbit laboratory strain ITELV2006 (Oryctolagus cuniculus). Twenty rabbits were randomly divided into four equal groups and treated by oral gavage for 21 consecutive days: Group 1 served as a control and received 1 ml of distilled water, group 2 was supplemented with1ml of ascorbic acid (AA) dilution (200 mg/kg b.w), Group 3 was treated with a dose of AP at 20 mg/kg bw (1 µl/1 ml of distilled water/animal), whereas group 4 was co-administered AA and AP as the same dose of group 2 and 3, respectively. Hormonal, histomorphometrical, and immunohistochemical methods were performed at the end of the study to detect testes damage. The results showed that AP exposure significantly reduced body weight, absolute and relative testicular weights, and testosterone levels. AP caused changes in testes tissue, namely incomplete spermatogenic series and necrosis of the spermatogonial cells lining in the seminiferous tubules of rabbits. Co-administrating AA clearly modulated body and testes weights, hormonal parameters, and histopathological damage. Furthermore, the findings revealed a significant increase in alpha-fetoprotein (AFP) level expression in the testes of the AP group. However, supplementation of the AP rabbits with AA modulated the observed result. Taken together, these data suggest that AA may protect against Ampligo-induced testicular damage.

Serological evidence of Rift Valley fever viral infection among camels imported into Southern Algeria

Rift Valley fever (RVF) is a mosquito-borne viral zoonosis caused by the Rift Valley fever virus (RVFV). The present work aims to investigate the epidemiological status and identify the risk factors associated with RVFV infection in dromedary camels (Camelus dromedarius) from southern Algeria. A total of 269 sera of apparently healthy camels was collected and tested using a competitive Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA). Overall, 72 camels (26.7 %, 95 % CI: 21.4-32) were seropositive to RVFV. IgG antibodies were found to be most prevalent in camels from south-western areas, particularly in Tindouf wilaya (52.38 %, p < 0.0001), and in camels introduced from bordering Sahelian countries (35.8 %) (OR = 8.75, 95 %CI: 2.14-35.81). No anti-RVFV antibodies were detected in sera collected from local camels (0 %). Adult (5-10 years) and aged (>10 years) camels have a significantly higher risk of being infected by RVFV (OR = 2.15; 95 %CI = 1.21-3.81, OR = 2.05; 95 %CI = 1.03-4.11, respectively). This report indicated that dromedaries imported to the south-western areas are exposed to RVFV and may contribute to its spread in Algerian territories.

Ethnobotanical survey of the traditional antiparasitic use of medicinal plants in humans and animals in Laghouat (Southern Algeria)

Background and Aim: An ethnobotanical survey was carried out among the inhabitants of the Aflou region of Laghouat (Southern Algeria). This study was considered as a first step toward the identification of new bioactive antiparasitic molecules. The preservation and documentation of this traditional knowledge will ensure its continuity and transmission from one generation to another, especially because of the emergence of resistant parasites and the lack of references caused by the lack of work in this area; therefore, we intended to inventory and collect the maximum amount of information on medicinal plants that are traditionally used by the local population as antiparasitic in humans and animals (small ruminants, cattle, and livestock). Materials and Methods: The information was collected using open interviews; the ethnobotanical survey was carried out in the area mentioned above from April to July 2021 using a semi-structured questionnaire and a global sample of 200 respondents. The data were analyzed using the System Package for the Social Sciences software and Microsoft Excel 2010 using the following quantitative indices: Relative frequency of citation (RFC), family importance value (FIV), fidelity level, and informant consensus factor (ICF). Results: The investigation uncovered the antiparasitic use of 58 plant species belonging to 30 families. The family Asteraceae had the highest FIV (FIV = 0.23). The pathology with the highest degree of agreement among the informants was genitourinary parasitosis (ICF = 0.930). The species that was most commonly cited by the local population was Artemisia herba-alba Asso (RFC = 1), and the foliage was the most commonly used part (46.4%). Infusion (38.8%) was the most-used preparation for remedies. Conclusion: This investigation revealed a rich ethnopharmacological knowledge in southern Algeria; therefore, the data gathered in this survey may be utilized to create novel antiparasitic compounds with activity in humans and animals.

Follicular fluid and serum biochemical and hormonal profiles of normal and cystic dromedary camel breeds

Background and Aim

Ovarian cysts (OC) in female dromedary camels have been described as problematic because they can cause infertility. This study aimed to compare the hormone concentrations and biochemical contents present in serum and follicular fluid of normal and cystic she-dromedaries of the two most common Algerian camel breeds (Sahraoui and Targui) to gain a better understanding of biological differences that may yield insights into preventing or treating this ovarian abnormality.

Materials and Methods

At an abattoir in southeastern Algeria, 100 pairs of the same females' ovaries and blood samples were taken immediately after the slaughter of clinically healthy, non-pregnant females (8-15 years old) over two consecutive breeding seasons (November 2017-April 2018 and November 2018-April 2019). The concentrations of glucose, cholesterol, protein, urea, creatinine, triglyceride, gamma-glutamyl transferase, alanine aminotransferase, and aspartate aminotransferase were determined using commercial diagnostic kits and standard analytical procedures. Electrochemiluminescence immunoassay was used to measure progesterone (P4) and insulin concentrations.

Results

The concentrations of glucose, insulin, cholesterol, and P4 in sera and follicular fluid (regardless of ovarian follicle diameter) were different (p < 0.001), but there was no significant difference in the other parameters studied. Glucose, insulin, cholesterol, urea, and P4 levels in blood serum differed significantly from pre-ovulatory follicles. None of the biochemical and hormonal components measured differed significantly between the pre-ovulatory and cystic fluids of the she-dromedaries studied. The breed did not affect the biochemical and hormonal composition of she-dromedary cystic and follicular fluids.

Conclusion

Ovarian cysts appear to form in a metabolic milieu distinct from follicular fluid and blood serum, with no influence from camel breeds. It is suggested that further research on the blood-follicle barrier be conducted to gain a better understanding of the OC development process in she-dromedaries.

