Molecular detection of tick-borne bacteria and protozoa in cervids and wild boars from Portugal

Detection of Anaplasma spp. and Ehrlichia spp. in dogs from a veterinary teaching hospital in Italy: a retrospective study 2012-2020

Anaplasma phagocytophilum, Anaplasma platys and Ehrlichia canis, responsible of diseases in dogs, are tick-borne pathogens with a proven or potential zoonotic role that have shown increasing prevalence worldwide. The aims of this retrospective study were to assess the frequency of Anaplasma spp. and Ehrlichia spp. exposure in dogs tested in a veterinary teaching hospital in Italy over a 9-year period, to compare the performance of the diagnostic tests used, to evaluate correlations with clinical data, and to genetically analyse the identified bacteria. During the study period, 1322 dogs tested by at least one of the rapid immunoenzymatic test, indirect immunofluorescent antibody test or end-point PCR assay for Anaplasmataceae detection were included. Dogs were tested if they had clinical signs or clinicopathological alteration or risk factors related to infection, and if they were potential blood-donor animals. Ninety-four of 1322 (7.1%) dogs tested positive for at least one pathogen: 53 (4.3%) for A. phagocytophilum, one (0.1%) for A. platys and 63 (4.6%) for E. canis. The number of dogs tested increased and the positivity rate progressively declined over the years. Comparison of tests showed a near-perfect agreement between serological tests and a poor agreement between PCR and indirect assays. A breed predisposition has been highlighted for A. phagocytophilum infection in hunting breed dogs and for E. canis infection in mixed breed dogs. Phylogeny confirmed potential zoonotic implications for A. phagocytophilum and showed no correlation of the identified bacteria with the geographical origin. Our study provides new insights into possible risk factors in dogs and evidenced discordant results between different tests, suggesting that a combination of serological and molecular assays is preferable for a correct diagnosis.

Prevalence of tick-borne pathogens in ticks collected from the wild mountain ungulates mouflon and chamois in 4 regions of France

Ticks are major vectors of various pathogens of health importance, such as bacteria, viruses and parasites. The problems associated with ticks and vector-borne pathogens are increasing in mountain areas, particularly in connection with global climate change. We collected ticks (n = 2,081) from chamois and mouflon in 4 mountainous areas of France. We identified 6 tick species: Ixodes ricinus, Rhipicephalus bursa, Rh. sanguineus s.l., Haemaphysalis sulcata, H. punctata and Dermacentor marginatus. We observed a strong variation in tick species composition among the study sites, linked in particular to the climate of the sites. We then analysed 791 ticks for DNA of vector-borne pathogens: Babesia/Theileria spp., Borrelia burgdorferi s.l., Anaplasma phagocytophilum, A. marginale, A. ovis, and Rickettsia of the spotted fever group (SFG). Theileria ovis was detected only in Corsica in Rh. bursa. Babesia venatorum (2 sites), Borrelia burgdorferi s.l. (B. afzelii and B. garinii; 2 sites) and Anaplasma phagocytophilum (3 sites) were detected in I. ricinus. Anaplasma ovis was detected at one site in I. ricinus and Rh. sanguineus s.l. SFG Rickettsia were detected at all the study sites: R. monacensis and R. helvetica in I. ricinus at the 3 sites where this tick is present; R. massiliae in Rh. sanguineus s.l. (1 site); and R. hoogstraalii and Candidatus R. barbariae in Rh. bursa in Corsica. These results show that there is a risk of tick-borne diseases for humans and domestic and wild animals frequenting these mountain areas.

Molecular detection and associated risk factors of Anaplasma marginale, A. ovis and A. platys in sheep from Algeria with evidence of the absence of A. phagocytophilum

Anaplasma species are obligate intracellular rickettsial pathogens that cause significant diseases in animals and humans. Despite their importance, limited information on Anaplasma infections in Algeria has been published thus far. This study aimed to assess the infection rate, characterize Anaplasma species, and identify associated risk factors in selected sheep farms across Oum El Bouaghi region in Algeria. In 2018, we collected 417 blood samples from sheep (Ovis aries) and performed molecular characterization of Anaplasma species infecting these animals. This characterization involved the use of 16S rRNA, msp2, rpoB, and msp5 genes, which were analyzed through nested PCR, qPCR, cPCR, DNA sequencing, and subsequent phylogenetic analysis. Our findings revealed infection rates of 12.7 % for Anaplasma species detected, with Anaplasma ovis at 10.8 %, Anaplasma marginale at 1.7 %, and Anaplasma platys at 0.2 %. Interestingly, all tested animals were found negative for Anaplasma phagocytophilum. Statistical analyses, including the Chi-square test and Fisher exact test, failed to establish any significant relationships (p > 0.05) between A. ovis and A. platys infections and variables such as age, sex, sampling season, and tick infestation level. However, A. marginale infection exhibited a significant association with age (p < 0.05), with a higher incidence observed in lambs (5.2 %) compared to other age groups. Remarkably, this study represents the first molecular detection of A. platys and A. marginale in Algerian sheep. These findings suggest that Algerian sheep may serve as potential reservoirs for these pathogens. This research contributes valuable insights into the prevalence and characteristics of Anaplasma infections in Algerian sheep populations, emphasizing the need for further investigation and enhanced surveillance to better understand and manage these diseases.

First molecular detection of Babesia vulpes and Babesia capreoli in wild boars from southern Italy

Introduction

Following the increase of wild boar (Sus scrofa) populations in Europe, a potential risk of emerging infections by vector-borne pathogens may occur. Despite this, the circulation of piroplasmid species in these ungulates is still a neglected topic, particularly in the Mediterranean basin. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the presence of Babesia/Theileria spp. in wild boars from southern Italy to assess the epidemiological role of these ungulates in the circulation of piroplasmids.

