1
|
Cho Y, Laird MS, Bishop T, Li R, Jazwinska DE, Ruffo E, Lohmueller J, Zervantonakis IK. CAR T cell infiltration and cytotoxic killing within the core of 3D breast cancer spheroids under the control of antigen sensing in microwell arrays. APL Bioeng 2024; 8:036105. [PMID: 39049849 PMCID: PMC11268919 DOI: 10.1063/5.0207941] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2024] [Accepted: 07/03/2024] [Indexed: 07/27/2024] Open
Abstract
The success of chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T cells in blood cancers has intensified efforts to develop CAR T therapies for solid cancers. In the solid tumor microenvironment, CAR T cell trafficking and suppression of cytotoxic killing represent limiting factors for therapeutic efficacy. Here, we present a microwell platform to study CAR T cell interactions with 3D breast tumor spheroids and determine predictors of anti-tumor CAR T cell function. To precisely control antigen sensing, we utilized a switchable adaptor CAR system that covalently attaches to co-administered antibody adaptors and mediates antigen recognition. Following the addition of an anti-HER2 adaptor antibody, primary human CAR T cells exhibited higher infiltration, clustering, and secretion of effector cytokines. By tracking CAR T cell killing in individual spheroids, we showed the suppressive effects of spheroid size and identified the initial CAR T cell to spheroid area ratio as a predictor of cytotoxicity. We demonstrate that larger spheroids exhibit higher hypoxia levels and are infiltrated by CAR T cells with a suppressed activation state, characterized by reduced expression of IFN-γ, TNF-α, and granzyme B. Spatiotemporal analysis revealed lower CAR T cell numbers and cytotoxicity in the spheroid core compared to the periphery. Finally, increasing CAR T cell seeding density resulted in higher CAR T cell infiltration and cancer cell elimination in the spheroid core. Our findings provide new quantitative insight into CAR T cell function within 3D cancer spheroids. Given its miniaturized nature and live imaging capabilities, our microfabricated system holds promise for screening cellular immunotherapies.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Youngbin Cho
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15219, USA
| | - Matthew S. Laird
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15219, USA
| | - Teddi Bishop
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15219, USA
| | - Ruxuan Li
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15219, USA
| | - Dorota E. Jazwinska
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15219, USA
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
2
|
Bidan N, Dunsmore G, Ugrinic M, Bied M, Moreira M, Deloménie C, Ginhoux F, Blériot C, de la Fuente M, Mura S. Multicellular tumor spheroid model to study the multifaceted role of tumor-associated macrophages in PDAC. Drug Deliv Transl Res 2024; 14:2085-2099. [PMID: 38062286 DOI: 10.1007/s13346-023-01479-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/07/2023] [Indexed: 06/27/2024]
Abstract
While considerable efforts have been made to develop new therapies, progress in the treatment of pancreatic cancer has so far fallen short of patients' expectations. This is due in part to the lack of predictive in vitro models capable of accounting for the heterogeneity of this tumor and its low immunogenicity. To address this point, we have established and characterized a 3D spheroid model of pancreatic cancer composed of tumor cells, cancer-associated fibroblasts, and blood-derived monocytes. The fate of the latter has been followed from their recruitment into the tumor spheroid to their polarization into a tumor-associated macrophage (TAM)-like population, providing evidence for the formation of an immunosuppressive microenvironment.This 3D model well reproduced the multiple roles of TAMs and their influence on drug sensitivity and cell migration. Furthermore, we observed that lipid-based nanosystems consisting of sphingomyelin and vitamin E could affect the phenotype of macrophages, causing a reduction of characteristic markers of TAMs. Overall, this optimized triple coculture model gives a valuable tool that could find useful application for a more comprehensive understanding of TAM plasticity as well as for more predictive drug screening. This could increase the relevance of preclinical studies and help identify effective treatments.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Nadège Bidan
- Université Paris-Saclay, CNRS, Institut Galien Paris-Saclay, 91400, Orsay, France
| | | | - Martina Ugrinic
- Université Paris-Saclay, CNRS, Institut Galien Paris-Saclay, 91400, Orsay, France
| | - Mathilde Bied
- Inserm U1015, Gustave Roussy, 94800, Villejuif, France
| | - Marco Moreira
- Inserm U1015, Gustave Roussy, 94800, Villejuif, France
| | - Claudine Deloménie
- Inserm US31, CNRS UAR3679, Ingénierie Et Plateformes Au Service de L'Innovation Thérapeutique (UMS-IPSIT), Université Paris-Saclay, 91400, Orsay, France
| | | | - Camille Blériot
- Inserm U1015, Gustave Roussy, 94800, Villejuif, France
- CNRS UMR8253, Institut Necker Enfants Malades, 75015, Paris, France
| | - Maria de la Fuente
- Nano-Oncology and Translational Therapeutics Group, Health Research Institute of Santiago de Compostela (IDIS), Complexo Hospitalario Universitario de Santiago de Compostela SERGAS, 15706, Santiago de Compostela, Spain
- Biomedical Research Networking Center On Oncology (CIBERONC), 28029, Madrid, Spain
- DIVERSA Technologies SL, 15782, Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - Simona Mura
- Université Paris-Saclay, CNRS, Institut Galien Paris-Saclay, 91400, Orsay, France.
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Rahman MM, Wells G, Rantala JK, Helleday T, Muthana M, Danson SJ. In-vitro assays for immuno-oncology drug efficacy assessment and screening for personalized cancer therapy: scopes and challenges. Expert Rev Clin Immunol 2024; 20:821-838. [PMID: 38546609 DOI: 10.1080/1744666x.2024.2336583] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2023] [Accepted: 03/26/2024] [Indexed: 04/04/2024]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Immunotherapies have revolutionized cancer treatment, but often fail to produce desirable therapeutic outcomes in all patients. Due to the inter-patient heterogeneity and complexity of the tumor microenvironment, personalized treatment approaches are gaining demand. Researchers have long been using a range of in-vitro assays including 2D models, organoid co-cultures, and cancer-on-a-chip platforms for cancer drug screening. A comparative analysis of these assays with their suitability, high-throughput capacity, and clinical translatability is required for optimal translational use. AREAS COVERED The review summarized in-vitro platforms with their comparative advantages and limitations including construction strategies, and translational potential for immuno-oncology drug efficacy assessment. We also discussed end-point analysis strategies so that researchers can contextualize their usefulness and optimally design experiments for personalized immunotherapy efficacy prediction. EXPERT OPINION Researchers developed several in-vitro platforms that can provide information on personalized immunotherapy efficacy from different angles. Image-based assays are undoubtedly more suitable to gather a wide range of information including cellular morphology and phenotypical behaviors but need significant improvement to overcome issues including background noise, sample preparation difficulty, and long duration of experiment. More studies and clinical trials are needed to resolve these issues and validate the assays before they can be used in real-life scenarios.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Md Marufur Rahman
- Sheffield Ex vivo Group, Division of Clinical Medicine, School of Medicine & Population Health, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK
- Directorate General of Health Services, Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Greg Wells
- Sheffield Ex vivo Group, Division of Clinical Medicine, School of Medicine & Population Health, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK
| | - Juha K Rantala
- Sheffield Ex vivo Group, Division of Clinical Medicine, School of Medicine & Population Health, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK
- Misvik Biology Ltd, Turku, Finland
| | - Thomas Helleday
- Sheffield Ex vivo Group, Division of Clinical Medicine, School of Medicine & Population Health, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK
- Department of Oncology-Pathology, Karolinska Institutet, Huddinge, Sweden
| | - Munitta Muthana