Field observation on the use of PRID®Delta to induce estrus and ovulation in anestrous mares

To advance the time of the first estrus with ovulation, we administered intravaginally a progesterone-releasing devices PRID® Delta to 42 acyclic Arab-Barb mares for 11 days at different seasons: winter (n = 10), spring (n = 14), summer (n = 9) and autumn (n = 9). Twenty-seven of 39 mares that kept their coils responded to the PRID® Delta treatment with estrus and ovulation during the 42-day observation period, in winter (4/10, 40%) mares, in spring (9/13, 69%), in summer (7/7, 100%) and autumn (7/9, 78%) mares (P <0,05). At Day 2 of PRID® Delta treatment, mean initial of progesterone concentrations was significantly increased in all mares in winter (7.20 ± 0.49 ng mL-1), spring (7.30 ± 0.64 ng mL-1), summer (7.5 ± 0.58 ng mL-1 ) and autumn ( 7.60 ± 0.71 ng mL-1) (P <0,05). Total concentration of progesterone (area under curve (AUC)) during the treatment period revealed highest values in spring (67.95 ± 2.40 ng mL-1h-1) followed by autumn (65.20 ± 1.37 ng mL-1 h-1), winter (54.19 ± 7.00 ng mL-1 h-1) and summer 52.23 ± 3.32 ng mL-1 h-1; P < 0.05). In conclusion, administration of the intravaginal device releasing progesterone PRID® Delta was able to induce estrus and ovulation in mares at different times of the year. However, the efficacy of the treatment was not satisfactory in terms of efficacy compared to the season (low response rate in winter) and synchrony of intervals from removal of PRID® Delta to ovulation.

First serological evidence of BHV-1 virus in Algerian dromedary camels: Seroprevalence and associated risk factors

Infectious bovine rhinotracheitis (IBR), caused by bovine herpesvirus-1 (BHV-1), is a major livestock health concern in many countries of the world. The objectives of this cross-sectional study were (i) to estimate the seroprevalence of BHV-1 infection and (ii) to assess risk factors associated with this disease in dromedary camels in four districts of Algeria. Blood samples were taken from 865 camels from 84 randomly selected herds, and serum was analyzed for presence of antibodies against BHV-1 by indirect enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Logistic regression was used to determine associations between seroprevalence and potential risk factors (collected using a questionnaire). Antibodies against BHV-1 were detected in 3.7 % (32/865) of samples. Eighteen of 84 camel herds had at least one BHV-1 seropositive camel, giving a herd seroprevalence of 21.4 %. Based on univariate analysis, the introduction of purchased animals and contact with others animal herds appeared as major risk factors. By using multivariate analysis, the only important risk factor was introduction of new animals. This study provided, for the first time, evidence of BHV-1 infection in dromedary camels in Algeria; it also provided estimates of seroprevalence of this disease and suggests that camels may serve as a reservoir of BHV-1 for spread to other species.

Indicators and risk factors of infectious laryngotracheitis in layer hen flocks in Algeria

Background and Aim

Since 2017, there have been epidemics with respiratory disorders in the laying hen farms in Algeria, as signs and lesions, respiratory difficulties, and hemorrhagic tracheitis, which closely like laryngotracheitis. This study aimed to analyze the epidemiological, serological, and clinical indicators, as well as the risk factors, of infectious laryngotracheitis (ILT) in layer hen flocks in Algeria.

Materials and Methods

A total of 1728 layer hens were sampled randomly from 48 poultry houses. Blood samples were collected from each hen at the wing vein area, and an indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay was done using an IDvet^® kit.

Results

The flocks showed 56.25% seroprevalence. Clinical signs and gross lesions of ILT suspect cases included respiratory signs characterized by hemorrhagic tracheitis and sinusitis; conjunctivitis; egg drop; and a low mortality rate varying from 5% to 20%. Statistical analyses showed the effect of risk factors on the seropositivity for ILT in 48 layer flocks. When the vaccination was not applied, flocks were significantly more seropositive by 54% (odds ratio OR=1.54, p=0.01) compared to vaccinated flocks. Furthermore, flocks with poor hygiene were more seropositive by 68% (OR=1.68, p=0.002) compared to those with good hygiene. Finally, flocks with decreased egg production between 10% and 30% were significantly more seropositive by 42% (OR=1.42, p=0.04) than those with egg production >30%.

Conclusion

The serological survey revealed anti-ILT virus antibodies, signifying the circulation of this virus in layer hen farms in Algeria. Correct vaccination protocol, strict biosecurity measures, rapid diagnosis, and detection of latent carriers are necessary to control and eradicate the disease from layer farms.

Oral flora of stray dogs and cats in Algeria: Pasteurella and other zoonotic bacteria

Background and Aim:

Knowledge of potentially pathogenic bacteria presents in the oral cavity of dogs and cats may be helpful in determining appropriate treatment for infected bite wounds. About 120.000 people are exposed to dog and cat bites every year in Algeria, but little is known about the dog and cat oral flora causing bite wound complications. The purpose of this study was to identify potential zoonotic bacteria from oral cavity of dogs and cats and to determine their susceptibility to antibiotics to contribute to the treatment of bite wound infection.

Materials and Methods:

Oral swabs from 100 stray dogs and 100 stray cats were collected and cultured in several media: Chocolate agar, MacConkey agar, and Mannitol Salt Agar. Bacterial isolates were identified using several commercial kits of the analytical profile index and tested for antibiotic susceptibility by disk diffusion method.