Methods

By using a citizen science approach among hunters and veterinarians, wild boar spleen samples were collected in the Campania region (southern Italy) between 2016 and 2022. A combined semi-nested PCR/sequencing analysis targeting the V4 hyper-variable region of 18S rRNA was run to detect Babesia/Theileria spp. DNA.

Results

Out of 243 boars, 15 (i.e., 6.2, 95% CI: 3.4-9.9) tested positive to Babesia/Theileria spp., Babesia vulpes (n = 13, 5.3, 95% CI: 3.1-8.9) the most prevalent, followed by Babesia capreoli (n = 2, 0.8, 95% CI: 0.2-2.9). Three different B. vulpes sequence types were identified (i.e., ST1, ST2, ST3), with the most representative as ST1 (60%), and a single B. capreoli sequence type. No statistically significant difference (p > 0.05) were found between the presence of the pathogens and boar age, sex, province and sample collection year.

Discussion

Data demonstrate for the first time the occurrence of B. vulpes and B. capreoli in wild boars, which may play a role in the biological cycle of piroplasmids. We emphasize the importance of monitoring these ungulates to prevent potential foci of infection. The engagement of hunters in epidemiological scientifically based surveys can constitute a technically sound control strategy of piroplasmids in a One Health perspective.

The Role of Wild Boars in the Circulation of Tick-Borne Pathogens: The First Evidence of Rickettsia monacensis Presence

Most wild mammals can serve as hosts both for tick-borne pathogens (TBPs) and for the ticks themselves. Among these, wild boars, due to their large body size, habitat and life span, show high exposure to ticks and TBPs. These species are now one of the widest-ranging mammals in the world, as well as the most widespread suid. Despite the fact that certain local populations have been decimated by African swine fever (ASF), wild boars are still considered overabundant in most parts of the world, including Europe. Altogether, their long-life expectancy, large home ranges including migration, feeding and social behaviors, wide distribution, overabundance and increased chances of interactions with livestock or humans make them suitable sentinel species for general health threats, such as antimicrobial-resistant microorganisms, pollution and ASF geographical distribution, as well as for the distribution and abundance of hard ticks and also for certain TBPs, such as Anaplasma phagocytophilum. The aim of this study was to evaluate the presence of rickettsial agents in wild boars from two counties in Romania. Among 203 blood samples of wild boars (Sus scrofa ssp. attila) collected during 3 (2019-2022) hunting seasons (September-February), 15 were found positive for tick-borne pathogen DNA. Six wild boars were positive for A. phagocytophilum DNA presence and nine for Rickettsia spp. The identified rickettsial species were R. monacensis (six) and R. helvetica (three). No animal was positive either for Borrelia spp., Ehrlichia spp. or Babesia spp. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report of R. monacensis in European wild boars, thus adding the third species from the SFG Rickettsia, in the epidemiology of which this wild species may have a role as a reservoir host.

Transmissible cancer and longitudinal telomere dynamics in Tasmanian devils (Sarcophilus harrisii)

A plethora of intrinsic and environmental factors have been shown to influence the length of telomeres, the protector of chromosome ends. Despite the growing interest in infection-telomere interactions, there is very limited knowledge on how transmissible cancers influence telomere maintenance. An emblematic example of transmissible cancer occurs in the Tasmanian devil (Sarcophilus harrisii), whose populations have been dramatically reduced by infectious cancer cells. To investigate associations between telomere dynamics and the transmissible cancer, we used longitudinal data from a Tasmanian devil population that has been exposed to the disease for over 15 years. We detected substantial temporal variation in individual telomere length (TL), and a positive significant association between TL and age, as well as a marginally significant trend for devils with devil facial tumour disease (DFTD) having longer telomeres. A proportional hazard analysis yielded no significant effect of TL on the development of DFTD. Like previous studies, we show the complexity that TL dynamics may exhibit across the lifetime of organisms. Our work highlights the importance of long-term longitudinal sampling for understanding the effects of wildlife diseases on TL.

Anaplasma phagocytophilum and Anaplasma ovis-Emerging Pathogens in the German Sheep Population

Knowledge on the occurrence of pathogenic tick-borne bacteria Anaplasma phagocytophilum and Anaplasma ovis is scarce in sheep from Germany. In 2020, owners from five flocks reported ill thrift lambs and ewes with tick infestation. Out of 67 affected sheep, 55 animals were clinically examined and hematological values, blood chemistry and fecal examinations were performed to investigate the underlying disease causes. Serological tests (cELISA, IFAT) and qPCR were applied to all affected sheep to rule out A. phagocytophilum and A. ovis as a differential diagnosis. Ticks were collected from selected pastures and tested by qPCR. Most animals (n = 43) suffered from selenium deficiency and endoparasites were detected in each flock. Anaplasma spp. antibodies were determined in 59% of examined sheep. Seventeen animals tested positive for A. phagocytophilum by qPCR from all flocks and A. phagocytophilum was also detected in eight pools of Ixodes ricinus. Anaplasma phagocytophilum isolates from sheep and ticks were genotyped using three genes (16S rRNA, msp4 and groEL). Anaplasma ovis DNA was identified in six animals from one flock. Clinical, hematological and biochemical changes were not significantly associated with Anaplasma spp. infection. The 16S rRNA analysis revealed known variants of A. phagocytophilum, whereas the msp4 and groEL showed new genotypes. Further investigations are necessary to evaluate the dissemination and health impact of both pathogens in the German sheep population particularly in case of comorbidities.