- Nanobug Oncology Sheffield, Division of Clinical Medicine, School of Medicine & Population Health, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK
| | - Sarah J Danson
- Sheffield Ex vivo Group, Division of Clinical Medicine, School of Medicine & Population Health, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Vitale S, Calapà F, Colonna F, Luongo F, Biffoni M, De Maria R, Fiori ME. Advancements in 3D In Vitro Models for Colorectal Cancer. ADVANCED SCIENCE (WEINHEIM, BADEN-WURTTEMBERG, GERMANY) 2024:e2405084. [PMID: 38962943 DOI: 10.1002/advs.202405084] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2024] [Indexed: 07/05/2024]
Abstract
The process of drug discovery and pre-clinical testing is currently inefficient, expensive, and time-consuming. Most importantly, the success rate is unsatisfactory, as only a small percentage of tested drugs are made available to oncological patients. This is largely due to the lack of reliable models that accurately predict drug efficacy and safety. Even animal models often fail to replicate human-specific pathologies and human body's complexity. These factors, along with ethical concerns regarding animal use, urge the development of suitable human-relevant, translational in vitro models.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sara Vitale
- Department of Oncology and Molecular Medicine (OMM), Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Viale Regina Elena 299, Rome, 00161, Italy
| | - Federica Calapà
- Dipartimento di Medicina e Chirurgia traslazionale, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Largo F. Vito 1, Rome, Italy
| | - Francesca Colonna
- Department of Oncology and Molecular Medicine (OMM), Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Viale Regina Elena 299, Rome, 00161, Italy
| | - Francesca Luongo
- Dipartimento di Medicina e Chirurgia traslazionale, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Largo F. Vito 1, Rome, Italy
| | - Mauro Biffoni
- Department of Oncology and Molecular Medicine (OMM), Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Viale Regina Elena 299, Rome, 00161, Italy
| | - Ruggero De Maria
- Dipartimento di Medicina e Chirurgia traslazionale, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Largo F. Vito 1, Rome, Italy
- Fondazione Policlinico Universitario "A. Gemelli" - IRCCS, Largo F. Vito 1, Rome, Italy
| | - Micol E Fiori
- Department of Oncology and Molecular Medicine (OMM), Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Viale Regina Elena 299, Rome, 00161, Italy
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Wen M, He L, Guo C, Zhao D, Hou Y, Yang X, Meng H. Expression and clinical significance of NKG2A and HLA-E in advanced laryngeal carcinoma. Pathol Res Pract 2024; 260:155383. [PMID: 38924853 DOI: 10.1016/j.prp.2024.155383] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2023] [Revised: 05/23/2024] [Accepted: 05/29/2024] [Indexed: 06/28/2024]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES The purpose was to detected features of the expression levels of NKG2A and its ligand HLA-E, a new member of the immune checkpoints, in advanced laryngeal carcinoma and their clinicopathologic significance. MATERIAL AND METHODS We analyzed the expression levels of HLA-E and NKG2A in multiple types of tumors utilizing the Tumor Immune Estimation Resource (TIMER) database and immunohistochemistry and qRT-PCR analysis of paraffin embedded tissue samples to reveal the correlations of the clinicopathological factors with the expression of these two proteins in advanced laryngeal carcinoma as well as their prognostic significance. RESULTS KLRC1 (the coding gene of NKG2A) and HLA-E are substantially overexpressed in various human cancers than normal tissues. HNSCC is also included. KLRC1 is differentially expressed in different HPV subgroups of patients, with higher expression in the HPV-positive group. Consistent with this, immunohistochemical results also revealed the high expression of these two proteins in tumor tissue. In addition, immunohistochemical staining also displayed a preference for the distribution of NKG2A-positive cells in tumor tissue. Clinicopathological analyses also displayed that the density of NKG2A-positive cells of the HPV-positive group infiltrating laryngeal carcinoma tissue was larger than that in the HPV-negative group. Prognostic analyses indicated that the expression of this immune checkpoint does not affect the overall survival length of patients, but the highly expressed HLA-E is significantly correlated with local recurrence in the patients. CONCLUSIONS The findings suggest that the expression levels of HLA-E and NKG2A is upregulated in advanced laryngeal carcinoma. The NKG2A-positive cells infiltrating the tumor are mainly distributed in the cancer nest, while infiltrating cell number may be regulated by HPV. The highly expressed HLA-E may promote local recurrence in patients with advanced laryngeal carcinoma.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Meina Wen
- Department of Pathology, Harbin Medical University Cancer Hospital, Harbin, China
| | - Lin He
- Department of Stomatology, Nangang Hospital, Heilongjiang Province Hospital, China
| | - Chenxu Guo
- Department of Pathology, Harbin Medical University Cancer Hospital, Harbin, China
| | - Di Zhao
- Department of Pathology, Harbin Medical University Cancer Hospital, Harbin, China
| | - Yunjing Hou
- Department of Pathology, Harbin Medical University Cancer Hospital, Harbin, China
| | - Xinxin Yang
- Precision Medicine Center, Harbin Medical University Cancer Hospital, Harbin, China.
| | - Hongxue Meng
- Department of Pathology, Harbin Medical University Cancer Hospital, Harbin, China; Precision Medicine Center, Harbin Medical University Cancer Hospital, Harbin, China.
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Kuznetsova AV, Glukhova XA, Popova OP, Beletsky IP, Ivanov AA. Contemporary Approaches to Immunotherapy of Solid Tumors. Cancers (Basel) 2024; 16:2270. [PMID: 38927974 PMCID: PMC11201544 DOI: 10.3390/cancers16122270] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2024] [Revised: 06/11/2024] [Accepted: 06/15/2024] [Indexed: 06/28/2024] Open
Abstract
In recent years, the arrival of the immunotherapy industry has introduced the possibility of providing transformative, durable, and potentially curative outcomes for various forms of malignancies. However, further research has shown that there are a number of issues that significantly reduce the effectiveness of immunotherapy, especially in solid tumors. First of all, these problems are related to the protective mechanisms of the tumor and its microenvironment. Currently, major efforts are focused on overcoming protective mechanisms by using different adoptive cell therapy variants and modifications of genetically engineered constructs. In addition, a complex workforce is required to develop and implement these treatments. To overcome these significant challenges, innovative strategies and approaches are necessary to engineer more powerful variations of immunotherapy with improved antitumor activity and decreased toxicity. In this review, we discuss recent innovations in immunotherapy aimed at improving clinical efficacy in solid tumors, as well as strategies to overcome the limitations of various immunotherapies.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Alla V. Kuznetsova
- Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Pathology, Russian University of Medicine (Formerly A.I. Evdokimov Moscow State University of Medicine and Dentistry), Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation, Bld 4, Dolgorukovskaya Str, 1127006 Moscow, Russia; (A.V.K.); (O.P.P.)
- Koltzov Institute of Developmental Biology, Russian Academy of Sciences, 26 Vavilov Street, 119334 Moscow, Russia
| | - Xenia A. Glukhova
- Onni Biotechnologies Ltd., Aalto University Campus, Metallimiehenkuja 10, 02150 Espoo, Finland; (X.A.G.); (I.P.B.)
| | - Olga P. Popova
- Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Pathology, Russian University of Medicine (Formerly A.I. Evdokimov Moscow State University of Medicine and Dentistry), Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation, Bld 4, Dolgorukovskaya Str, 1127006 Moscow, Russia; (A.V.K.); (O.P.P.)
| | - Igor P. Beletsky
- Onni Biotechnologies Ltd., Aalto University Campus, Metallimiehenkuja 10, 02150 Espoo, Finland; (X.A.G.); (I.P.B.)
| | - Alexey A. Ivanov
- Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Pathology, Russian University of Medicine (Formerly A.I. Evdokimov Moscow State University of Medicine and Dentistry), Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation, Bld 4, Dolgorukovskaya Str, 1127006 Moscow, Russia; (A.V.K.); (O.P.P.)
