The neovaginal microbiome of transgender women post-gender reassignment surgery

Infections Following Gender-Affirming Vaginoplasty: A Single-Center Experience

We describe the epidemiology and incidence of infections following gender-affirming vaginoplasty. Urinary tract and surgical site infections were the most common infections with incidences of 17.5% and 5.5%, respectively. We also identified a significant gap in human immunodeficiency virus screening and prescription of preexposure prophylaxis.

Insights into the assembly of the neovaginal microbiota in Mayer-Rokitansky-Küster-Hauser (MRKH) syndrome patients

Neovaginas are surgically constructed to correct uterovaginal agenesis in women with Mayer-Rokitansky-Küster-Hauser (MRKH) syndrome or as part of gender-affirming surgery for transfeminine individuals. Understanding the assembly of the neovaginal microbiota is crucial for guiding its management. To address this, we conducted a longitudinal study on MRKH patients following laparoscopic peritoneal vaginoplasty. Our findings reveal that the early microbial assemblage exhibited stochastic characteristics, accompanied with a notable bloom of Enterococcus faecalis and genital Mycoplasmas. While both the pre-surgery dimple microbiota and the fecal microbiota constituted the primary species pool, the neovaginal microbiota developed into a microbiota that resembled that of a normal vagina at 6-12 months post-surgery, albeit with a bacterial vaginosis (BV)-like structure. By 2-4 years post-surgery, the neovaginal microbiota had further evolved into a structure closely resembling with the homeostatic pre-surgery dimple microbiota. This concords with the development of the squamous epithelium in the neovagina and highlights the pivotal roles of progressive selective forces imposed by the evolving neovaginal environment and the colonization tropism of vaginal species. Notably, we observed that strains of Lactobacillus crispatus colonizing the neovagina primarily originated from the dimple. Since L. crispatus is generally associated with vaginal health, this finding suggests potential avenues for future research to promote its colonization.

Sexually transmitted infections and the vaginal microbiome after vaginoplasty

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Transgender and gender-diverse individuals (TGD) are at risk for sexually transmitted infections. Gender affirmation surgery is a cornerstone of care for many TGD individuals. For genital gender affirmation, the surgical creation of a vagina may be performed through a number of techniques. Those who have undergone vaginoplasty have unique anatomical and biopsychosocial considerations, which we discuss.

RECENT FINDINGS

While sexually-transmitted infections including HPV, HSV, HIV, gonorrhea, and chlamydia, have been described in TGD individuals after vaginoplasty, the reports are very rare, and the provider should maintain an index of suspicion and maintain a broad differential for symptoms including neovaginal discharge. We discuss the association of the neovaginal microbiota composition with bacterial vaginosis, and how its modulation could potentially reduce bacterial vaginosis and sexually transmitted infection risk.

SUMMARY

We examine the literature regarding sexually-transmitted infections following vaginoplasty, and the neovaginal microbiome and its similarities and differences relative to the natal vaginal microbiome.

Hypergranulation management following penile inversion vaginoplasty

OBJECTIVE

To summarize current knowledge regarding management of hypergranulation in the context of gender-affirming vaginoplasty.

SOURCES OF INFORMATION

There have been no studies to date examining hypergranulation treatment options following vaginoplasty. Evidence from the literature on this complication in other settings and the opinions of authorities and experts in this area were used to inform this review.

MAIN MESSAGE

Hypergranulation is a common complication of vaginoplasty, but many care providers may not know how to identify or treat it. This short report will review hypergranulation after vaginoplasty, including risk factors, identification, and treatment options such as douching, silver nitrate, and topical steroids.

CONCLUSION

By increasing clinicians' knowledge of this pervasive complication, patients' postsurgical care and outcomes can be improved.

The Vaginal Microbiome of Transgender and Gender Nonbinary Individuals

Purpose

The goal of this preliminary study is to describe the vaginal microbiome of transgender and gender nonbinary (TGNB) individuals using nonculture-based techniques. TGNB individuals may undergo gender-affirming surgical procedures, which can include the creation of a neovagina. Little is known about microbial species that comprise this environment in states of health or disease.

Methods

In this pilot study, vaginal swabs were self-collected from 15 healthy self-identified TGNB participants (age 26-69 years) and 8 cisgender comparator participants (age 27-50 years) between 2017 and 2018. Next-generation 16S ribosomal RNA sequencing was used to profile individual bacterial communities from all study samples.