Seroprevalence and Risk Factors of Anaplasma spp. in German Small Ruminant Flocks

Knowledge about the distribution of Anaplasma spp. in small ruminants from Germany is limited. Therefore, serum samples were examined from 71 small ruminant flocks (2731 sheep, 447 goats) located in the five German federal states: Schleswig-Holstein (SH), Lower Saxony (LS), North Rhine-Westphalia (NRW), Baden-Wuerttemberg (BW) and Bavaria (BAV). Antibodies to Anaplasma spp. were determined by a cELISA based on the MSP5 antigen. A risk factor analysis at animal and flock level was also performed. Antibodies to Anaplasma spp. were detected in 70/71 flocks without significant difference in the intra-flock prevalence (IFP) between the federal states. The mean antibody levels from sheep were significantly lower in northern Germany (LS, SH) compared to west (NRW) and south Germany (BW, BAV). Sheep had a 2.5-fold higher risk of being seropositive than goats. Females and older animals (>2 years) were more likely to have antibodies to Anaplasma spp. in one third and one quarter of cases, respectively. Flocks used for landscape conservation had a five times higher risk of acquiring an IFP greater than 20%. Cats and dogs on the farms increased the probability for small ruminant flocks to have an IFP of above 20% 10-fold and 166-fold, respectively. Further studies are necessary to assess the impact of Anaplasma species on the health of small ruminants in Germany.

Phylogeography of Hyalomma (Euhyalomma) lusitanicum (Acarina, Parasitiformes, Ixodidae) in Andalusia based on mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase I gene

The genetic population structure relationships of Hyalomma (Euhyalomma) lusitanicum in Andalusia (the south of the Iberian Peninsula) were examined using mtDNA sequence data from 887 bp of cytochrome oxidase subunit I (COI) gene. The sequence for the COI region was determined for 84 individuals collected in several localities of Andalusia, and 10 for other localities (i.e., five from Toledo, central Iberian Peninsula, four from Sicily (Italy) and one from Canary Island). Seventeen haplotypes were detected, including 27 polymorphic sites. The number of amino acid substitutions per site from mean diversity calculations for the entire population was 0.017. AMOVA analysis revealed a low gene flow that characterises the genetic population structure of this species in South Iberian Peninsula, with a haplotype diversity (h) value of 0.815. No geographically induced differentiation was observed, and separate evolutionary units were not detected. Our results indicate low genetic diversity across the geographical range of H. lusitanicum tick in Andalusia. Our data do not show any genetic discontinuity between the tick populations studied, including specimens from Canary Island and Sicily (Italy).

Molecular detection and risk factors for Anaplasma platys infection in dogs from Egypt

Background

Anaplasma platys is a tick-borne bacterium which infects blood platelets of dogs, causing canine cyclic thrombocytopenia. The disease is distributed worldwide, particularly in the tropics and subtropics, but information on the epidemiology of A. platys infection in dogs is fragmentary in many countries, including Egypt. In this study, we investigated the prevalence and risk factors associated with A. platys infection in dogs from Egypt.

Methods

A conventional PCR targeting a fragment of the 16S rRNA gene of A. platys was used to screen 500 dogs from five North Egyptian governorates. DNA sequencing and phylogenetic analysis were performed for one of the positive samples.

Results

The overall prevalence of A. platys in the studied dogs was 6.4%. Females of the German shepherd breed without veterinary care had higher odds for A. platys positivity. High tick infestation and lack of anti-tick treatment were also identified as risk factors for A. platys infection. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that the sequence obtained herein was closely related to sequences from Egypt, South Africa and Uruguay.

Conclusions

This is the first large-scale epidemiological study of A. platys in Egypt, where female German shepherd dogs without veterinary care, as well as dogs with high tick infestation and without anti-tick treatment are at a higher risk of infection.

Graphical abstract

Detection of Tick-Borne Pathogens in Red Deer (Cervus elaphus), United Kingdom

Deer represent a major vertebrate host for all feeding stages of the hard tick Ixodes ricinus in the United Kingdom (UK), and could play a role in the persistence of tick-borne pathogens. However, there have been few studies reporting the presence of Babesia spp. and Anaplasma phagocytophilum in deer in the UK, and those that detected Babesia were unable to confirm the species. To address this, we have investigated blood samples from red deer (Cervus elaphus) for the presence of tick-borne pathogens. Total DNA was extracted from haemolysed blood that was removed from clotted blood sampled from culled, captive red deer. Babesia spp. were detected with a pan-piroplasm PCR that amplifies a fragment of the 18S rRNA gene. Species were identified based on identity with published sequences. Anaplasma phagocytophilum was detected with a probe-based PCR targeting the msp2 gene. In addition, residual serum samples from a subset of animals were tested for the presence of anti-flavivirus antibodies. Of 105 red deer samples tested from three locations in the United Kingdom, 5 were positive for piroplasm and 5 were positive for A. phagocytophilum. Co-infection with both pathogens was detected in two samples from one location. No evidence for antibodies against West Nile virus were detected. However, 12% of sera tested were positive for tick-borne encephalitis virus antibodies.