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Liu Q, Zhang X, Song Y, Si J, Li Z, Dong Q. Construction and analysis of a reliable five-gene prognostic signature for colon adenocarcinoma associated with the wild-type allelic state of the COL6A6 gene. Transl Cancer Res 2024; 13:2475-2496. [PMID: 38881933 PMCID: PMC11170513 DOI: 10.21037/tcr-23-463] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2023] [Accepted: 11/29/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2024]
Abstract
Background Tumors emerge by acquiring a number of mutations over time. The first mutation provides a selective growth advantage compared to adjacent epithelial cells, allowing the cell to create a clone that can outgrow the cells that surround it. Subsequent mutations determine the risk of the tumor progressing to metastatic cancer. Some secondary mutations may inhibit the aggressiveness of the tumor while still increasing the survival of the clone. Meaningful mutations in genes may provide a strong molecular foundation for developing novel therapeutic strategies for cancer. Methods The somatic mutation and prognosis in colon adenocarcinoma (COAD) were analyzed. The copy number variation (CNV) and differentially expressed genes (DEGs) between the collagen type VI alpha 6 chain (COL6A6) mutation (COL6A6-MUT) and the COL6A6 wild-type (COL6A6-WT) subgroups were evaluated. The independent prognostic signatures based on COL6A6-allelic state were determined to construct a Cox model. The biological characteristics and the immune microenvironment between the two risk groups were compared. Results COL6A6 was found to be highly mutated in COAD at a frequency of 9%. Patients with COL6A6-MUT had a good overall survival (OS) compared to those with COL6A6-WT, who had a different CNV pattern. Significant differences in gene expression were established for 593 genes between the COL6A6-MUT and COL6A6-WT samples. Among them, MUC16, ASNSP1, PRR18, PEG10, and RPL26P8 were determined to be independent prognostic factors. The internally validated prognostic risk model, constructed using these five genes, demonstrated its value by revealing a significant difference in patient prognosis between the high-risk and low-risk groups. Specifically, patients in the high-risk group exhibited a considerably worse prognosis than did those in the low-risk group. The high-risk group had a significantly higher proportion of patients over 60 years of age and patients in stage III. Moreover, the tumor immune dysfunction and exclusion (TIDE) score and the expression of human leukocyte antigen (HLA) family genes were all higher in the high-risk group than that in the low-risk group. Conclusions The allelic state of COL6A6 and the five associated DEGs were identified as novel biomarkers for the diagnosis and prognosis of COAD and may be therapeutic targets in COAD.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Qun Liu
- Second Department of Gastroenterology, Qingdao Municipal Hospital, Dalian Medical University, Qingdao, China
| | - Xiaohua Zhang
- Gastroenterology Center, Qingdao Traditional Chinese Medicine Hospital (Qingdao Hiser Hospital), Qingdao Hiser Hospital Affiliated of Qingdao University, Qingdao, China
| | - Yan Song
- Outpatient Department, Qingdao Traditional Chinese Medicine Hospital (Qingdao Hiser Hospital), Qingdao Hiser Hospital Affiliated of Qingdao University, Qingdao, China
| | - Junli Si
- Second Department of Gastroenterology, Qingdao Municipal Hospital, Dalian Medical University, Qingdao, China
| | - Zhaoshui Li
- Qingdao University, Qingdao Medical College, Qingdao, China
| | - Quanjiang Dong
- Central Laboratories, Department of Gastroenterology, Qingdao Municipal Hospital, Dalian Medical University, Qingdao, China
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Kim SE, Yun S, Doh J, Kim HN. Imaging-Based Efficacy Evaluation of Cancer Immunotherapy in Engineered Tumor Platforms and Tumor Organoids. Adv Healthc Mater 2024:e2400475. [PMID: 38815251 DOI: 10.1002/adhm.202400475] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2024] [Revised: 05/16/2024] [Indexed: 06/01/2024]
Abstract
Cancer immunotherapy is used to treat tumors by modulating the immune system. Although the anticancer efficacy of cancer immunotherapy has been evaluated prior to clinical trials, conventional in vivo animal and endpoint models inadequately replicate the intricate process of tumor elimination and reflect human-specific immune systems. Therefore, more sophisticated models that mimic the complex tumor-immune microenvironment must be employed to assess the effectiveness of immunotherapy. Additionally, using real-time imaging technology, a step-by-step evaluation can be applied, allowing for a more precise assessment of treatment efficacy. Here, an overview of the various imaging-based evaluation platforms recently developed for cancer immunotherapeutic applications is presented. Specifically, a fundamental technique is discussed for stably observing immune cell-based tumor cell killing using direct imaging, a microwell that reproduces a confined space for spatial observation, a droplet assay that facilitates cell-cell interactions, and a 3D microphysiological system that reconstructs the vascular environment. Furthermore, it is suggested that future evaluation platforms pursue more human-like immune systems.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Seong-Eun Kim
- Brain Science Institute, Korea Institute of Science and Technology (KIST), Seoul, 02792, South Korea
| | - Suji Yun
- Interdisciplinary Program for Bioengineering, Seoul National University, Seoul, 08826, South Korea
| | - Junsang Doh
- Interdisciplinary Program for Bioengineering, Seoul National University, Seoul, 08826, South Korea
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Research Institute of Advanced Materials, Institute of Engineering Research, Bio-MAX institute, Soft Foundry Institute, Seoul National University, Seoul, 08826, South Korea
| | - Hong Nam Kim
- Brain Science Institute, Korea Institute of Science and Technology (KIST), Seoul, 02792, South Korea
- Division of Bio-Medical Science and Technology, KIST School, Korea University of Science and Technology, Seoul, 02792, Republic of Korea
- School of Mechanical Engineering, Yonsei University, Seoul, 03722, Republic of Korea
- Yonsei-KIST Convergence Research Institute, Yonsei University, Seoul, 03722, Republic of Korea
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Tjader NP, Toland AE. Immunotherapy for colorectal cancer: insight from inherited genetics. Trends Cancer 2024; 10:444-456. [PMID: 38360438 PMCID: PMC11096082 DOI: 10.1016/j.trecan.2024.01.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2023] [Revised: 01/08/2024] [Accepted: 01/18/2024] [Indexed: 02/17/2024]
Abstract
Immunotherapy shows efficacy for multiple cancer types and potential for expanded use. However, current immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) are ineffective against microsatellite-stable colorectal cancer (CRC), which is more commonly diagnosed. Immunotherapy strategies for non-responsive CRC, including new targets and new combination therapies, are being tested to address this need. Importantly, a subset of inherited germline genetic variants associated with CRC risk are predicted to regulate genes with immune functions, including genes related to existing ICIs, as well as new potential targets in the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) region and immunoregulatory cytokines. We review discoveries in the inherited genetics of CRC related to the immune system and draw connections with ongoing developments and emerging immunotherapy targets.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Nijole Pollock Tjader
- Department of Cancer Biology and Genetics, Comprehensive Cancer Center, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA
| | - Amanda Ewart Toland
- Department of Cancer Biology and Genetics, Comprehensive Cancer Center, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA; Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Human Genetics, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Mei J, Liu X, Tian H, Chen Y, Cao Y, Zeng J, Liu Y, Chen Y, Gao Y, Yin J, Wang P. Tumour organoids and assembloids: Patient-derived cancer avatars for immunotherapy. Clin Transl Med 2024; 14:e1656. [PMID: 38664597 PMCID: PMC11045561 DOI: 10.1002/ctm2.1656] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2023] [Revised: 03/24/2024] [Accepted: 03/26/2024] [Indexed: 04/28/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Organoid technology is an emerging and rapidly growing field that shows promise in studying organ development and screening therapeutic regimens. Although organoids have been proposed for a decade, concerns exist, including batch-to-batch variations, lack of the native microenvironment and clinical applicability. MAIN BODY The concept of organoids has derived patient-derived tumour organoids (PDTOs) for personalized drug screening and new drug discovery, mitigating the risks of medication misuse. The greater the similarity between the PDTOs and the primary tumours, the more influential the model will be. Recently, 'tumour assembloids' inspired by cell-coculture technology have attracted attention to complement the current PDTO technology. High-quality PDTOs must reassemble critical components, including multiple cell types, tumour matrix, paracrine factors, angiogenesis and microorganisms. This review begins with a brief overview of the history of organoids and PDTOs, followed by the current approaches for generating PDTOs and tumour assembloids. Personalized drug screening has been practised; however, it remains unclear whether PDTOs can predict immunotherapies, including immune drugs (e.g. immune checkpoint inhibitors) and immune cells (e.g. tumour-infiltrating lymphocyte, T cell receptor-engineered T cell and chimeric antigen receptor-T cell). PDTOs, as cancer avatars of the patients, can be expanded and stored to form a biobank. CONCLUSION Fundamental research and clinical trials are ongoing, and the intention is to use these models to replace animals. Pre-clinical immunotherapy screening using PDTOs will be beneficial to cancer patients. KEY POINTS The current PDTO models have not yet constructed key cellular and non-cellular components. PDTOs should be expandable and editable. PDTOs are promising preclinical models for immunotherapy unless mature PDTOs can be established. PDTO biobanks with consensual standards are urgently needed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jie Mei