Results:

Overall, 185/200 (92.5%) dogs and cats carried zoonotic bacteria in their mouths, of which 55.13% (102/185) had at least two bacterial pathogens. 374 pathogenic strains belonging to 15 genera were isolated: Eleven were Gram-negative (Proteus, Pasteurella, Escherichia, Moraxella, Klebsiella, Acinetobacter, Enterobacter, Pseudomonas, Aeromonas, and NeisseriaHaemophilus) and four were Gram-positive (Staphylococcus, Streptococcus, and Corynebacterium, Bacillus). Fifty-one strains of Pasteurella were isolated from 44 carriers of Pasteurella (21 Pasteurella multocida, 21 Pasteurella pneumotropica, and 9 Pasteurella spp.). Pasteurella strains were tested for antibiotic resistance. Resistance to at least one drug was observed in 8 (15.68%) of Pasteurella isolates and two strains (3.92%) were found to be multidrug-resistant (to two or more drugs). Erythromycin, penicillin, and ampicillin were the antimicrobials to which the isolates showed greater resistance (7.84%, 5.88%, and 3.92%, respectively).

Conclusion:

To the best of our knowledge, this study is the first in Algeria to detect potential human pathogenic bacteria in the oral cavity of dogs and cats. It reveals that these animals have multiple zoonotic bacteria in their mouths including Pasteurella species, which may be multidrug-resistant.

Seroprevalence and risk factors for Trypanosoma evansi, the causative agent of surra, in the dromedary camel (Camelus dromedarius) population in Southeastern Algeria

Surra, caused by Trypanosoma evansi, is a re-emerging animal trypanosomosis, which is of special concern for camel-rearing regions of Africa and Asia. Surra decreases milk yield, lessens animal body condition score and reduces market value of exported animals resulting in substantial economic losses. A cross-sectional seroprevalence study of dromedary camels was conducted in Algeria, and major risk factors associated with infection were identified by collecting data on animal characteristics and herd management practices. The seroprevalence of T. evansi infection was determined in sera of 865 camels from 82 herds located in eastern Algeria using an antibody test (card agglutination test for Trypanosomiasis – CATT/T. evansi). Individual and herd seroprevalence were 49.5% and 73.2%, respectively, indicating substantial exposure of camels to T. evansi in the four districts studied. Five significant risk factors for T. evansi hemoparasite infection were identified: geographical area, herd size, husbandry system, accessibility to natural water sources and type of watering. There was no association between breed, sex or age with T. evansi infection. Results of this study provide baseline information that will be useful for launching control programmes in the region and potentially elsewhere.

Investigation of the presence of slime production, VanA gene and antiseptic resistance genes in Staphylococci isolated from bovine mastitis in Algeria

Staphylococcus strains are frequently as- sociated with clinical and subclinical bovine intra-mammary infection. The virulence factors of staphylococcus have not been widely studied in Algeria. The objective of this study was to determine the frequency of slime production, VanA gene and antiseptic resistance genes in staphylococci strains isolated from bovine mas- titis in Algeria. The study examined 35 Staphy- lococci strains obtained from the inflammatory secretion of mammary glands of cows with mastitis. Slime production was determined by detecting the icaA and icaD genes using the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) method and Congo red agar (CRA) method. The presence of qacAB and qac C antiseptic resistance genes and the VanA resistance gene in these isolates was investigated by PCR. The results of the current study revealed that of the 35 Staphylo- cocci isolates, 42.85% (15/35) and 17.14% (6/35) of the isolates harboured the slime production gene by analysing icaA and icaD genes, respec- tively and 71.42% (25/35) by the CRA method. However, VanA and antiseptic resistance genes (qacAB and qac C) were not detected in any of the isolates. Therefore, the majority of Staphylo- coccus strains were capable of producing slime, and the CRA detection rate was higher than the PCR method for the biofilm-producing capac- ity of Staphylococcus strains. Thus, the presence of the ica genes in Staphylococcus strains con- firms its role as a virulence factor in the patho- genesis of bovine mastitis.

First report of Chlamydophila abortus infection in the dromedary camel (Camelus dromedarius) population in eastern Algeria

Chlamydiosis is caused by an obligate intracellular gram-negative bacterium of the genus Chlamydophila which is a zoonotic pathogen. The objectives of the study were to identify the seroprevalence of antibodies against Chlamydophila abortus in dromedary camel herds from four districts in eastern Algeria, as well as to estimate the association between seroprevalence and certain factors present at the animal and herd levels. Blood samples were collected from a random sample of animals within each of 82 camel herds. Serum samples were subjected to a C. abortus ELISA test, and association between the presence of antibodies and potential risk factors was estimated. Animal and herd seroprevalence were 2.5 % and 15.8 %, respectively, indicating substantial exposure of camels to C. abortus in the four districts studied. Age, breed, and sex did not influence seroprevalence in tested animals. Based on the univariate analysis, contact with sheep and goats, contact with other camel herds, and histories of abortion were major risk factors for infection. By using multivariate analysis, contact of camels with sheep and goats and with others camel herds, through shared grazing or watering points, were important factors for transmission of chlamydiosis with an odds ratio of 3.3 and 9.4, respectively. At the herd level the introduction of purchased animals was the major risk factor. This baseline information will be highly useful for launching C. abortus control programs in the region and potentially elsewhere.

Prevalence and factors associated with a higher or lower risk of exposure to Coxiella burnetii, Chlamydia abortus and Toxoplasma gondii in dairy cows that have aborted in Algeria