Epizootic Situation on Anaplasmosis of Small Ruminants in the Irkutsk Region

Anaplasmosis of ruminants is a group of natural focal infections caused by bacteria from the genus Anaplasma of the Anaplasmataceae family. The main etiological agent of anaplasmosis in sheep, goats, and wild ruminants is Anaplasma ovis, which parasitizes in the erythrocytes of these animals. The purpose of this study was the finding and identification of Anaplasma spp. in the blood of small ruminants using genetic methods and obtaining data on the distribution of anaplasmosis in the Irkutsk region. 20 goat blood samples, 611 sheep blood samples and 209 Dermacentor nuttalli ticks from 12 districts of the Irkutsk region were examined for the presence of Anaplasma spp. Only one type of anaplasma, A. ovis, was found among the genotyped samples. A. ovis was found in the blood of sheep and goats in all of the studied districts of the Irkutsk region. The proportion of sheep blood samples containing anaplasma DNA varied from 30 % to 85 %, in goats – from 10 % to 100 % in different districts, and averaged 57.8 % in sheep and 55,0 % in goats. Frequency of infection of D. nuttalli ticks with A. ovis was 5.7 %. The nucleotide sequences of the samples detected in the blood of small ruminants on the territory of the Irkutsk region differed from each other by a single nucleotide substitution and were identical to the sequences of the type strain Haibei, as well as the sequences of A. ovis previously found in the blood of sheep from Mongolia, deer from China, and Dermacentor niveus and Dermacentor nuttalli ticks from China. These sequences were also identical to the sequences previously found in the blood of sheep from Altai and in Dermacentor nuttalli ticks from Tuva, which indicates the wide distribution of these A. ovis genovariants in Siberia and the probable role of D. nuttalli as a carrier of the agent of anaplasmosis of small ruminants in the Irkutsk region.

Genetic diversity of Anaplasma bacteria: Twenty years later

The genus Anaplasma (family Anaplasmataceae, order Rickettsiales) includes obligate intracellular alphaproteobacteria that multiply within membrane-bound vacuoles and are transmitted by Ixodidae ticks to vertebrate hosts. Since the last reclassification of Anaplasmataceae twenty years ago, two new Anaplasma species have been identified. To date, the genus includes eight Anaplasma species (A. phagocytophilum, A. marginale, A. centrale, A. ovis, A. bovis, A. platys, A. odocoilei, and A. capra) and a large number of unclassified genovariants that cannot be assigned to known species. Members of the genus can cause infection in humans and a wide range of domestic animals with different degrees of severity. Long-term persistence which, in some cases, is manifested as cyclic bacteremia has been demonstrated for several Anaplasma species. Zoonotic potential has been shown for A. phagocytophilum, the agent of human granulocytic anaplasmosis, and for some other Anaplasma spp. that suggests a broader medical relevance of this genus. Genetic diversity of Anaplasma spp. has been intensively studied in recent years, and it has been shown that some Anaplasma spp. can be considered as a complex of genetically distinct lineages differing by geography, vectors, and host tropism. The aim of this review was to summarize the current knowledge concerning the natural history, pathogenic properties, and genetic diversity of Anaplasma spp. and some unclassified genovariants with particular attention to their genetic characteristics. The high genetic variability of Anaplasma spp. prompted us to conduct a detailed phylogenetic analysis for different Anaplasma species and unclassified genovariants, which were included in this review. The genotyping of unclassified genovariants has led to the identification of at least four distinct clades that might be considered in future as new candidate species.

Prevalence of selected tick-borne pathogens in wild ungulates and ticks in southern Spain

A survey study was carried out to assess the occurrence of selected tick-borne pathogens (TBP) in wild ungulates in Mediterranean ecosystems in southern Spain. Spleen samples were collected from 1,132 wild ungulates, including 578 red deer, 269 wild boar, 135 mouflon, 121 fallow deer and 29 roe deer, between 2009 and 2015. Eighty-nine ticks collected from TBP-positive animals were also analysed. Samples were tested by PCR and sequenced whenever possible. TBP DNA was detected in 127 of 863 wild ruminants (14.7%; 95% CI: 12.4-17.3) including the following: Anaplasma phagocytophilum (9.2%), Babesia divergens (2.9%), Theileria sp. OT3 (1.7%), Borrelia afzelii (0.7%) and Theileria capreoli (0.2%), but no positive samples were detected in wild boar (0/269). All the strains from mouflon were identified as Theileria sp. OT3, while B. divergens and T. capreoli were mainly found in red deer. Co-infection with A. phagocytophilum and B. divergens, and A. phagocytophilum and Theileria spp. was detected in red deer and mouflon, respectively. The risk factor analysis showed that the prevalences of A. phagocytophilum and piroplasms were species-related. Eighty-nine tick specimens collected from ungulates found to be infected with the selected TBP were identified as Hyalomma lusitanicum (95.5%) and Ixodes ricinus (4.5%). Thirty ticks were positive for Anaplasma/Ehrlichia spp. (33.7%), 25 for Babesia/Theileria (28.1%) and two for B. burgdorferi s.l. (2.3%). Eleven specimens showed co-infections with Anaplasma/Ehrlichia and Babesia/Theileria (10.1%) or Anaplasma/Ehrlichia and B. burgdorferi s.l. (2.3%). The estimated prevalences obtained in the present study suggest the possible contribution of wild ruminants to the maintenance of some selected TBP in Mediterranean ecosystems in southern Spain, while the role of wild boar in the epidemiology of these pathogens seems to be limited in this region.