Results

The TGNB cohort demonstrated significantly higher intraindividual (alpha) diversity than the cisgender group (p=0.0003). Microbial species commensal to the gut and skin were identified only in specimens from TGNB participants. Although Lactobacillus species were dominant in all cisgender comparator samples, they were found at low relative abundance (≤3%) in TGNB samples.

Conclusion

In this study, specimens collected from neovaginas showed increased alpha diversity and substantially different composition compared with natal vaginas. In contrast to natal vaginas, neovaginas were not dominated by Lactobacillus, but were hosts to many microbial species. Studies that help to improve our understanding of the neovaginal microbiome may enable clinicians to differentiate between healthy and diseased neovaginal states.

Changes in the Vaginal Microbiome During Pregnancy and the Postpartum Period in South African Women: a Longitudinal Study

Pregnant women in sub-Saharan Africa have high rates of maternal morbidity. There is interest in the impact of the vaginal microbiome on maternal health, including HIV and sexually transmitted infection (STI) acquisition. We characterized the vaginal microbiota of South African women ≥ 18 years with and without HIV in a longitudinal cohort over two visits during pregnancy and one visit postpartum. At each visit, we obtained HIV testing and self-collected vaginal swabs for point-of-care testing for STIs and microbiota sequencing. We categorized microbial communities and evaluated changes over pregnancy and associations with HIV status and STI diagnosis. Across 242 women (mean age 29, 44% living with HIV, 33% diagnosed with STIs), we identified four main community state types (CSTs): two lactobacillus-dominant CSTs (dominated by Lactobacillus crispatus and Lactobacillus iners respectively) and two diverse, non-lactobacillus-dominant CSTs (one dominated by Gardnerella vaginalis and one by diverse facultative anaerobes). From the first antenatal visit to the third trimester (24-36 weeks gestation), 60% of women in the Gardnerella-dominant CST shifted to lactobacillus-dominant CSTs. From the third trimester to postpartum (mean 17 days post-delivery), 80% of women in lactobacillus-dominant CSTs shifted to non-lactobacillus-dominant CSTs with a large proportion in the facultative anaerobe-dominant CST. Microbial composition differed by STI diagnosis (PERMANOVA R2 = 0.002, p = 0.004), and women diagnosed with an STI were more likely to be categorized as L. iners-dominant or Gardnerella-dominant CSTs. Overall, we found a shift toward lactobacillus dominance during pregnancy and the emergence of a distinct, highly diverse anaerobe-dominant microbiota profile in the postpartum period.

A Urologist's Guide to Caring for Transgender and Gender Diverse Patients

Urologists are experts in the fields of genital and pelvic anatomy, sexual health and reproductive medicine. As such, a working understanding of urologic conditions relevant to transgender and gender diverse patients should be expected within their scope of practice. Herein, we describe an introductory framework for general urologists to grow their knowledge of the appropriate terminology, anatomy, and basic tenets of gender-affirming care to better manage the urologic needs of transgender and gender diverse patients.

Gynecological concerns and vaginal practices and exposures among transfeminine individuals who have undergone vaginoplasty

BACKGROUND

Vaginoplasty is a gender-affirming surgery that is medically necessary for some transfeminine individuals. Little research exists describing vaginal health after the initial recovery from surgery, and evidence-based guidelines for vaginal care practices are unavailable.

AIM

The study sought to describe self-reported gynecological concerns and vaginal care practices among transfeminine persons who have undergone vaginoplasty.

METHODS

A total of 60 transfeminine participants 18+ years of age, living in Canada, and who had undergone vaginoplasty at least 1 year prior were recruited through social media, community groups, healthcare provider referrals, and study recontact. Participants completed a cross-sectional, online questionnaire detailing demographics, gynecological concerns, and genital practices and exposures. Hierarchical clustering was used to group participants based on behavioral practices and exposures. Associations between clusters and gynecological concerns were assessed.

OUTCOMES

Outcomes included self-reported gynecological concerns within the past year, recent vulvar or vaginal symptoms (past 30 days), and behavioral practices/exposures, including douching with varied products and dilating.