- Oujiang Laboratory; Key Laboratory of Alzheimer's Disease of Zhejiang Province, Institute of AgingWenzhou Medical UniversityWenzhouPeople's Republic of China
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Xiangya HospitalCentral South UniversityChangshaPeople's Republic of China
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Hunan Key Laboratory of PharmacogeneticsCentral South UniversityChangshaPeople's Republic of China
- Engineering Research Center of Applied Technology of PharmacogenomicsMinistry of EducationChangshaPeople's Republic of China
- National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Disorders, Xiangya HospitalCentral South UniversityChangshaPeople's Republic of China
| | - Xingjian Liu
- Oujiang Laboratory; Key Laboratory of Alzheimer's Disease of Zhejiang Province, Institute of AgingWenzhou Medical UniversityWenzhouPeople's Republic of China
| | - Hui‐Xiang Tian
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Xiangya HospitalCentral South UniversityChangshaPeople's Republic of China
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Hunan Key Laboratory of PharmacogeneticsCentral South UniversityChangshaPeople's Republic of China
| | - Yixuan Chen
- Oujiang Laboratory; Key Laboratory of Alzheimer's Disease of Zhejiang Province, Institute of AgingWenzhou Medical UniversityWenzhouPeople's Republic of China
| | - Yang Cao
- Oujiang Laboratory; Key Laboratory of Alzheimer's Disease of Zhejiang Province, Institute of AgingWenzhou Medical UniversityWenzhouPeople's Republic of China
| | - Jun Zeng
- Oujiang Laboratory; Key Laboratory of Alzheimer's Disease of Zhejiang Province, Institute of AgingWenzhou Medical UniversityWenzhouPeople's Republic of China
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, Xiangya HospitalCentral South UniversityChangshaPeople's Republic of China
| | - Yung‐Chiang Liu
- Oujiang Laboratory; Key Laboratory of Alzheimer's Disease of Zhejiang Province, Institute of AgingWenzhou Medical UniversityWenzhouPeople's Republic of China
| | - Yaping Chen
- Oujiang Laboratory; Key Laboratory of Alzheimer's Disease of Zhejiang Province, Institute of AgingWenzhou Medical UniversityWenzhouPeople's Republic of China
| | - Yang Gao
- National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Disorders, Xiangya HospitalCentral South UniversityChangshaPeople's Republic of China
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, Xiangya HospitalCentral South UniversityChangshaPeople's Republic of China
- Hunan Engineering Research Center for Pulmonary Nodules Precise Diagnosis and Treatment, Xiangya HospitalCentral South UniversityChangshaPeople's Republic of China
- Xiangya Lung Cancer Center, Xiangya HospitalCentral South UniversityChangshaPeople's Republic of China
| | - Ji‐Ye Yin
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Xiangya HospitalCentral South UniversityChangshaPeople's Republic of China
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Hunan Key Laboratory of PharmacogeneticsCentral South UniversityChangshaPeople's Republic of China
- Engineering Research Center of Applied Technology of PharmacogenomicsMinistry of EducationChangshaPeople's Republic of China
- National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Disorders, Xiangya HospitalCentral South UniversityChangshaPeople's Republic of China
| | - Peng‐Yuan Wang
- Oujiang Laboratory; Key Laboratory of Alzheimer's Disease of Zhejiang Province, Institute of AgingWenzhou Medical UniversityWenzhouPeople's Republic of China
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Suryavanshi P, Bodas D. Knockout cancer by nano-delivered immunotherapy using perfusion-aided scaffold-based tumor-on-a-chip. Nanotheranostics 2024; 8:380-400. [PMID: 38751938 PMCID: PMC11093718 DOI: 10.7150/ntno.87818] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2023] [Accepted: 01/20/2024] [Indexed: 05/18/2024] Open
Abstract
Cancer is a multifactorial disease produced by mutations in the oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes, which result in uncontrolled cell proliferation and resistance to cell death. Cancer progresses due to the escape of altered cells from immune monitoring, which is facilitated by the tumor's mutual interaction with its microenvironment. Understanding the mechanisms involved in immune surveillance evasion and the significance of the tumor microenvironment might thus aid in developing improved therapies. Although in vivo models are commonly utilized, they could be better for time, cost, and ethical concerns. As a result, it is critical to replicate an in vivo model and recreate the cellular and tissue-level functionalities. A 3D cell culture, which gives a 3D architecture similar to that found in vivo, is an appropriate model. Furthermore, numerous cell types can be cocultured, establishing cellular interactions between TME and tumor cells. Moreover, microfluidics perfusion can provide precision flow rates, thus simulating tissue/organ function. Immunotherapy can be used with the perfused 3D cell culture technique to help develop successful therapeutics. Immunotherapy employing nano delivery can target the spot and silence the responsible genes, ensuring treatment effectiveness while minimizing adverse effects. This study focuses on the importance of 3D cell culture in understanding the pathophysiology of 3D tumors and TME, the function of TME in drug resistance, tumor progression, and the development of advanced anticancer therapies for high-throughput drug screening.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Pooja Suryavanshi
- Nanobioscience Group, Agharkar Research Institute, G.G. Agarkar Road, Pune 411 004 India
- Savitribai Phule Pune University, Ganeshkhind Road, Pune 411 007 India
| | - Dhananjay Bodas
- Nanobioscience Group, Agharkar Research Institute, G.G. Agarkar Road, Pune 411 004 India
- Savitribai Phule Pune University, Ganeshkhind Road, Pune 411 007 India
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Pezeshki A, Cheville JC, Florio AB, Leibovich BC, Vasmatzis G. Evaluation of tumor response to immune checkpoint inhibitors by a 3D immunotumoroid model. Front Immunol 2024; 15:1356144. [PMID: 38605943 PMCID: PMC11007648 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2024.1356144] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2023] [Accepted: 03/18/2024] [Indexed: 04/13/2024] Open
Abstract
Background Only 20 percent of renal and bladder cancer patients will show a significant response to immune checkpoint inhibitor (ICI) therapy, and no test currently available accurately predicts ICI response. Methods We developed an "immunotumoroid" cell model system that recapitulates the tumor, its microenvironment, and necessary immune system components in patient-derived spheroids to enable ex vivo assessment of tumor response to ICI therapy. Immunotumoroids were developed from surgically resected renal cell carcinomas and bladder carcinomas selected for high tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes (TILs) and survived more than a month without media exchange. Immunohistochemistry was used to detect immune and non-immune cells in cryopreserved source tumors and the resulting immunotumoroids. Immunotumoroid response to ICIs (nivolumab, pembrolizumab, and durvalumab) and chemotherapy (cisplatin, gemcitabine, and paclitaxel) was monitored in real-time with Cytotox Red staining in an Incucyte device, and the immunotumoroid response was compared to retrospective clinical drug responses. Results Six of the 13 cases tested grew viable immunotumoroid models, with failed cases attributed to extensive tumor tissue necrosis or excess lymphocytes preventing spheroid formation. One successfully cultured case was excluded from the study due to low TIL infiltration (<5%) in the primary tumor sample. The five remaining models contained immune cells (CD4+ and CD8+ T cells, and macrophages), non-immune cells (fibroblasts), and tumor cells. Chemotherapy and ICI drugs were tested in immunotumoroids from 5 cases and compared to clinical outcomes where data was available. Four/five models showed cell killing in response to chemotherapy and two/five showed sensitivity to ICI. In three cases, the immunotumoroid model accurately predicted the patient's clinical response or non-response to ICIs or chemotherapy. Conclusion Our immunotumoroid model replicated the multicellular nature of the tumor microenvironment sufficiently for preclinical ICI screening. This model could enable valuable insights into the complex interactions between cancer cells, the immune system, and the microenvironment. This is a feasibility study on a small number of cases, and additional studies with larger case numbers are required including correlation with clinical response.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Abdulmohammad Pezeshki
- Biomarker Discovery, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, United States
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, United States
| | - John C. Cheville
- Biomarker Discovery, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, United States
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, United States
| | - Angela B. Florio
- Biomarker Discovery, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, United States
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, United States
| | | | - George Vasmatzis