Molecular detection and identification of piroplasms (Babesia spp. and Theileria spp.) and Anaplasma phagocytophilum in questing ticks from northwest Spain

Anaplasma phagocytophilum and some piroplasm species are pathogens mainly transmitted by Ixodes ricinus. Considering that this tick species is predominant in north-western Spain, individual specimens (652 nymphs, 202 females and 202 males) and 23 larval pools were processed to determine the prevalence of these pathogens in questing I. ricinus from that region. Additionally, Dermacentor marginatus, Dermacentor reticulatus, Ixodes frontalis and Ixodes acuminatus were individually analysed. The groESL operon as well as the 16S rRNA and msp2 genes of Anaplasma were analysed. Similarly, piroplasms were identified at the 18S rRNA gene and the ITS1 of Babesia spp. and Theileria spp. Babesia venatorum (1.5%), A. phagocytophilum (0.7%), Babesia microti (0.3%) and Theileria sp. OT3 (0.2%) were detected in I. ricinus. A single I. frontalis (8.3%) tested positive to A. phagocytophilum. Although a low percentage of I. ricinus were infected with A. phagocytophilum and piroplasms, a potentially human pathogenic variant of A. phagocytophilum was detected, and both Babesia species found were zoonotic. Since the vector of Theileria sp. OT3 remains unknown, further investigations are needed to unravel the role of I. ricinus in the transmission of this piroplasm.

Spotted fever group rickettsiae in Dermacentor marginatus from wild boars in Italy

Following the increase in wild boar population recorded in urban and peri-urban areas throughout Europe, the present survey aimed to assess the occurrence of zoonotic tick-borne pathogens (TBPs) in wild boars living in southern Italy and in their ticks for evaluating the potential risk of infection for animals and humans. From October to December 2019, a total of 176 ticks collected from 93 wild boars andtheir spleen samples were molecularly screened for selected TBPs. Overall, all the wild boars were infested by ticks (mean intensity, 1.9) with Dermacentor marginatus and Ixodes ricinus being identified in 99.4% and 0.6%, respectively. Out of 93 wild boars, 17 (18.3%) were infested by ticks which scored positive to spotted fever group (SFG) Rickettsia species. Rickettsia slovaca and Rickettsia raoultii were identified in 16 (9%) and 1 (0.6%) D. marginatus, respectively, whereas a single I. ricinus (0.6%) was infected by R. slovaca. A single wild boar (1.1%) tested positive to R. slovaca. All ticks and wild boars scored negative to Babesia/Theileria spp., Ehrlichia spp., Anaplasma spp., Candidatus Neoehrlichia spp., Coxiella burnetii and Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato complex. Data herein obtained suggest that wild boars are involved in the maintenance of D. marginatus in the environment as in peri-urban areas herein investigated. An integrated management approach is advocated for wild boar population control and in preventing the potential risk of TBPs infection in animals and humans.

Wild boar as a potential reservoir of zoonotic tick-borne pathogens

The wild boar (Sus scrofa) population has increased dramatically over the last decades throughout Europe and it has become a serious pest. In addition, the common habitat of wild boar and of the tick, Ixodes ricinus, indicates the potential of wild boar to play a role in epidemiology of epizootic and zoonotic tick-borne pathogens, including Anaplasma phagocytophilum. In Europe, epidemiological cycles and reservoirs of A. phagocytophilum, including its zoonotic haplotypes, are poorly understood. In this study, we focused on detection and further genetic characterization of A. phagocytophilum and piroplasmids in 550 wild boars from eleven districts of Moravia and Silesia in the Czech Republic. Using highly sensitive nested PCR targeting the groEL gene, the DNA of A. phagocytophilum was detected in 28 wild boars (5.1 %) representing six unique haplotypes. The dominant haplotype was found in 21 samples from 7 different districts. All detected haplotypes clustered in the largest clade representing the European ecotype I and the dominant haplotype fell to the subclade with the European human cases and strains from dogs and horses. Nested PCR targeting the variable region of the 18S rRNA gene of piroplasmids resulted in one positive sample with 99.8 % sequence identity to Babesia divergens. The presence of these two pathogens that are primarily circulated by I. ricinus confirms the local participation of wild boar in the host spectrum of this tick and warrants experimental studies to address wild boar as a reservoir of zoonotic haplotypes of A. phagocytophilum.

First reports of indigenous lethal infection with Anaplasma marginale, Anaplasma bovis and Theileria orientalis in Croatian cattle

Anaplasmosis and theileriosis are important diseases with great economic impact that affect the cattle industry worldwide. In this study, we describe the first molecularly confirmed clinical cases of anaplasmosis caused by Anaplasma marginale and of a concurrent infection with A. bovis and Theileria orientalis in Croatian cattle. Clinical signs of A. marginale-infected cows included fever, lethargy, dark urine, as well as icteric and reddish mucous membranes. Postmortem examination revealed icterus, urinary bladder filled with dark urine and splenomegaly. A marginale was observed within erythrocytes on Giemsa-stained spleen imprints. Three affected cows were successfully treated with oxytetracycline, after which no new deaths occurred in the herd. Three cows in a different herd died suddenly and were found to be concurrently infected with A. bovis and T. orientalis. Postmortem examination revealed generalized icterus and urinary bladder filled with dark urine. These cases of A. marginale, A. bovis and T. orientalis infection show that bovine anaplasmosis and theileriosis are present within Croatian cattle and should be included in differential diagnostic protocols.