RESULTS

Participants reported a variety of concerns in the past year, including urinary tract infection (13%) and internal hair regrowth (23%). More than half (57%) had experienced at least 1 recent vaginal symptom, most commonly malodor (27%) and vaginal bleeding (21%). Of participants, 48% were dilating weekly and 52% reported douching in the past 30 days. Four distinct clusters of vaginal practices/exposures were identified: limited exposures; dilating, no douching; dilating and douching; and diverse exposures. No significant associations between cluster membership and gynecological concerns were identified, though cluster membership was significantly associated with surgical center (P = .03). Open-text write-ins provided descriptions of symptoms and symptom management strategies.

CLINICAL IMPLICATIONS

The results provide insight for clinicians on common patient-reported gynecological concerns and current vaginal care practices and exposures, including symptom management strategies.

STRENGTHS AND LIMITATIONS

This was the first study to investigate vaginal health and genital practices/exposures among a community sample of transfeminine individuals. As participants self-enrolled for a detailed survey and swab collection, individuals experiencing concerns were likely overrepresented.

CONCLUSION

Transfeminine individuals reported a range of gynecological concerns outside of the surgical healing period. Genital practices/exposures varied across clusters, but no clear associations between clusters and symptoms were identified; instead, practice/exposure clusters were dependent on where the individual underwent vaginoplasty. There is a need for evidence to inform diagnostics, treatments, and vaginal care guidelines to support vaginal health.

Distinct mucosal and systemic immunological characteristics in transgender women potentially relating to HIV acquisition

Transgender women (TGW) are disproportionally affected by HIV infection, with a global estimated prevalence of 19.9%, often attributed to behavioral risk factors, with less known about biological factors. We evaluated potential biological risk factors for HIV acquisition in TGW at the sites of viral entry by assessing immune parameters of the neovaginal surface and gut mucosa. The neovagina in TGW, compared with the vagina in cisgender women (CW), shows distinct cell composition and may pose a more inflammatory environment, evidenced by increased CD4+ T cell activation and higher levels of soluble markers of inflammation (C-reactive protein, soluble CD30). Increased inflammation may be driven by microbiome composition, as shown by a greater abundance of Prevotella and a higher Shannon Diversity Index. In addition, we have observed higher frequency of CD4+CCR5+ target cells and decreased DNA methylation of the CCR5 gene in the gut mucosa of TGW compared with CW and men who have sex with men, which was inversely correlated with testosterone levels. The rectal microbiome composition in TGW appears to favor a proinflammatory milieu as well as mucosal barrier disruption. Thus, it is possible that increased inflammation and higher frequencies of CCR5-expressing target cells at sites of mucosal viral entry may contribute to increased risk of HIV acquisition in TGW, with further validation in larger studies warranted.

The role of probiotics in tissue engineering and regenerative medicine

Tissue engineering and regenerative medicine (TERM) as an emerging field is a multidisciplinary science and combines basic sciences such as biomaterials science, biology, genetics and medical sciences to achieve functional TERM-based products to regenerate or replace damaged or diseased tissues or organs. Probiotics are useful microorganisms which have multiple effective functions on human health. They have some immunomodulatory and biocompatibility effects and improve wound healing. In this article, we describe the latest findings on probiotics and their pro-healing properties on various body systems that are useable in regenerative medicine. Therefore, this review presents a new perspective on the therapeutic potential of probiotics for TERM.

The microbiome of the neovagina: a systematic review and comparison of surgical techniques

Introduction : Vaginoplasty is performed to create a neovagina for transgender individuals who seek surgical transition or for cisgender individuals with congenital or acquired absence of a vagina (or "cisvagina"). The current knowledge of the bacterial microenvironment of the neovagina is limited. The objective of this study was to conduct a systematic review of current knowledge regarding the microbiome of the neovagina in transgender women. Methods : A systematic review of three medical databases (PubMed, MEDLINE, Web of Science) was performed in December 2021. Articles were included if they discussed the bacterial flora of the post-surgical neovagina in transgender women. Articles were excluded if their primary focus was pathogenic disease of the neovagina. Articles were summarized qualitatively and organized into a table. Results : Ten articles were identified for the review. Surgical techniques included penile inversion vaginoplasty (PIV) and intestinal/sigmoid vaginoplasty. PIV neovaginas were most similar to cisvaginas with bacterial vaginosis, whereas intestinal vaginoplasty resulted in microbiomes comparable to that of the colorectum. Oral probiotic supplements may be able to encourage the growth of Lactobacillus in the neovagina. Maintenance protocols relating to cleaning are largely surgeon- and institution-dependent, and evidence regarding the use of estrogen and its effect on the neovagina is limited. Conclusions : The microbiome of the neovagina is distinct from that of the cisvagina, and it differs based on surgical technique. Further research is warranted to better characterize the effect of different surgical techniques, patient characteristics, estrogen use, and cleaning habits on the health of the neovaginal microbiome.