- Biomarker Discovery, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, United States
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, United States
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Cho Y, Laird M, Bishop T, Li R, Ruffo E, Lohmueller J, Zervantonakis IK. CAR T cell infiltration and cytotoxic killing within the core of 3D breast cancer spheroids under control of antigen sensing in microwell arrays. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2024.03.14.585033. [PMID: 38654820 PMCID: PMC11037865 DOI: 10.1101/2024.03.14.585033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/26/2024]
Abstract
The success of chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T cells in blood cancers has intensified efforts to develop CAR T therapies for solid cancers. In the solid tumor microenvironment, CAR T cell trafficking and suppression of cytotoxic killing represent limiting factors for therapeutic efficacy. Here, we present a microwell platform to study CAR T cell interactions with 3D tumor spheroids and determine predictors of anti-tumor CAR T cell function. To precisely control antigen sensing by CAR T cells, we utilized a switchable adaptor CAR system, that instead of directly binding to an antigen of interest, covalently attaches to co-administered antibody adaptors that mediate tumor antigen recognition. Following addition of an anti-HER2 adaptor antibody, primary human CAR T cells exhibited higher infiltration and clustering compared to the no adaptor control. By tracking CAR T cell killing at the individual spheroid level, we showed the suppressive effects of spheroid size and identified the initial CAR T cell : spheroid area ratio as a predictor of cytotoxicity. Spatiotemporal analysis revealed lower CAR T cell numbers and cytotoxicity in the spheroid core compared to the periphery. Finally, increasing CAR T cell seeding density, resulted in higher CAR T cell infiltration and cancer cell elimination in the spheroid core. Our findings provide new quantitative insights into CAR T cell-mediated killing of HER2+ breast tumor cells. Given the miniaturized nature and live imaging capabilities, our microfabricated system holds promise for discovering cell-cell interaction mechanisms that orchestrate antitumor CAR T cell functions and screening cellular immunotherapies in 3D tumor models.
Collapse
|
14
|
Liu YC, Chen P, Chang R, Liu X, Jhang JW, Enkhbat M, Chen S, Wang H, Deng C, Wang PY. Artificial tumor matrices and bioengineered tools for tumoroid generation. Biofabrication 2024; 16:022004. [PMID: 38306665 DOI: 10.1088/1758-5090/ad2534] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2023] [Accepted: 02/01/2024] [Indexed: 02/04/2024]
Abstract
The tumor microenvironment (TME) is critical for tumor growth and metastasis. The TME contains cancer-associated cells, tumor matrix, and tumor secretory factors. The fabrication of artificial tumors, so-called tumoroids, is of great significance for the understanding of tumorigenesis and clinical cancer therapy. The assembly of multiple tumor cells and matrix components through interdisciplinary techniques is necessary for the preparation of various tumoroids. This article discusses current methods for constructing tumoroids (tumor tissue slices and tumor cell co-culture) for pre-clinical use. This article focuses on the artificial matrix materials (natural and synthetic materials) and biofabrication techniques (cell assembly, bioengineered tools, bioprinting, and microfluidic devices) used in tumoroids. This article also points out the shortcomings of current tumoroids and potential solutions. This article aims to promotes the next-generation tumoroids and the potential of them in basic research and clinical application.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yung-Chiang Liu
- Oujiang Laboratory; Key Laboratory of Alzheimer's Disease of Zhejiang Province, Institute of Aging, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang 325024, People's Republic of China
| | - Ping Chen
- Cancer Centre, Faculty of Health Sciences, MOE Frontier Science Centre for Precision Oncology, University of Macau, Macau SAR 999078, People's Republic of China
- Department of Oncology, The Affiliated Hospital of Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, Sichuan 646000, People's Republic of China
| | - Ray Chang
- Oujiang Laboratory; Key Laboratory of Alzheimer's Disease of Zhejiang Province, Institute of Aging, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang 325024, People's Republic of China
| | - Xingjian Liu
- Oujiang Laboratory; Key Laboratory of Alzheimer's Disease of Zhejiang Province, Institute of Aging, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang 325024, People's Republic of China
| | - Jhe-Wei Jhang
- Oujiang Laboratory; Key Laboratory of Alzheimer's Disease of Zhejiang Province, Institute of Aging, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang 325024, People's Republic of China
| | - Myagmartsend Enkhbat
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Waterloo, 200 University Avenue West, Waterloo, ON N2L 3G1, Canada
| | - Shan Chen
- Oujiang Laboratory; Key Laboratory of Alzheimer's Disease of Zhejiang Province, Institute of Aging, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang 325024, People's Republic of China
| | - Hongxia Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Oncogenes and Related Genes, Department of Oncology, Shanghai General Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, People's Republic of China
| | - Chuxia Deng
- Cancer Centre, Faculty of Health Sciences, MOE Frontier Science Centre for Precision Oncology, University of Macau, Macau SAR 999078, People's Republic of China
| | - Peng-Yuan Wang
- Oujiang Laboratory; Key Laboratory of Alzheimer's Disease of Zhejiang Province, Institute of Aging, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang 325024, People's Republic of China
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Ma X, Wang Q, Li G, Li H, Xu S, Pang D. Cancer organoids: A platform in basic and translational research. Genes Dis 2024; 11:614-632. [PMID: 37692477 PMCID: PMC10491878 DOI: 10.1016/j.gendis.2023.02.052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2022] [Accepted: 02/16/2023] [Indexed: 09/12/2023] Open
Abstract
An accumulation of previous work has established organoids as good preclinical models of human tumors, facilitating translation from basic research to clinical practice. They are changing the paradigm of preclinical cancer research because they can recapitulate the heterogeneity and pathophysiology of human cancers and more closely approximate the complex tissue environment and structure found in clinical tumors than in vitro cell lines and animal models. However, the potential applications of cancer organoids remain to be comprehensively summarized. In the review, we firstly describe what is currently known about cancer organoid culture and then discuss in depth the basic mechanisms, including tumorigenesis and tumor metastasis, and describe recent advances in patient-derived tumor organoids (PDOs) for drug screening and immunological studies. Finally, the present challenges faced by organoid technology in clinical practice and its prospects are discussed. This review highlights that organoids may offer a novel therapeutic strategy for cancer research.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Xin Ma
- Department of Breast Surgery, Harbin Medical University Cancer Hospital, Harbin, Heilongjiang 150081, China
| | - Qin Wang
- Sino-Russian Medical Research Center, Harbin Medical University Cancer Hospital, Harbin, Heilongjiang 150081, China
- Heilongjiang Academy of Medical Sciences, Harbin, Heilongjiang 150086, China
- Department of Pharmacology (The State-Province Key Laboratories of Biomedicine-Pharmaceutics of China), College of Pharmacy of Harbin Medical University, Harbin, Heilongjiang 150086, China
| | - Guozheng Li
- Department of Breast Surgery, Harbin Medical University Cancer Hospital, Harbin, Heilongjiang 150081, China
| | - Hui Li
- Department of Breast Surgery, Harbin Medical University Cancer Hospital, Harbin, Heilongjiang 150081, China
| | - Shouping Xu
- Department of Breast Surgery, Harbin Medical University Cancer Hospital, Harbin, Heilongjiang 150081, China
- Heilongjiang Academy of Medical Sciences, Harbin, Heilongjiang 150086, China
| | - Da Pang
- Department of Breast Surgery, Harbin Medical University Cancer Hospital, Harbin, Heilongjiang 150081, China
- Sino-Russian Medical Research Center, Harbin Medical University Cancer Hospital, Harbin, Heilongjiang 150081, China
- Heilongjiang Academy of Medical Sciences, Harbin, Heilongjiang 150086, China
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
Ravi K, Manoharan TJM, Wang KC, Pockaj B, Nikkhah M. Engineered 3D ex vivo models to recapitulate the complex stromal and immune interactions within the tumor microenvironment. Biomaterials 2024; 305:122428. [PMID: 38147743 PMCID: PMC11098715 DOI: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2023.122428] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2023] [Revised: 12/04/2023] [Accepted: 12/08/2023] [Indexed: 12/28/2023]
Abstract