In Algeria, the prevalence of causes of abortion on dairy cattle farms (whether infectious causes or not) has been little studied. The current study involved a serological analysis conducted between October 2014 and June 2016 in northern Algeria using an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay test on blood samples taken from 368 cows that had aborted on 124 farms. It was complemented by a survey to identify the factors associated with a higher or lower risk of exposure to Coxiella burnetii, Chlamydia abortus and Toxoplasma gondii, using univariate logistic regression and then multivariate logistic regression. The individual serological prevalences obtained were 8.4% (31/368) for C. burnetii and 12.2% (45/368) for C. abortus. For T. gondii, the individual seroprevalence was 13.8% (51/368); the factors associated with a higher risk of individual exposure were the fourth month of gestation (odds ratio [OR] = 22.68; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.38-392.97) and the fifth month of gestation (OR = 25.51; 95% CI: 1.47-442.11). All the other factors identified by the multivariate logistic regression were associated with a lower risk of exposure. They are the inspection visits in 2015 (OR = 0.0006; 95% CI: 0.000004-0.12) and in 2016 (OR = 0.0005; 95% CI: 0.000002-0.13) and artificial insemination (OR = 0.15; 95% CI: 0.05-0.44) for C. burnetii ; winter (OR = 0.39; 95% CI: 0.15-1.00), spring (OR = 0.45; 95% CI: 0.20-0.97), and artificial insemination (OR = 0.27; 95% CI: 0.13-0.56) for C. abortus; and the number of gestations (OR = 0.38; 95% CI: 0.16-0.92) for T. gondii. The seroprevalence at herd level was 16.1% (20/124) for C. burnetii and 29.8% (37/124) for both C. abortus and T. gondii. At herd level, the risk factors associated with a higher risk of exposure to C. abortus and T. gondii were the practice of deworming (OR = 3.89; 95% CI: 1.53-9.89) and drilling individual wells as a source of drinking water (OR = 7.50; 95% CI: 2.11-26.69). For C. burnetii, the inspection visit in 2015 (OR = 0.02; 95% CI: 0.0008-0.65) and in 2016 (OR = 0.01; 95% CI: 0.0003-0.36), artificial insemination (OR = 0.21; 95% CI: 0.06-0.69) and rodent eradication (OR = 0.19; 95% CI: 0.06-0.57) were factors that reduced the risk of exposure.

The Effect of Vitamin E and Poly Ethylene Glycol (PEG) Association on Chilled Rabbit Sperm: Impact on Sperm Motility and Oxidative Stress Status

BACKGROUND

Vitamin E is the major lipid-soluble antioxidant, however, its potent effect is limited by its poor solubility.

OBJECTIVE

The present study aimed to investigate whether polyethylene glycol 6000 (PEG) can enhance Vitamin E solubility and help protect sperm motility and against oxidative status.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Sperm groups consisted of the control aliquot diluted with Tris buffer and aliquots treated with Tris buffer containing polyethylene glycol (PEG), vitamin E (Vit E) or vitamin E- PEG complex (PEG/Vit E). Sperm motility was measured using a Computer Aided Semen Analysis at 0, 1, 3, 6 hours of cooling at 4°C. The oxidative stress status was measured at 4 hours using ABTS radical scavenging capacity.

RESULTS

Sperm motility and oxidative status were significantly protected when using PEG and Vit E individually; however the most potent effects were observed in PEG/Vit E treatment.

CONCLUSION

The present study demonstrated that treating rabbit semen with vitamin E complexed to PEG 6000 (PEG/Vit E) is effective in protecting sperm cells during chilling at 4°C.

Development of in-house RIA kit for progesterone in cow's skim milk

A radioimmunoassay (RIA) method for progesterone has been developed. It has been validated for the determination of progesterone in cow skim milk. The main reagents used in the development work were prepared and characterized in-house. The assay uses a radioiodinated tracer purified by gel filtration on Sephadex G-25, standards prepared in skim milk and coated tubes with specific antibodies as the solid phase (separation system). The radiochemical purity of the tracer was greater than 95%, the maximum binding using solid phase reached 43% and the nonspecific binding didn't exceed 5%. Series of progesterone standards using milk matrix with concentration ranging from 0 to 40ng/mL were prepared. Detection limit of the assay was 0.13ng/mL and the precision evaluation gives an intra and inter-assay coefficient variations between 4.94% and 12.66%. The recovery obtained with skim milk samples was 84% to 119% and the parallelism test indicated good linearity (R² > 0.99). The clinical tests give high correlation coefficient (r = 0.998) between progesterone concentrations of cow's skim milk assayed using developed progesterone RIA kit and commercial progesterone RIA kit.

Association of pregnancy per artificial insemination with gonadotropin-releasing hormone and human chorionic gonadotropin administered during the luteal phase after artificial insemination in dairy cows: A meta-analysis

One strategy for improving fertility in cattle is administration of GnRH or human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) during the luteal phase, which increases progesterone (P4) secretion and delays luteolysis. To provide an overview of how GnRH or hCG treatment between 4 and 15 d after artificial insemination (AI) improves pregnancy per AI (P/AI) in cows, a meta-analysis was performed on 107 different trials from 52 publications. Data from 18,082 treated cows and 18,385 untreated controls were meta-analyzed. The meta-analysis explained the relative risk for P/AI with GnRH or hCG treatment under various circumstances. The results did not show any difference in P/AI between cows treated with hCG and cows treated with GnRH. Compared with no treatment, treatment with GnRH or hCG improved the chances of P/AI in cows with very poor (<30%) and poor (30.1 to 45%) fertility, whereas treatment did not benefit cows with very good fertility (>60.1%). Moreover, treatment with GnRH and hCG improved the chances of P/AI in primiparous cows. The improvement was much better in primiparous cows with very low fertility. Treatment with buserelin at a dose above 10 µg and with hCG at a dose above 2,500 IU was associated with increased chances of P/AI compared with lower doses. Treatment with GnRH 10 d after AI was also associated with increased chances of P/AI compared with earlier treatment. The present meta-analysis showed that the use of GnRH and hCG after AI should be focused on cows expected to have low or moderate fertility. Day and dose of treatment have to be considered as well.

Feeding practices of dairy cows in Algeria: Characterization, typology, and impact on milk production and fertility

Objective

To explore feeding strategies and identify eventual errors that could cause poor production and reproduction performances in dairy farms in the north of Algeria.

Materials and Methods

A survey was conducted among 211 farms of different sizes, from 2014 to 2018 to compose a database that is analyzed statistically.