Oral and anal microbiome from HIV-exposed individuals: role of host-associated factors in taxa composition and metabolic pathways

Evidence indicates that the microbiome plays a significant role in HIV immunopathogenesis and associated complications. This study aimed to characterize the oral and anal microbiome of Men who have Sex with Men (MSM) and Transgender Women (TGW), with and without HIV. One hundred and thirty oral and anal DNA-derived samples were obtained from 78 participants and subjected to shotgun metagenomics sequencing for further microbiome analysis. Significant differences in the microbiome composition were found among subjects associated with HIV infection, gender, sex behavior, CD4+ T-cell counts, antiretroviral therapy (ART), and the presence of HPV-associated precancerous anal lesions. Results confirm the occurrence of oncogenic viromes in this high HIV-risk population. The oral microbiome in HIV-associated cases exhibited an enrichment of bacteria associated with periodontal disease pathogenesis. Conversely, anal bacteria showed a significant decrease in HIV-infected subjects (Coprococcus comes, Finegoldia magna, Blautia obeum, Catenibacterium mitsuokai). TGW showed enrichment in species related to sexual transmission, which concurs that most recruited TGW are or have been sex workers. Prevotella bivia and Fusobacterium gonidiaformans were positively associated with anal precancerous lesions among HIV-infected subjects. The enrichment of Holdemanella biformis and C. comes was associated with detectable viral load and ART-untreated patients. Metabolic pathways were distinctly affected by predominant factors linked to sexual behavior or HIV pathogenesis. Gene family analysis identified bacterial gene signatures as potential prognostic and predictive biomarkers for HIV/AIDS-associated malignancies. Conclusions: Identified microbial features at accessible sites are potential biomarkers for predicting precancerous anal lesions and therapeutic targets for HIV immunopathogenesis.

Neovaginoplasty With Nile Tilapia Skin: Cytological and Microbiota Evaluation

OBJECTIVES

To study the clinical, cytological, and vaginal microbiota findings in patients with Mayer-Rokitansky-Küster-Hauser syndrome who underwent neovaginoplasty using Nile tilapia fish skin.

METHODS

This is a cross-sectional study with 7 cisgender women with Mayer-Rokitansky-Küster-Hauser syndrome who had previously undergone neovagina reconstruction using Nile tilapia fish skin at a university hospital. Local institutional review board approval and written permission from the patient were obtained. Between August 2019 and November 2021, within 12 to 24 months after surgery, vaginal specimens were obtained for conventional oncotic and hormonal cytology, and for Gram staining. The Nugent scores were calculated. Colposcopy was also performed.

RESULTS

Squamous cells without atypia were found in all patients. Five patients had intermediate vaginal microbiota (Nugent score of 4), which was determined by the presence of few lactobacilli on Gram staining. In hormonal cytology, 4 patients presented with findings compatible with menacme. No colposcopic change was observed. When postsurgical dilation was performed correctly, a mean vaginal length of 8.3 cm was maintained after 1 year of follow-up.

CONCLUSIONS

Squamous cells without atypia were present in neovaginas with Nile tilapia fish skin. Most vaginal contents revealed intermediate microbiota and hormonal results compatible with menacme. Studies with a greater number of patients are necessary for a more comprehensive understanding of the microbiome in neovaginas with this new technique, thereby providing support for the treatment and prevention of associated pathologies.

Nonoptimal bacteria species induce neutrophil-driven inflammation and barrier disruption in the female genital tract

Neutrophil recruitment and activation within the female genital tract are often associated with tissue inflammation, loss of vaginal epithelial barrier integrity, and increased risk for sexually transmitted infections, such as HIV-1. However, the direct role of neutrophils on vaginal epithelial barrier function during genital inflammation in vivo remains unclear. Using complementary proteome and immunological analyses, we show high neutrophil influx into the lower female genital tract in response to physiological surges in progesterone, stimulating distinct stromal, immunological, and metabolic signaling pathways. However, despite the release of extracellular matrix-modifying proteases and inflammatory mediators, neutrophils contributed little to physiological mucosal remodeling events such as epithelial shedding or re-epithelialization during transition from diestrus to estrus phase. In contrast, the presence of bacterial vaginosis-associated bacteria resulted in a rapid and sustained neutrophil recruitment, resulting in vaginal epithelial barrier leakage and decreased cell-cell junction protein expression in vivo. Thus, neutrophils are important mucosal sentinels that rapidly respond to various biological cues within the female genital tract, dictating the magnitude and duration of the ensuing inflammatory response at steady state and during disease processes.