Cancer thrives in a complex environment where interactions between cellular and acellular components, surrounding the tumor, play a crucial role in disease development and progression. Despite significant progress in cancer research, the mechanism driving tumor growth and therapeutic outcomes remains elusive. Two-dimensional (2D) cell culture assays and in vivo animal models are commonly used in cancer research and therapeutic testing. However, these models suffer from numerous shortcomings including lack of key features of the tumor microenvironment (TME) & cellular composition, cost, and ethical clearance. To that end, there is an increased interest in incorporating and elucidating the influence of TME on cancer progression. Advancements in 3D-engineered ex vivo models, leveraging biomaterials and microengineering technologies, have provided an unprecedented ability to reconstruct native-like bioengineered cancer models to study the heterotypic interactions of TME with a spatiotemporal organization. These bioengineered cancer models have shown excellent capabilities to bridge the gap between oversimplified 2D systems and animal models. In this review article, we primarily provide an overview of the immune and stromal cellular components of the TME and then discuss the latest state-of-the-art 3D-engineered ex vivo platforms aiming to recapitulate the complex TME features. The engineered TME model, discussed herein, are categorized into three main sections according to the cellular interactions within TME: (i) Tumor-Stromal interactions, (ii) Tumor-Immune interactions, and (iii) Complex TME interactions. Finally, we will conclude the article with a perspective on how these models can be instrumental for cancer translational studies and therapeutic testing.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kalpana Ravi
- School of Biological and Health Systems Engineering (SBHSE), Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, 85287, USA
| | | | - Kuei-Chun Wang
- School of Biological and Health Systems Engineering (SBHSE), Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, 85287, USA
| | | | - Mehdi Nikkhah
- School of Biological and Health Systems Engineering (SBHSE), Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, 85287, USA; Biodesign Virginia G. Piper Center for Personalized Diagnostics, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, 85287, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
17
|
Gu Z, Wu Q, Shang B, Zhang K, Zhang W. Organoid co-culture models of the tumor microenvironment promote precision medicine. CANCER INNOVATION 2024; 3:e101. [PMID: 38948532 PMCID: PMC11212345 DOI: 10.1002/cai2.101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2023] [Revised: 09/11/2023] [Accepted: 09/13/2023] [Indexed: 07/02/2024]
Abstract
In recent years, the three-dimensional (3D) culture system has emerged as a promising preclinical model for tumor research owing to its ability to replicate the tissue structure and molecular characteristics of solid tumors in vivo. This system offers several advantages, including high throughput, efficiency, and retention of tumor heterogeneity. Traditional Matrigel-submerged organoid cultures primarily support the long-term proliferation of epithelial cells. One solution for the exploration of the tumor microenvironment is a reconstitution approach involving the introduction of exogenous cell types, either in dual, triple or even multiple combinations. Another solution is a holistic approach including patient-derived tumor fragments, air-liquid interface, suspension 3D culture, and microfluidic tumor-on-chip models. Organoid co-culture models have also gained popularity for studying the tumor microenvironment, evaluating tumor immunotherapy, identifying predictive biomarkers, screening for effective drugs, and modeling infections. By leveraging these 3D culture systems, it is hoped to advance the clinical application of therapeutic approaches and improve patient outcomes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Zhaoru Gu
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Oncology, Department of Etiology and Carcinogenesis, National Cancer Center, National Clinical Research Center for Cancer, Cancer HospitalChinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical CollegeBeijingChina
| | - Quanyou Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Oncology, Department of Etiology and Carcinogenesis, National Cancer Center, National Clinical Research Center for Cancer, Cancer HospitalChinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical CollegeBeijingChina
| | - Bingqing Shang
- Department of Urology, National Cancer Center, National Clinical Research Center for Cancer, Cancer HospitalChinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical CollegeBeijingChina
| | - Kaitai Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Oncology, Department of Etiology and Carcinogenesis, National Cancer Center, National Clinical Research Center for Cancer, Cancer HospitalChinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical CollegeBeijingChina
| | - Wen Zhang
- Department of Immunology, National Cancer Center, National Clinical Research Center for Cancer, Cancer HospitalChinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical CollegeBeijingChina
| |
Collapse
|
18
|
Mai S, Inkielewicz-Stepniak I. Graphene Oxide Nanoparticles and Organoids: A Prospective Advanced Model for Pancreatic Cancer Research. Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25:1066. [PMID: 38256139 PMCID: PMC10817028 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25021066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2023] [Revised: 01/02/2024] [Accepted: 01/04/2024] [Indexed: 01/24/2024] Open
Abstract
Pancreatic cancer, notorious for its grim 10% five-year survival rate, poses significant clinical challenges, largely due to late-stage diagnosis and limited therapeutic options. This review delves into the generation of organoids, including those derived from resected tissues, biopsies, pluripotent stem cells, and adult stem cells, as well as the advancements in 3D printing. It explores the complexities of the tumor microenvironment, emphasizing culture media, the integration of non-neoplastic cells, and angiogenesis. Additionally, the review examines the multifaceted properties of graphene oxide (GO), such as its mechanical, thermal, electrical, chemical, and optical attributes, and their implications in cancer diagnostics and therapeutics. GO's unique properties facilitate its interaction with tumors, allowing targeted drug delivery and enhanced imaging for early detection and treatment. The integration of GO with 3D cultured organoid systems, particularly in pancreatic cancer research, is critically analyzed, highlighting current limitations and future potential. This innovative approach has the promise to transform personalized medicine, improve drug screening efficiency, and aid biomarker discovery in this aggressive disease. Through this review, we offer a balanced perspective on the advancements and future prospects in pancreatic cancer research, harnessing the potential of organoids and GO.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Iwona Inkielewicz-Stepniak
- Department of Pharmaceutical Pathophysiology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Medical University of Gdańsk, 80-210 Gdańsk, Poland;
| |
Collapse
|
19
|
Rassomakhina NV, Ryazanova AY, Likhov AR, Bruskin SA, Maloshenok LG, Zherdeva VV. Tumor Organoids: The Era of Personalized Medicine. BIOCHEMISTRY. BIOKHIMIIA 2024; 89:S127-S147. [PMID: 38621748 DOI: 10.1134/s0006297924140086] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2023] [Revised: 11/01/2023] [Accepted: 11/09/2023] [Indexed: 04/17/2024]
Abstract
The strategies of future medicine are aimed to modernize and integrate quality approaches including early molecular-genetic profiling, identification of new therapeutic targets and adapting design for clinical trials, personalized drug screening (PDS) to help predict and individualize patient treatment regimens. In the past decade, organoid models have emerged as an innovative in vitro platform with the potential to realize the concept of patient-centered medicine. Organoids are spatially restricted three-dimensional clusters of cells ex vivo that self-organize into complex functional structures through genetically programmed determination, which is crucial for reconstructing the architecture of the primary tissue and organs. Currently, there are several strategies to create three-dimensional (3D) tumor systems using (i) surgically resected patient tissue (PDTOs, patient-derived tumor organoids) or (ii) single tumor cells circulating in the patient's blood. Successful application of 3D tumor models obtained by co-culturing autologous tumor organoids (PDTOs) and peripheral blood lymphocytes have been demonstrated in a number of studies. Such models simulate a 3D tumor architecture in vivo and contain all cell types characteristic of this tissue, including immune system cells and stem cells. Components of the tumor microenvironment, such as fibroblasts and immune system cells, affect tumor growth and its drug resistance. In this review, we analyzed the evolution of tumor models from two-dimensional (2D) cell cultures and laboratory animals to 3D tissue-specific tumor organoids, their significance in identifying mechanisms of antitumor response and drug resistance, and use of these models in drug screening and development of precision methods in cancer treatment.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Natalia V Rassomakhina
- Bach Institute of Biochemistry, Federal Research Center of Biotechnology, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, 119071, Russia
| | - Alexandra Yu Ryazanova
- Bach Institute of Biochemistry, Federal Research Center of Biotechnology, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, 119071, Russia
| | - Astemir R Likhov
- Bach Institute of Biochemistry, Federal Research Center of Biotechnology, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, 119071, Russia
| | - Sergey A Bruskin
- Bach Institute of Biochemistry, Federal Research Center of Biotechnology, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, 119071, Russia
- Vavilov Institute of General Genetics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, 119991, Russia
| | - Liliya G Maloshenok
- Bach Institute of Biochemistry, Federal Research Center of Biotechnology, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, 119071, Russia
- Vavilov Institute of General Genetics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, 119991, Russia
| | - Victoria V Zherdeva
- Bach Institute of Biochemistry, Federal Research Center of Biotechnology, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, 119071, Russia.