Results

The results relative to the nutritive value of the rations showed an average dry matter intake of 15.9 ± 4.74 kg/cow/day, providing 13.2 ± 4.34 UFL (Feed Unit for Lactation) of net energy and 1306 ± 456 gm of protein digested in small intestine (PDI)/cow/day. A high proportion of concentrate intake is observed, with an average of 64.7% ± 17.4% of energy intake and 70.2% ± 16.2% of nitrogen intake. Dairy cows performances were characterized by a low milk production regarding their genetic potential (14.2 ± 4.73 kg of milk/cow/day), a calving interval > to one year (397 ± 20.4 days), though the coverage rates of their nutrient requirements reached 120%. The typology of the dietary rations allowed grouping them into three categories: deficient rations cluster (DR), correct rations cluster, and excessive rations cluster (ER). DR and ER, which are not adjusted to animals' needs, were found in 57.8% of farms.

Conclusion

It is obvious that the feeding management in the dairy farms in the North of Algeria is not based upon scientific achievements, contributing to relatively low performances of cows as well as to important financial losses. This finding imposes the necessity to adopt a correct and accurate rationing of animals.

Retrospective study of the reproductive performance of Barb and Thoroughbred stallions in Algeria

Background and Aim

The Barb horse occupies a prominent place in the history, culture, and equestrian traditions of the Maghreb (Algeria, Morocco, and Tunisia). Although many studies on the breed standard and morphometry have been published, there are no studies on its fertility and reproductive potential. Thus, this work aimed to study the fertility of Barb, Arabian Purebred, and Thoroughbred horses in Algeria.

Materials and Methods

A total of 168 stallions and 1202 mares at the Chaouchaoua Stud farm in Tiaret, Algeria, were included in the study. The reproductive performance during 1592 cycles over 10 consecutive mating seasons (2003-2012) was evaluated. Multivariate analysis with logistic regression was used to analyze the reproductive parameters such as the number of cycles operated, number of pregnant mares, pregnancy rate per cycle, seasonal pregnancy rate, and embryonic mortality rate, and to determine the influence of breed, stallion's age, and year of the study on reproduction.

Results

Statistical analysis showed that stallion breed was a significant influencing factor for the number of pregnant barren mares (Odds ratio [OR]=1.72; p=0.03; 95% confidence interval [CI]=1.05, 2.84) seasonal pregnancy rate (OR=1.40; p<0.001; 95% CI=1.29, 1.53). Additionally, the reproductive performance of the Barb stallion was superior to that of the Thoroughbred stallion. With regard to the significant influence of stallion's age of >5 years on the number of pregnant foaling mares and seasonal pregnancy rate, significant interactions were observed between the stallion's breed and age, and the pregnancy rate per cycle: in the Barb breed, the pregnancy rate per cycle increased with the age of the stallion, while in the Thoroughbred, it decreased with age. Moreover, a significant effect of the year of the study on the pregnancy rate per cycle and number of pregnant foaling mares was observed. In contrast, the number of cycles and embryonic mortality rate were not influenced by the breed and age of the stallion, or the year of the study.

Conclusion

The Algerian Barb horse attained a similar level of fertility compared with that of the Arabian Purebred and Thoroughbred stallions depending on its age and reproductive performance.

Serological, clinical, and risk factors of the Newcastle disease on broilers flocks in Algeria

Aim:

The work aimed at studying the serological and clinical factors, as well as the risk factors of the Newcastle disease (ND) on broilers herds in Algeria.

Materials and Methods:

A sample of 1248 birds was randomly selected from 52 broiler flocks. We took blood samples from each bird at the level of the wing vein area where an indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay technique was carried out through the use of an IDvet kit.

Results:

The flocks showed 82.69% of seroprevalence. Clinically speaking, the most common symptoms were sneezing, rale, greenish diarrhea, torticollis, and motor discords. Most commonly observed postmortem lesions were the proventriculitis, tracheitis, and enteritis. Especially, the caeca are hemorrhagic. The scores show the effect of risk factors. There was a significant effect on the mortality, the hygiene and vaccination groups on antibody titers in time 2. The antibody titers were elevated in the herd that recorded a high mortality (more than 10%) compared with those which recorded a low mortality (<10%) (p=0.002). Therefore, the antibody titers were elevated in herds with bad hygiene, compared with the ones with good hygiene (p=0.04). At last, when broiler chicken were not boosted by ND vaccine, flocks appeared to be more seropositive (p=0.02).

Conclusion:

The serological survey conducted in this study provided an important scope for ND as a dominant viral disease in broilers. Many factors are responsible for the onset of these diseases; correct biosecurity measures are needed to reduce the impact of this pathology in poultry farms.

Seroprevalence of anti-Neospora caninum antibodies in cows of North-Eastern Algeria

AIM

The present cross-sectional study aimed at assessing the seroprevalence of Neospora caninum infection both at herd and within herd and at determining risk factors that are associated with its seropositivity.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A total of 90 cows distributed over seven herds located in two North-Eastern Algerian provinces were blood sampled in order to be tested for the presence of antibodies against N. caninum using a commercially available enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay kit.

RESULTS

The individual seroprevalence of N. caninum was found to be 12.22%, and six of the seven herds tested had at least one seropositive cow. The logistic regression model revealed that abortion (odds ratio [OR]=29.15) and parity (OR=7.38) were positively associated with the seropositivity of animals on an individual basis.

CONCLUSION

The study confirms the existence of N. caninum infection in cattle in North-Eastern Algeria. However, a widespread infection rate of 85.71% and its significant statistical association with previous abortion (OR=29.15) need further investigations.