Dogs as New Hosts for the Emerging Zoonotic Pathogen Anaplasma capra in China

Anaplasma capra is an emerging zoonotic tick-borne pathogen with a broad host range, including many mammals. Dogs have close physical interactions with humans and regular contact with the external environment. Moreover, they have been previously reported to be hosts of Anaplasma phagocytophilum, A. platys, A. ovis, and A. bovis. To confirm whether dogs are also hosts of A. capra, pathogen DNA was extracted from blood samples of 521 dogs, followed by PCR amplification of the citrate synthase (gltA) gene, heat shock protein (groEL) gene, and major surface protein 4 (msp4) gene of the A. capra. A total of 12.1% (63/521) of blood samples were shown to be A. capra-positive by PCR screening. No significant differences were observed between genders (P = 0.578) or types (P = 0.154) of dogs with A. capra infections. However, significantly higher A. capra infections occurred in dogs with regular contact with vegetation (P = 0.002), those aged over 10 years (P = 0.040), and during the summer season (P = 0.006). Phylogenetic analysis based on gltA, groEL, and msp4 sequences demonstrated that the isolates obtained in this study were clustered within the A. capra clade, and were distinct from other Anaplasma species. In conclusion, dogs were shown to be a host of the human pathogenic A. capra. Considering the affinity between dogs and humans and the zoonotic tick-borne nature of A. capra, dogs should be carefully monitored for the presence of A. capra.

Molecular identification of protozoal and bacterial organisms in domestic animals and their infesting ticks from north-eastern Algeria

A molecular survey was undertaken to determine the presence of protozoal and bacterial organisms in 120 ticks and 87 blood samples collected from mammals in north-eastern Algeria. Eight tick species were morphologically identified including 70 Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) annulatus, 23 Rhipicephalus bursa, five Rhipicephalus sanguineus sensu lato, 11 Hyalomma impeltatum, five Hyalomma scupense, two Hyalommma marginatum, one Hyalomma anatolicum and three Ixodes ricinus. Quantitative PCR screening of the ticks showed that Theileria annulata, "Candidatus Ehrlichia urmitei", Theileria buffeli and Anaplasma platys were detected in Rh. annulatus. Rickettsia massiliae and Anaplasma ovis were detected in Rh. sanguineus s.l. and Rh. bursa. Rickettsia aeschlimannii was detected in Hy. marginatum, Hy. scupense and Hy. impeltatum. Finally, "Candidatus Rickettsia barbariae" was detected in Rh. bursa. In the screening blood samples, Theileria equi, T.annulata, T. buffeli, Babesia bovis, Anaplasma marginale, A. ovis and Borrelia spp. were detected in cattle. Theileria ovis, T. annulata, and A. ovis were detected in sheep. In addition, A. ovis and T. equi were detected in goats and equidea respectively. In this study, T. equi and "Candidatus Rickettsia barbariae" were identified for the first time in Algeria as well as potential new species of Ehrlichia and Anaplasma. Although molecular detection does not indicate vector/reservoir competence when investigating ticks removed from animals, this study expands the knowledge of the microorganisms detected in ticks in north-east of Algeria.

Prevalence and distribution of Babesia and Theileria species in roe deer from Spain

Babesiosis and Theileriosis are important worldwide-distributed tick-borne diseases for human and animals. Their presence in a particular area depends on the presence of suitable tick-vector and host species as well as competent reservoirs such as roe deer, one of the most abundant wild cervids in Spain. Spleen samples from 174 roe deer hunted in Spain were analysed to determine the prevalence of Babesia and Theileria species. DNA of both piroplasms was firstly detected using a commercial qPCR. Then, positive samples were molecularly characterized at the 18S rRNA and ITS1 genes of Babesia spp. and Theileria spp. The possible influence of some factors such as ecological area, age and sex was also assessed. Overall, 89.7% of roe deer were positive to any of the two piroplasms. Theileria spp. was more prevalent (60.9%) than Babesia spp. (19.0%); species identification could not be achieved in 17.3% of positive samples. Babesia prevalence was significantly higher in young animals and in roe deer from Oceanic regions, in contrast to Theileria spp. Five species were identified: Theileria sp. OT3 (60.3%), Babesia capreoli (15.5%), Babesia venatorum (2.9%), Theileria sp. 3185/02 (0.6%) and Babesia bigemina (0.6%). The coinfection B. capreoli/T. sp. OT3 was the most common (4.6%) followed by B. venatorum/T. sp. OT3 (0.6%) and B. bigemina/T. sp. OT3 (0.6%). Our results reveal that Theileria spp. and Babesia spp. are prevalent piroplasms in roe deer from Spain. These cervids can act as reservoirs for several Babesia and Theileria species, including the zoonotic B. venatorum. This study represents the first description of B. venatorum and B. bigemina in roe deer from Spain.

First detection and molecular identification of the zoonotic Anaplasma capra in deer in France

Cervids are known to be reservoirs of zoonotic bacteria transmitted by ticks. This study aimed to identify the Anaplasma species carried by captive red deer and swamp deer in a wild fauna reserve in France. Blood from 59 red deer and 7 swamp deer was collected and analyzed over a period of two years. A semi-nested PCR targeting the 23S rRNA was performed to detect and characterize Anaplasma spp. and determine the presence of zoonotic species. Anaplasma phagocytophilum was identified in 14/59 red deer (23.7%) but it was not identified in any of the swamp deer (7 animals). Three sequences could not be assigned to any particular species based on the 23S rRNA sequences. Complementary nested PCR targeting 16S rRNA, gltA and groEL genes and sequencing analysis then identified these sequences as a recently reported zoonotic species, Anaplasma capra; this species was found in 2 red deer (Cervus elaphus) and 1 swamp deer (Rucervus duvaucelii). This is the first report of the tick-borne zoonotic bacterium A. capra in France, a species otherwise described only in China, Japan, Malaysia and South Korea in goats, sheep, deer, cattle and Japanese serows (Capricornis crispus). While this bacterium may have been introduced into the reserve by infected imported animals, its local epidemiological cycle via tick transmission seems possible as locally born deer were found infected. Diagnostic methods, especially molecular ones, should take into account the potential infection of animals and humans with this species.