Changes in the vaginal microbiome during pregnancy and the postpartum period in South African women: a longitudinal study

African women have more diverse vaginal microbiota than women of European descent, and there is interest in the impact of this diversity on maternal health, including HIV and STI acquisition. We characterized the vaginal microbiota in a cohort of women ≥ 18 years with and without HIV in a longitudinal cohort over two visits during pregnancy and one visit postpartum. At each visit we obtained HIV testing and self-collected vaginal swabs for point of care testing for STIs and microbiome sequencing. We categorized microbial communities and evaluated changes over pregnancy and associations with HIV status and STI diagnosis. Across 242 women (mean age 29, 44% living with HIV, 33% diagnosed with STIs), we identified four main community state types (CSTs): two lactobacillus-dominant CSTs (dominated by Lactobacillus crispatus and Lactobacillus iners respectively) and two diverse, non-lactobacillus-dominant CSTs (one dominated by Gardnerella vaginalis and one by other facultative anaerobes). From first antenatal visit to third trimester (24-36 weeks gestation), 60% of women in the Gardnerella -dominant CST shifted to L actobacillus -dominant CSTs. From third trimester to postpartum (mean 17 days post-delivery), 80% of women in Lactobacillus -dominant CSTs shifted to non-lactobacillus-dominant CSTs with a large proportion in the facultative anaerobe-dominant CST. Microbial composition differed by STI diagnosis (PERMANOVA R 2  = 0.002, p = 0.004), and women diagnosed with an STI were more likely to be categorized with L. iners -dominant or Gardnerella -dominant CSTs. Overall we found a shift toward lactobacillus dominance during pregnancy, and the emergence of a distinct, highly diverse anaerobe-dominant microbiome population in the postpartum period.

Systematic Review: The Neovaginal Microbiome

OBJECTIVE

To review neovaginal colonization and inflammatory patterns, and factors that may impact this.

METHODS

A systematic review of the neovaginal microbiome was conducted in concordance with PRISMA guidelines through October 2021.

RESULTS

Thirteen articles were included, totaling 458 patients. Neovaginal constructions were most commonly performed with penile and scrotal skin grafts, sigmoid segments, and peritoneal grafts. The neovaginal microflora identified were generally polymicrobial and shared similarities with the native tissue. Nine studies identified Lactobacillus: 5/6 for penile skin, 1/3 for sigmoid, 1/1 for peritoneum, and 2/3 for other graft types, suggesting that the neovagina may support Lactobacillus either innately, via rectal migration or oral probiotic supplementation. A polymicrobial, bacterial vaginosis-like environment was found in nine studies. Inflammatory markers were also described: 2/6 for penile skin, 2/3 for sigmoid, 0/1 for peritoneum, and 1/3 for other graft types. Scant data were available on the impact of postsurgical duration, oral hormones, dilating, sexual practices, or douching on the neovaginal microbiome.

CONCLUSION

Understanding and optimizing the polymicrobial neovaginal microenvironment may improve surgical outcomes, specifically inflammatory, pain, and infectious. Future research should focus on standardizing testing and classification systems, and treating neovaginal dysbiosis.

Anatomical and sexual health considerations among transfeminine individuals who have undergone vaginoplasty: A review

As acceptance of transgender and gender diverse individuals continues to increase, gender-affirming surgery, a cornerstone in the management of gender dysphoria, is becoming more readily available. HIV and sexually transmitted infections (STIs) disproportionately affect these populations, but there are limited epidemiologic and management data on STIs in people who have undergone gender-affirming genital surgery such as vaginoplasty. This review will provide clinicians with anatomical details about the various vaginoplasty procedures currently being performed, complications associated with these procedures, and an overview of the current literature describing HIV/STI epidemiology among transfeminine individuals who have undergone vaginoplasty.