Serological survey for anti-Toxoplasma gondii antibodies in sheep of northeastern Algeria

Although T. gondii is of considerable both public and veterinary importance worldwide, studies on its existence in sheep in Algeria, either through serology and or parasitology is scarce. To this end, a cross-sectional study was carried out in Tébessa, an Algerian eastern province, to, firstly, investigate the seroprevalence of T. gondii infection in sheep and, secondly, determine the potential risk factors that may be associated with seropositivity. A total of 376 serum samples from 39 flocks, collected between September 2015 and October 2017, were tested for anti-T.gondii antibodies via the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay technique (ELISA). A T. gondii seroprevalence of 35.37% (95% CI 30.54-40.21%) was recorded, and 84.61% (95% CI 73.29-95.94%) of the flocks sampled had, at least, one seropositive animal. The multivariable logistic regression analysis showed that abortion during the latest pregnancy (OR = 1.56; 95% CI 1.02-2.44; p = 0.05), presence of goats in sheep flocks (OR = 1.76; 95% CI 1.04-2.98; p = 0.037), and the sampling period were the variables significantly associated with seropositivity. The present study reports, for the first time in this part of Algeria, the seroprevalence of T. gondii infection and bears out the highly dissemination capacity of the parasite. This is of a great importance for veterinarians in charge of veterinary public health, veterinary practitioners, and breeders in order to improve the control and prophylactic measures of toxoplasmosis. Nevertheless, further study should be conducted to explore the impact of the parasite on public and animal health.

Antibiotic susceptibility of Staphylococci isolated from bovine mastitis in Algeria

Objective:

This work aimed to determine the resistance and/or the susceptibility to antibiotics of staphylococci isolated from cattle with mastitis in the North of Algeria.

Materials and Methods:

The disk diffusion method was carried out to reveal the antibiotic resistance in accordance to the National Committee for Clinical Laboratory Standards guidelines in the Mueller-Hinton agar.

Results:

Coagulase-negative Staphylococci (CNS) isolates showed more resistance to Cefoxitin, Amoxicillin + Clavulanic Acid, Vancomycin, Trimethoprime Sulfamethoxazole, Clindamycine, Neomycin, and Erythromycin than Coagulase-positive Staphylococci (CPS). CPS were more resistant to Penicillin and Tetracycline as compared to CNS strains; however, all these strains presented sensitivity to Gentamicin and neomycin.

Conclusion:

The Staphylococci showed high resistance to the beta-lactam antibiotics. As far as the authors know, these molecules are used with or without control in different protocols to prevent and cure the mastitis in Algeria.

Comparative efficacy of two-dimensional mode and color Doppler sonography in predicting gender of the equine fetus

Background and Aim:

Ultrasonographic fetal sexing is of utmost economic importance for horse breeders. Relatively, a few studies have been conducted to determine fetal sex in mare using transrectal Doppler ultrasound. This study aimed to compare two sexing techniques, two-dimensional (2D) mode and color Doppler ultrasonography.

Materials and Methods:

The study was conducted on 39 mares under field conditions. Examinations were performed using the ultrasonic model device (Medison SonoAce Pico, South Korea), equipped with real-time 3-7 MHz convex multifrequency transducer. Fetal sex diagnosis was carried out in two periods of pregnancy, early period (57-80 days of gestation) and late period (80-150 days of gestation).

Results:

No difference (p=0.4) was observed between the efficiency of the 2D mode and Doppler ultrasound in sex determination with the respective frequency of 74% and 85%. The best time to sex the early fetus was between 57 and 70 days of gestation and between 90 and 120 days for the older fetus.

Conclusion:

The accuracy of sex determination can be increased using Doppler mode compared to 2D mode, especially in the early period between 57 and 70 days, in male more than female sex.

Effects of GnRH or hCG on day 11 after artificial insemination in cows luteal activity

In order to optimize luteal function by human chorionic gonadotrophin (hCG)  or gonadotrophin releasing hormone (GnRH) on day 11 after artificial insemination (AI). 33 cows synchronized by the Ovsynch and divided into 3 groups according to the type of treatment: 1) hCG (1500 IU, n=11); 2) GnRH (100 µg, n=11); and 3) control (2 mL of saline, n=11). Blood samples were collected from all animals every 3 days from day 5 to day 23 to determine progesterone concentration. Ultrasonography was used to monitor the luteal surface structures at the time of blood sample collection. An accessory corpus luteum (CL) formed in 63.63% of cows treated with GnRH and with hCG, resulting in an increase in the total luteal tissue area compared with the controls. Thus, the volume of the principal CL was increased by hCG but tended to be similar to GnRH compared with the controls. Additionally, compared with the control group, hCG-treated and GnRH-treated cows had increased progesterone concentrations (p<0.0001). Among the hCG-treated cows, their progesterone concentration increased compared with GnRH-treated cows.

Reproductive performance and numerical productivity of Ouled Djllal ewes

In order to measure the reproductive performances and numerical productivity of Ouled Djellal ewes, and to determine the influence of non-geneticfactors onthese parameters, a database wasestablished, by monitoring 2710 ewes, belonging to 12 farms, representative of two dominant modes of reproduction in the Chlef region. Body condition scores (BCS) of groups ofewes put in reproduction were carried out to compare the performances under breedingconditions. Thestudy showed a fertility and prolificacy of 91.04% and 115.35% in the breeding mode of lambing per year in spring, against 59.35% and 103% in the traditionalsystem with lambingspread over the year (the ram is permanently present in the herd). The body condition and body reserves of the ewes varied according to the lambing season and the farmsmanagement (feed system). The interaction between the body condition of the ewes at mating and their reproduction performances was evident. Indeed, as BCS at mating increased, fertility, prolificityand productivity improved. The ewes with BCS at mating higher than or equalto3 produced the best performance, whereasthe ewes with BCS lower than 3, were less fertile, less prolific and less productive. On average the productivity of Ouled Djellal ewes was 105.03% and 61.10%, respectively,in the first and second mode of reproduction. The main sources of variation as well as their interactions, were highlighted in this study.