| |
Collapse
|
20
|
Kyun ML, Park T, Jung H, Kim I, Kwon JI, Jeong SY, Choi M, Park D, Lee YB, Moon KS. Development of an In Vitro Model for Inflammation Mediated Renal Toxicity Using 3D Renal Tubules and Co-Cultured Human Immune Cells. Tissue Eng Regen Med 2023; 20:1173-1190. [PMID: 37843784 PMCID: PMC10645777 DOI: 10.1007/s13770-023-00602-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2023] [Revised: 09/19/2023] [Accepted: 09/24/2023] [Indexed: 10/17/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The emergence of various infectious diseases and the toxic effects of hyperinflammation by biotherapeutics have highlighted the need for in vitro preclinical models mimicking the human immune system. In vitro models studying the relationship between hyperinflammation and acute renal injury mainly rely on 2D culture systems, which have shown limitations in recapitulating kidney function. Herein, we developed an in vitro kidney toxicity model by co-culturing 3D engineered kidney proximal tubules cells (RPTEC/TERT1) with human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC). METHODS RPTEC/TERT1 were sandwich cultured to form 3D renal tubules for 16 days. The tubules were then co-cultured with PBMC using transwell (0.4 μm pores) for 24 h. Hyperinflammation of PBMC was induced during co-culture using polyinosinic-polycytidylic acid (polyI:C) and lipopolysaccharide (LPS) to investigate the effects of the induced hyperinflammation on the renal tubules. RESULTS Encapsulated RPTEC/TERT1 cells in Matrigel exhibited elevated renal function markers compared to 2D culture. The coexistence of PBMC and polyI:C induced a strong inflammatory response in the kidney cells. This hyperinflammation significantly reduced primary cilia formation and upregulated kidney injury markers along the 3D tubules. Similarly, treating co-cultured PBMC with LPS to induce hyperinflammation resulted in comparable inflammatory responses and potential kidney injury. CONCLUSION The model demonstrated similar changes in kidney injury markers following polyI:C and LPS treatment, indicating its suitability for detecting immune-associated kidney damage resulting from infections and biopharmaceutical applications.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mi-Lang Kyun
- Department of Advanced Toxicology Research, Korea Institute of Toxicology, Daejeon, 34114, Republic of Korea
| | - Tamina Park
- Department of Predictive Toxicology, Korea Institute of Toxicology, Daejeon, 34114, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyewon Jung
- Department of Advanced Toxicology Research, Korea Institute of Toxicology, Daejeon, 34114, Republic of Korea
| | - Inhye Kim
- Department of Advanced Toxicology Research, Korea Institute of Toxicology, Daejeon, 34114, Republic of Korea
| | - Ji-In Kwon
- Department of Advanced Toxicology Research, Korea Institute of Toxicology, Daejeon, 34114, Republic of Korea
| | - Seo Yule Jeong
- Department of Advanced Toxicology Research, Korea Institute of Toxicology, Daejeon, 34114, Republic of Korea
| | - Myeongjin Choi
- Department of Advanced Toxicology Research, Korea Institute of Toxicology, Daejeon, 34114, Republic of Korea
| | - Daeui Park
- Department of Predictive Toxicology, Korea Institute of Toxicology, Daejeon, 34114, Republic of Korea
| | - Yu Bin Lee
- Department of Advanced Toxicology Research, Korea Institute of Toxicology, Daejeon, 34114, Republic of Korea.
| | - Kyoung-Sik Moon
- Department of Advanced Toxicology Research, Korea Institute of Toxicology, Daejeon, 34114, Republic of Korea.
| |
Collapse
|
21
|
Alzamami A. Implications of single-cell immune landscape of tumor microenvironment for the colorectal cancer diagnostics and therapy. Med Oncol 2023; 40:352. [PMID: 37950801 DOI: 10.1007/s12032-023-02226-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2023] [Accepted: 10/18/2023] [Indexed: 11/13/2023]
Abstract
Colorectal cancer (CRC) originates from the polyps lining the colon and is among the most common types of cancer. With the increasing popularity of single-cell sequencing technologies, researchers have been able to better understand the immune landscape of colorectal cancer, by analyzing their expression and interactions in detail with the tumor microenvironment (TME) at single-cell level. Since the tumor-immune cell interactions play a critical part in the advancement as well as treatment response in colorectal cancer, the release of inhibitory factors such as T cells are important for recognizing and destroying cancer cells. Such information is vital to identify immunotherapeutic targets for cure and monitoring response to treatments. Therefore, a comprehensive single-cell studies-based overview of key immunogenic agents regulating the TME of CRC is provided in this review. Tumor-associated macrophages can promote tumor growth and resistance to treatment by releasing factors that inhibit the function of other immune cells. Additionally, colorectal cancer cells can express programmed cell death protein 1 and its ligand, which can also inhibit T-cell function. Researchers have found that certain types of immune cells, prominently T cells, natural killer, and dendritic cells, can have a positive impact on the prognosis of colorectal cancer patients. Treatments like immune checkpoint inhibitors and CAR-T therapies that help to release the inhibitory signals from the cancer cells allow the immune cells to function more effectively.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ahmad Alzamami
- Clinical Laboratory Science Department, College of Applied Medical Sciences, Shaqra University, 11961, Al-Quwayiyah, Saudi Arabia.