Molecular detection and identification of tick-borne bacteria and protozoans in goats and wild Siberian roe deer (Capreolus pygargus) from Heilongjiang Province, northeastern China

BACKGROUND

Small ruminants are important hosts for various tick species and tick-associated organisms, many of which are zoonotic. The aim of the present study was to determine the presence of tick-borne protozoans and bacteria of public health and veterinary significance in goats and wild Siberian roe deer (Capreolus pygargus) from Heilongjiang Province, northeastern China.

METHODS

The occurrence of piroplasms, Anaplasma phagocytophilum, A. bovis, A. marginale, A. capra, A. ovis, Ehrlichia spp. and spotted fever group rickettsiae was molecularly investigated and analyzed in 134 goats and 9 free ranging C. pygargus living in close proximity.

RESULTS

Piroplasm DNA was detected in 16 (11.9%) goats and 5 C. pygargus. Sequence analysis of 18S rRNA sequences identified 3 Theileria species (T. luwenshuni, T. capreoli and T. cervi). Four Anaplasma species (A. ovis, A. phagocytophilum, A. bovis and A. capra) were identified in goats and C. pygargus. Anaplasma ovis and A. bovis were detected in 11 (8.2%) and 6 (4.5%) goats, respectively; A. phagocytophilum, A. bovis and A. capra were found in 3, 7 and 3 C. pygargus, respectively. Sequence analysis of 16S rRNA sequences revealed the presence of 5 different genetic variants of A. bovis in goats and C. pygargus, while the analysis of 16S rRNA and gltA sequence data showed that A. capra isolates identified from C. pygargus were closely related to the genotype identified from sheep and Haemaphysalis qinghaiensis, but differed with the genotype from humans. Anaplasma/Theileria mixed infection was observed in 2 (1.5%) goats and 5 C. pygargus, and co-existence involving potential zoonotic organisms (A. phagocytophilum and A. capra) was found in 2 C. pygargus. All samples were negative for A. marginale, Ehrlichia spp. and SFG rickettsiae.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings report the tick-borne pathogens in goats and C. pygargus, and a greater diversity of these pathogens were observed in wild animals. Three Theileria (T. luwenshuni, T. capreoli and T. cervi) and four Anaplasma species (A. ovis, A. phagocytophilum, A. bovis and A. capra) with veterinary and medical significance were identified in small domestic and wild ruminants. The contact between wild and domestic animals may increase the potential risk of spread and transmission of tick-borne diseases.

Diverse tick-borne microorganisms identified in free-living ungulates in Slovakia

BACKGROUND

Free-living ungulates are hosts of ixodid ticks and reservoirs of tick-borne microorganisms in central Europe and many regions around the world. Tissue samples and engorged ticks were obtained from roe deer, red deer, fallow deer, mouflon, and wild boar hunted in deciduous forests of south-western Slovakia. DNA isolated from these samples was screened for the presence of tick-borne microorganisms by PCR-based methods.

RESULTS

Ticks were found to infest all examined ungulate species. The principal infesting tick was Ixodes ricinus, identified on 90.4% of wildlife, and included all developmental stages. Larvae and nymphs of Haemaphysalis concinna were feeding on 9.6% of wildlife. Two specimens of Dermacentor reticulatus were also identified. Ungulates were positive for A. phagocytophilum and Theileria spp. Anaplasma phagocytophilum was found to infect 96.1% of cervids, 88.9% of mouflon, and 28.2% of wild boar, whereas Theileria spp. was detected only in cervids (94.6%). Importantly, a high rate of cervids (89%) showed mixed infections with both these microorganisms. In addition to A. phagocytophilum and Theileria spp., Rickettsia helvetica, R. monacensis, unidentified Rickettsia sp., Coxiella burnetii, "Candidatus Neoehrlichia mikurensis", Borrelia burgdorferi (s.l.) and Babesia venatorum were identified in engorged I. ricinus. Furthermore, A. phagocytophilum, Babesia spp. and Theileria spp. were detected in engorged H. concinna. Analysis of 16S rRNA and groEL gene sequences revealed the presence of five and two A. phagocytophilum variants, respectively, among which sequences identified in wild boar showed identity to the sequence of the causative agent of human granulocytic anaplasmosis (HGA). Phylogenetic analysis of Theileria 18S rRNA gene sequences amplified from cervids and engorged I. ricinus ticks segregated jointly with sequences of T. capreoli isolates into a moderately supported monophyletic clade.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings indicate that free-living ungulates are reservoirs for A. phagocytophilum and Theileria spp. and engorged ixodid ticks attached to ungulates are good sentinels for the presence of agents of public and veterinary concern. Further analyses of the A. phagocytophilum genetic variants and Theileria species and their associations with vector ticks and free-living ungulates are required.

Cultivation of Anaplasma ovis in the HL-60 human promyelocytic leukemia cell line

The tick-borne bacterium Anaplasma ovis is a widely distributed pathogen affecting sheep, goats and wild ruminants. Here, the HL-60 human promyelocytic leukemia cell line was used to isolate A. ovis from PCR-positive sheep and goats in Heilongjiang Province, China. Two weeks after inoculation, morulae were observed in cytoplasmic vacuoles in four different HL-60 cultures. Confocal microscopy using a Cy3-labeled A. ovis-specific probe confirmed that the HL-60 cells were infected with A. ovis. Cells from the 6th HL-60 subculture displayed positive fluorescence when incubated with A. ovis antiserum in the indirect fluorescent antibody assay. PCR amplification and sequencing of 16S rRNA, groEL, gltA, msp2 and msp4 Anaplasma genes revealed that the four A. ovis culture isolates were identical. Phylogenetic analysis showed that the sequences clustered with other A. ovis strains but could clearly be distinguished from other Anaplasma species. When the 18th subculture of infected HL-60 cells was examined by electron microscopy, lysosomes were often observed near the vacuoles. After the 24th subculture, Giemsa staining and PCR indicated that the HL-60 cells were negative for A. ovis. Although A. ovis can infect HL-60 cells for only four months, the ability of the organism to infect and multiply in HL-60 cells provides a tool to study intra-erythrocytic Anaplasma and host cell interactions.