Cryptosporidium-associated diarrhoea in neonatal calves in Algeria

Neonatal calf diarrhoea triggered by the enteric protozoan parasite Cryptosporidium is a leading cause of morbidity and mortality in calves aged 1-month-old or younger globally. Infected cattle in general and calves in particular have also been demonstrated as major contributors of zoonotic C. parvum oocysts in the environment and have been linked to a number of waterborne outbreaks of human cryptosporidiosis. Little is known on the occurrence, geographical distribution, and molecular diversity of Cryptosporidium infections affecting bovine populations in Algeria. In this study faecal specimens were randomly collected from 460 cattle aged between two days and 18 months on 10 farms located in the provinces of Aïn Defla, Blida, Sétif, and Tizi Ouzou between the autumn of 2015 and the spring of 2016. Faecal samples were microscopically examined using the modified Ziehl-Neelsen acid-fast technique as screening method. Microscopy-positive samples were confirmed by a commercial coproantigen enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (Bio-X Diagnostics). The identification of Cryptosporidium species and sub-genotypes in confirmed samples was conducted by PCR and sequence analyses of the small subunit ribosomal RNA (ssu rRNA) and the 60 kDa glycoprotein (gp60) genes of the parasite. Overall, 52.2% (240/460) of the investigated cattle tested positive to Cryptosporidium by microscopy. The infection was widespread in all 10 farms surveyed, but was significantly more prevalent in those from Blida in the central part of the country. Bovine cryptosporidiosis affected cattle of all age groups but with different outcomes. Pre-weaned (up to one month old) calves typically presented with diarrhoea, whereas older animals mostly harboured sub-clinical infections. The commercial ELISA used only detected 15.8% (38/240) of the samples that previously tested positive by microscopy, demonstrating a poor performance in field epidemiological surveys. Sequence analysis of the 29 isolates generated at the ssu rRNA loci confirmed the presence of four Cryptosporidium species including C. parvum (72.4%), C. bovis (13.8%), C. andersoni, (3.4%), and C. ryanae (3.4%). Two additional isolates (7.0%) could only be identified at the genus level. Eight out of the 21 isolates assigned to C. parvum were identified as sub-genotype IIaA16G2R1 at the gp60 locus. C. parvum was almost exclusively found infecting pre-weaned calves, whereas C. ryanae and C. andersoni were only detected in asymptomatic animals. Bovine cryptosporidiosis is highly endemic in the surveyed area and represents a veterinary public health concern that should be adequately tackled by Algerian veterinary health authorities and policy makers.

Seroprevalence and risk factors for Coxiella burnetii, the causative agent of Q fever in the dromedary camel (Camelus dromedarius) population in Algeria

Query (Q) fever is a globally distributed zoonotic disease caused by Coxiella burnetii, a bacterial agent for which ruminants are the most prevalent natural reservoir. Data regarding Q fever infection in camels in Algeria are limited. Therefore, a survey to detect seroprevalence of C. burnetii antibodies was conducted among healthy camel populations in a vast area in southeastern Algeria to determine distribution of the Q fever causative organism and to identify risk factors associated with infection. Between January and March 2016, blood samples were collected from 184 camels and serum samples were subsequently analysed using a commercial Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) kit. At the time of blood collection, a questionnaire investigating 13 potential predisposing factors associated with C. burnetii seropositivity was completed for every dromedary camel and herd. Results were analysed by a chi-square (χ2) test and multivariate logistic regression. The seroprevalence of C. burnetii at the animal level was 71.2% (95% CI: 65.2-78.3) and 85.3% (95% CI: 72.8-97.8) at the herd level. At the animal level, differences in seroprevalence were observed because of herd size, animal age, animal sex, presence of ticks and contact with other herds. A multivariable logistic regression model identified three main risk factors associated with individual seropositivity: (1) age class > 11 years (OR = 8.81, 95% CI: 2.55-30.41), (2) herd size > 50 head (OR = 4.46, 95% CI: 1.01-19.59) and (3) infestation with ticks (OR 2.2; 95% CI: 1.1-4.5). This study of seroprevalence of C. burnetii infection in camels in Algeria revealed a high seroprevalence of Q fever in camel populations in southeastern Algeria and provided strong evidence that Q fever represents an economic, public health and veterinary concern. Appropriate measures should be taken to prevent the spread of C. burnetii and to reduce the risk of Q fever in farm animals and humans in this agro-ecologically and strategically important region of North Africa.

Profiling inflammatory biomarkers in cervico-vaginal mucus (CVM) postpartum: Potential early indicators of bovine clinical endometritis?

Endometritis significantly impacts fertility and milk yield, thus reducing profitability of the dairy production. In cows that develop endometritis, normal postpartum endometrial inflammation is dysregulated. Here, we propose that endometrial inflammation is reflected in cervico-vaginal mucus (CVM) which could therefore be used as a prognostic tool. CVM was collected from 20 dairy cows (10 with clinical endometritis and 10 healthy) 7 and 21 days postpartum (DPP). Polymorphonuclear (PMN), mononuclear leukocyte and epithelial cells were counted, total protein levels were estimated and levels of IL-1β, IL-6, IL-8, serum amyloid A (SAA), haptoglobin (Hp) and C5b were analyzed by ELISA in CVM. PMN were consistently high in CVM from 7 to 21 DPP, but were higher in CVM from cows with clinical endometritis 21 DPP compared with healthy cows. In contrast, there were more epithelial cells in healthy cows 21 DPP than in clinical endometritis animals. Total protein levels decreased significantly in CVM from healthy cows between days 7 and 21 postpartum. All inflammatory biomarkers except C5b, remained high in cows with clinical endometritis from 7 to 21 DPP, indicating sustained and chronic endometrial inflammation. IL1, IL-6, IL-8 and Hp levels were higher in CVM from cows with clinical endometritis compared to healthy cows 21 DPP. Interestingly IL-1β levels were raised in CVM from clinical endometritis but not in healthy cows 7 DPP suggesting that early measurement of IL-1β levels might provide a useful predictive marker of clinical endometritis. In contrast, SAA and C5b levels were increased in healthy cows 21 DPP, compared to cows with clinical endometritis suggesting that these acute phase proteins might have an anti-inflammatory role. Our results show that CVM is convenient for profiling disease-associated changes in key inflammatory molecules postpartum and reaffirms that sustained inflammation is a key feature of clinical endometritis in the dairy cow.