The Effect of Gender-Affirming Medical Care on the Vaginal and Neovaginal Microbiomes of Transgender and Gender-Diverse People

Transgender and gender diverse individuals may seek gender-affirming medical care, such as hormone therapy or surgery, to produce primary and/or secondary sex characteristics that are more congruent with their gender. Gender-affirming medical care for transmasculine individuals can include testosterone therapy, which suppresses circulating estrogen and can lead to changes in the vaginal epithelium that are reminiscent of the post-menopausal period in cisgender females. Among transfeminine individuals, gender-affirming medical care can include vaginoplasty, which is the surgical creation of a vulva and neovaginal canal, commonly using penile and scrotal skin. The effect of gender-affirming medical care on the vagina of transmasculine individuals and on the neovagina of transfeminine individuals is poorly characterized. This review summarizes what is known of the epithelium and local microbiota of the testosterone-exposed vagina and the neovagina. We focus on potential pathogens and determinants of gynecological health and identify key knowledge gaps for future research.

Comparative analysis of DNA extraction and PCR product purification methods for cervicovaginal microbiome analysis using cpn60 microbial profiling

Background

The microbiota of the lower female genital tract plays an important role in women’s health. Microbial profiling using the chaperonin60 (cpn60) universal target (UT) improves resolution of vaginal species associated with negative health outcomes compared to the more commonly used 16S ribosomal DNA target. However, the choice of DNA extraction and PCR product purification methods may bias sequencing-based microbial studies and should be optimized for the sample type and molecular target used. In this study, we compared two commercial DNA extraction kits and two commercial PCR product purification kits for the microbial profiling of cervicovaginal samples using the cpn60 UT.

Methods

DNA from cervicovaginal secretions and vaginal lavage samples as well as mock community standards were extracted using either the specialized QIAamp DNA Microbiome Kit, or the standard DNeasy Blood & Tissue kit with enzymatic pre-treatment for enhanced lysis of gram-positive bacteria. Extracts were PCR amplified using well-established cpn60 primer sets and conditions. Products were then purified using a column-based method (QIAquick PCR Purification Kit) or a gel-based PCR clean-up method using the QIAEX II Gel Extraction Kit. Purified amplicons were sequenced with the MiSeq platform using standard procedures. The overall quality of each method was evaluated by measuring DNA yield, alpha diversity, and microbial composition.

Results

DNA extracted from cervicovaginal samples using the DNeasy Blood and Tissue kit, pre-treated with lysozyme and mutanolysin, resulted in increased DNA yield, bacterial diversity, and species representation compared to the QIAamp DNA Microbiome kit. The column-based PCR product purification approach also resulted in greater average DNA yield and wider species representation compared to a gel-based clean-up method. In conclusion, this study presents a fast, effective sample preparation method for high resolution cpn60 based microbial profiling of cervicovaginal samples.

Perforation of sigmoid neovagina in a patient with Mayer-Rokitansky-Küster-Hauser syndrome

Mayer-Rokitansky-Küster-Hauser (MRKH) syndrome is a congenital aplasia of the uterus and upper part of the vagina in females. Treatment includes surgical creation of a functional neovagina. Perforation of the neovagina is extremely rare with only handful of cases reported in transgender patients post gender reassignment surgery. We report a first case of sigmoid neovaginal perforation in MRKS patient. The patient presented with progressively worsen abdominal pain and multiple intra-abdominal abscesses due to perforation of sigmoid neovagina. She was treated with surgical drainage and antibiotics and recovered clinically. Although exceedingly rare, we should keep history of sigmoid neovaginoplasty and possible perforation in patients with MRKS presenting with abdominal abscesses.

HIV Pathogenesis in the Human Female Reproductive Tract

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Women remain disproportionately affected by the HIV/AIDS pandemic. The primary mechanism for HIV acquisition in women is sexual transmission, yet the immunobiological factors that contribute to HIV susceptibility remain poorly characterized. Here, we review current knowledge on HIV pathogenesis in women, focusing on infection and immune responses in the female reproductive tract (FRT).

RECENT FINDINGS

We describe recent findings on innate immune protection and HIV target cell distribution in the FRT. We also review multiple factors that modify susceptibility to infection, including sex hormones, microbiome, trauma, and how HIV risk changes during women's life cycle. Finally, we review current strategies for HIV prevention and identify barriers for research in HIV infection and pathogenesis in women. A complex network of interrelated biological and sociocultural factors contributes to HIV risk in women and impairs prevention and cure strategies. Understanding how HIV establishes infection in the FRT can provide clues to develop novel interventions to prevent HIV acquisition in women.