Tick-borne bacteria and protozoa detected in ticks collected from domestic animals and wildlife in central and southern Portugal

Ticks are vectors of many human and animal pathogens. The aim of this study was to screen bacteria and protozoa from ticks infesting domestic animals and wildlife collected in central and southern Portugal. A total of 593 ticks, comprising 465 (78.4%) adults, 122 (20.6%) nymphs, and six (1.0%) larvae, were collected from 283 hosts of 25 different species (4 domestic and 21 wild). Overall, the analysis of DNA extracts prepared from ticks collected from hosts of 11 different species in the districts of Castelo Branco, Portalegre, Lisboa, Setúbal, Beja and Faro, revealed the presence of genomic sequences from Anaplasma sp., A. ovis, Babesia sp., relapsing fever-like Borrelia sp., Ehrlichia spp., Rickettsia aeschlimannii, Ri. helvetica, Ri. massiliae, Ri. raoultii, Ri. slovaca, Candidatus Ri. barbariae, Theileria annulata and T. ovis, in specimens of Dermacentor marginatus, Hyalomma lusitanicum, Hy. marginatum, Rhipicephalus bursa and Rh. sanguineus sensu lato. The obtained results suggest the circulation of a wide variety of infectious agents, some of zoonotic concern, in hard ticks from Portugal. Further studies should be conducted to better characterize (both genetically and phenotypically) the putative novel microorganisms detected, both in what regards their potential pathogenity towards vertebrates, and to assist the implementation of effective control strategies for the management of ticks and human and animal tick-borne pathogens.

Extensive diversity of rickettsiales bacteria in ticks from Wuhan, China

Rickettsiales bacteria are important agents of (re)emerging infectious diseases, with ticks playing a key role in their evolution and transmission. We collected 1079 hard ticks belonging to five species (Ixodes sinensis, Rhipicephalus microplus, Haemaphysalis flava, Haemaphysalis hystricis and Haemaphysalis longicornis) from cattle and goats in Wuhan city, Hubei province, China. The dominant tick species was H. longicornis (578, 53.57%), followed by R. microplus (354, 32.81%), H. hystricis (62, 5.75%), H. flava (57, 5.28%), and I. sinensis (28, 2.59%). Rickettsiales bacteria were identified in these ticks by amplifying the Rickettsiales 16S rRNA (rrs), citrate synthase (gltA), and heat shock protein (groEL) genes. The rrs gene of Rickettsiales was positive in 32 (2.97%) ticks, including 2 cases of co-infection, with 4 (0.69%) in H. longicornis, 15 (4.24%) in R. microplus, 7 (12.28%) in H. flava, 1 (1.61%) in H. hystricis, and 5 (17.86%) in I. sinensis ticks. Phylogenetic analysis revealed the presence of six recognized and seven Candidatus species of Rickettsiaceae, Anaplasmataceae and Candidatus Midichloriaceae. Notably, one lineage within both Ehrlichia and Candidatus Midichloriaceae was distinct from any known Rickettsiales, suggesting the presence of potentially novel species of Rickettsiales bacteria. In sum, these data reveal an extensive diversity of Rickettsiales in ticks from Wuhan, highlighting the need to understand Rickettsiales infection in local animals and humans.

PCR screening of tick-borne agents in sensitive conservation areas, Southeast Portugal

The Southeast region of Portugal, particularly the Guadiana valley, is currently the reintroduction territory of Lynx pardinus (Iberian lynx), one of the most endangered felids in the world that is only found in the Iberian Peninsula. Over the last century, populations have declined, placing L. pardinus at extremely high risk of extinction in the wild and relying on reintroduction projects. Among the aspects taken into account in the establishment of new populations is the sanitary status of the selected habitats, especially concerning infectious diseases, including tick-borne pathogens (TBPs). This study presents the results of TBPs survey on ticks collected at sensitive conservation areas of Southeast Portugal. From 2012 to 2014, 231 ticks obtained from vegetation, sympatric domestic and wild animals were submitted for analysis. The presence of Babesia spp., Cytauxzoon spp., Theileria spp., Hepatozoon spp., Anaplasma spp., Ehrlichia spp., Candidatus Neoehrlichia mikurensis, among other Anaplasmataceae, and Coxiella burnetii were investigated by PCR. Six tick species were recorded, Dermacentor marginatus (n = 13/5.6%), Hyalomma lusitanicum (n = 175/75.8%), Ixodes ricinus (n = 4/1.7%), Rhipicephalus bursa (n = 7/3.0%), R. pusillus (n = 21/9.1%) and R. sanguineus sensu lato (n = 11/4.8%). The molecular screening confirmed the presence of two tick-borne pathogens, C. burnetii (N = 34) and Anaplasma platys (N = 1), and one tick-endosymbiont, Candidatus Midichloria mitochondrii (N = 45). The results obtained provide new information on the circulation of ticks and TBPs with potential veterinary importance in Iberian lynx habitat.