The benefits of liposomes for chilling canine sperm for 4 days at 4°C

This study comprises 3 experiments exploring the possible benefits and mechanism of action of liposomes for chilling (4°C) canine sperm over a period of 4 days. In the first experiment, 20 ejaculates collected from 5 Beagle dogs were chilled in an extender containing 6% low density lipoproteins (LDL) (Control), or one of 7 extenders containing different concentrations (2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 15, 20%) of liposomes (LIPO). These ejaculates were chilled over 4 days and motility was assessed daily using a Hamilton Thorne analyzer (HTM-IVOS, 14.0). The 2% LIPO obtained the best results (p=0.038) after four days (72.55% motile spermatozoa and 31.4% progressive spermatozoa). In experiment 2, 10 ejaculates were collected from same 5 dogs and chilled in 6% LDL or 2% LIPO-based extenders. Sperm integrity characteristics were assessed prior to refrigeration and every 48h for four days (D0, D2, and D4). Acrosome integrity was assessed using the FITC-PSA test (Fluorescein IsoThiocyanate-Pisum Sativum Agglutinin), plasma membrane (PM) integrity using both the hypo-osmotic swelling test (HOSt) and SYBR14/Propidium Iodide test (SYBR14/PI), and DNA integrity using the Acridine-Orange test (AO). The 2% LIPO extender provided equivalent preservation of sperm integrity parameters to the reference extender (6% LDL). In experiment 3, a Langmuir-Blodgett trough was used to evaluate the mechanistic interactions between LDL, LIPO, prostatic fluid, and the canine spermatozoal membrane during chilling. Results indicate that LDL and LIPO interact differently with the biomimetic membrane. The most likely conclusion of these findings is that LDL and liposomes employ different protective mechanisms during the chilling (4°C) of canine spermatozoa.

Subclinical mastitis in cattle in Algeria: Frequency of occurrence and bacteriological isolates

The present study was carried out to determine the prevalence of subclinical mastitis in cattle in eighteen herds in the center region of Algeria. Milk samples were collected from 560 quarters of 140 cows free of clinical mastitis. The samples were subjected to California Mastitis Test (CMT) and the positive samples were analysed by bacteriological culture and Speed ​​Mam® Color. The overall quarter prevalence was 28.77% whilst animal prevalence was 28.57%.Bacteriological analysis showed that there was a wide range of bacteria that cause these infections. Staphylococcus aureus (40%) was found to be the most prevalent organism followed by Streptococcus spp. (12.5%), Enterobacteriaceae (2.5%), Pseudomonas spp. (2.5%), Staphylococcusaureus + Streptococcus spp. (12.5%), Streptococcus spp.+ Escherichia coli (7.5%), S. aureus + Mycoplasma spp.(7.5%), and S. aureus +Streptococcus spp.+ E. coli (5%).

First epidemiological study on exposure to Neospora caninum in different canine populations in the Algiers District (Algeria)

Neospora caninum is an important cause of abortion in cattle worldwide. Dogs act as final hosts shedding oocysts in the environment. They can also harbour the extraintestinal stage of the parasite and this may be associated with a fairly rare neuromuscular condition. The sera of 781 dogs from the Algiers District were screened by IFAT for the presence of anti-N. caninum antibodies. These dogs were distributed into four populations: local stray dogs, police dogs, dogs from breeding kennels and farm dogs. The overall seroprevalence was 21.90%. Significant differences were observed between the different populations, the highest prevalence being observed in farm (44.44%) and stray dogs (22.55%). Additionally, the highest titres were observed in farm dogs. Among studied epidemiological parameters, breed, dog origin, season and vaccination status were significantly associated with IFAT results. Additionally, a recently described real time PCR was used on the blood of 100 pound dogs and the results were compared with the serological data. A higher proportion of dogs was found to be positive by PCR when compared to the IFAT results. There was only a fairly low agreement between PCR and IFAT results which suggests that these techniques measured different aspects of the host-parasite relationship. This study indicates that the level of exposure of the canine population of Algiers area to N. caninum is very high. This would indicate a potentially high risk for N. caninum induced abortion in cattle in this region and in Algeria.

Evaluation of a SRS2 Sandwich Commercial Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay for the Detection of Anti-Neospora Caninum Antibodies in Bovine and Canine Sera

Neospora caninum is a parasite responsible for abortion in cows and neuromuscular disease in dogs. Serology is the most widely used technique to evaluate the prevalenceof N. caninum in different host populations. A sandwich enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) based on the use of an anti-SRS2 monoclonal antibody was evaluated against the indirect fluorescent antibody test for 100 canine sera and against a well-characterized ELISA for 102 bovine sera. In cattle sera, the relative sensitivity and relative specificity were 100%. In dog sera, the relative specificity and relative sensitivity were 94% and 86%, respectively. The kappa value was 1 for bovine sera and 0.77 for canine sera. The seroprevalence was 3.9% in bovine sera and 21–23% in canine sera. The SRS2 sandwich ELISA was considered a valuable tool in both species.

Uterine collagen during involution in cattle

Post-partum involution of the bovine uterus was assessed by clinical examination and monitored biochemically by measuring the total urinary excretion of hydroxyproline and the collagen cross-link, pyridinoline. Uterine tissue contained 0.13 +/- 0.04 residues of pyridinoline per mole of collagen and negligible (less than 0.005 residues/mole) deoxypyridinoline. The pyridinoline/creatinine ratio was found to be a clearer and more reliable indicator of uterine resorption than the hydroxyproline/creatinine ratio. The amount of collagen cross-link excreted above baseline was equivalent to the amount of cross-link estimated to have been accumulated during pregnancy. Maximal excretion of pyridinoline occurred at day 6 and returned to baseline values in 2-3 weeks after parturition. An electron microscope study during the period of peak resorption revealed macrophage-like cells apparently engulfing or containing collagenous material, indicating phagocytic removal of the connective tissue.