| |
Collapse
|
22
|
Tian H, Ren J, Mou R, Jia Y. Application of organoids in precision immunotherapy of lung cancer (Review). Oncol Lett 2023; 26:484. [PMID: 37818130 PMCID: PMC10561155 DOI: 10.3892/ol.2023.14071] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2023] [Accepted: 08/18/2023] [Indexed: 10/12/2023] Open
Abstract
In immunotherapy, the immune system is modulated in order to treat cancer. Traditional two dimensional in vitro models and in vivo animal models are insufficient to simulate the complex tumor microenvironment (TME) in the original tumor. As tumor immunotherapy involves the immune system, additional tumor mimic models, such as patient-derived organoids, are required for the evaluation of the efficacy of immunotherapy. Furthermore, non-tumor components and host tumor cells in the TME may interact to promote cancer incidence, progression, drug resistance and metastasis. It is possible to produce organoid models for lung cancer by retaining endogenous stromal components (e.g., multiple immune cell types), supplying cancer-associated fibroblasts and exogenous immune cells, constructing tumor vasculature and adding other biological or chemical components that emulate the TME. Therefore, the lung cancer organoid culture platform may facilitate preclinical testing of immunotherapy drugs for lung cancer by mimicking immunotherapy responses. The present review summarizes current lung cancer organoid culture methods for TME modeling and discusses the use of lung cancer-derived organoids for the detection of lung cancer immunotherapy and individualized cancer immunotherapy.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Huichuan Tian
- Department of Medical Oncology, The First Teaching Hospital of Tianjin University of Chinese Medicine, Tianjin 300381, P.R. China
- National Clinical Research Center of Chinese Acupuncture and Moxibustion, Tianjin 300381, P.R. China
| | - Jiajun Ren
- Department of Medical Oncology, The First Teaching Hospital of Tianjin University of Chinese Medicine, Tianjin 300381, P.R. China
- National Clinical Research Center of Chinese Acupuncture and Moxibustion, Tianjin 300381, P.R. China
| | - Ruiyu Mou
- Department of Medical Oncology, The First Teaching Hospital of Tianjin University of Chinese Medicine, Tianjin 300381, P.R. China
- National Clinical Research Center of Chinese Acupuncture and Moxibustion, Tianjin 300381, P.R. China
| | - Yingjie Jia
- Department of Medical Oncology, The First Teaching Hospital of Tianjin University of Chinese Medicine, Tianjin 300381, P.R. China
- National Clinical Research Center of Chinese Acupuncture and Moxibustion, Tianjin 300381, P.R. China
| |
Collapse
|
23
|
Travelli C, Colombo G, Aliotta M, Fagiani F, Fava N, De Sanctis R, Grolla AA, Garcia JGN, Clemente N, Portararo P, Costanza M, Condorelli F, Colombo MP, Sangaletti S, Genazzani AA. Extracellular nicotinamide phosphoribosyltransferase (eNAMPT) neutralization counteracts T cell immune evasion in breast cancer. J Immunother Cancer 2023; 11:e007010. [PMID: 37880182 PMCID: PMC10603332 DOI: 10.1136/jitc-2023-007010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 10/04/2023] [Indexed: 10/27/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Nicotinamide phosphoribosyltransferase (NAMPT) is a key intracellular enzyme that participates in nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) homeostasis as well as a released cytokine (eNAMPT) that is elevated in inflammatory conditions and in cancer. In patients with breast cancer, circulating eNAMPT is elevated and its plasma levels correlate with prognosis and staging. In light of this, we investigated the contribution of eNAMPT in triple negative mammary carcinoma progression by investigating the effect of its neutralization via a specific neutralizing monoclonal antibody (C269). METHODS We used female BALB/c mice injected with 4T1 clone 5 cells and female C57BL6 injected with EO771 cells, evaluating tumoral size, spleen weight and number of metastases. We injected two times a week the anti-eNAMPT neutralizing antibody and we sacrificed the mice after 28 days. Harvested tumors were analyzed by histopathology, flow cytometry, western blot, immunohistochemistry, immunofluorescence and RNA sequencing to define tumor characteristics (isolating tumor infiltrating lymphocytes and tumoral cells) and to investigate the molecular mechanisms behind the observed phenotype. Moreover, we dissected the functional relationship between T cells and tumoral cells using three-dimensional (3D) co-cultures. RESULTS The neutralization of eNAMPT with C269 led to decreased tumor size and reduced number of lung metastases. RNA sequencing and functional assays showed that eNAMPT controlled T-cell response via the programmed death-ligand 1/programmed cell death protein 1 (PD-L1/PD-1) axis and its neutralization led to a restoration of antitumoral immune responses. In particular, eNAMPT neutralization was able to activate CD8+IFNγ+GrzB+ T cells, reducing the immunosuppressive phenotype of T regulatory cells. CONCLUSIONS These studies indicate for the first time eNAMPT as a novel immunotherapeutic target for triple negative breast cancer.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Cristina Travelli
- Department of Drug Sciences, Università degli Studi di Pavia, Pavia, Italy
| | - Giorgia Colombo
- Department of Pharmaceutical Science, University of Eastern Piedmont, Novara, Italy
| | - Martina Aliotta
- Department of Drug Sciences, Università degli Studi di Pavia, Pavia, Italy
| | - Francesca Fagiani
- Department of Drug Sciences, Università degli Studi di Pavia, Pavia, Italy
| | - Natalia Fava
- Department of Drug Sciences, Università degli Studi di Pavia, Pavia, Italy
| | - Rita De Sanctis
- Department of Medical Oncology and Hematology Unit, IRCCS Humanitas Research Hospital, Rozzano, Italy
| | - Ambra A Grolla
- Department of Pharmaceutical Science, University of Eastern Piedmont, Novara, Italy
| | - Joe G N Garcia
- Department of Medicine, University of Arizona Health Sciences, Tucson, Arizona, USA
| | - Nausicaa Clemente
- Dipartimento di Scienze della Salute, Interdisciplinary Research Center of Autoimmune Diseases-IRCAD, Università del Piemonte Orientale, Novara, Italy
| | - Paola Portararo
- Molecular Immunology Unit, Department of Research, Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Nazionale dei Tumori di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | - Massimo Costanza
- Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Istituto Nazionale Neurologico Carlo Besta, Milan, Italy
| | - Fabrizio Condorelli
- Department of Pharmaceutical Science, University of Eastern Piedmont, Novara, Italy
| | - Mario Paolo Colombo
- Molecular Immunology Unit, Department of Research, Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Nazionale dei Tumori di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | - Sabina Sangaletti
- Molecular Immunology Unit, Department of Research, Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Nazionale dei Tumori di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | - Armando A Genazzani
- Department of Pharmaceutical Science, University of Eastern Piedmont, Novara, Italy
| |
Collapse
|
24
|
Xie Y, Pan R, Wu S, Yang X, Chen F, Sun W, Yu L. Cell repelling agar@paper interface assisted probing of the tumor spheroids infiltrating natural killer cells. BIOMATERIALS ADVANCES 2023; 153:213507. [PMID: 37354744 DOI: 10.1016/j.bioadv.2023.213507] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2023] [Revised: 06/03/2023] [Accepted: 06/07/2023] [Indexed: 06/26/2023]
Abstract
Scaffold-based culture is one of the effective methods to resemble three-dimensional (3D) cells model in vitro. An agar@lens paper hybrid scaffold was prepared by one-pot dip-coating. The lens paper's cellulose fiber networks are the scaffold's backbone. The agar gel seized the gaps between the fibrous structures that can improve the paper scaffold's optical transparency and prevent cells from spreading on the scaffold. The SEM and light microscope images showed that the agar gel on the bottom of the paper and the cellulose fiber of the paper formed micro-well structures. Without staining, the cells growing on the agar@paper scaffold can be directly observed under a light microscope. Cells aggregated between the cellulose fibers and formed spheroids within 24 h. The cell spheroids can be non-enzymatically retrieved from the agar@paper scaffold because of the cell-repelling property of agar. The agar@paper scaffold was applied for co-culturing tumor cells (MDA-MB-231, DU 145) and natural killer cells (NKs, NK-92). Using the agar@paper scaffolds, the tumor-infiltrating NKs can be separated from floating NKs that did not attack the tumor spheroids. The effect of NKs infiltrating on tumor spheroids size was characterized. The results showed that NKs attacking the spheroids grown on agar@paper scaffold can be readily tracked because of the improved optical transparency. Higher NKs: tumor cells ratio resulted in a high percentage of tumor infiltrating NKs. The separated NKs can be further tested to reveal their biological characteristics. Both agar and lens paper is accessible for most biological labs, highlighting the potential of agar@paper scaffold in 3D culture.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yuanyuan Xie
- Key Laboratory of Luminescence Analysis and Molecular Sensing, Ministry of Education, Institute for Clean Energy and Advanced Materials, School of Materials and Energy, Southwest University, Chongqing 400715, PR China
| | - Rong Pan
- Key Laboratory of Luminescence Analysis and Molecular Sensing, Ministry of Education, Institute for Clean Energy and Advanced Materials, School of Materials and Energy, Southwest University, Chongqing 400715, PR China
| | - Shiming Wu
- Key Laboratory of Luminescence Analysis and Molecular Sensing, Ministry of Education, Institute for Clean Energy and Advanced Materials, School of Materials and Energy, Southwest University, Chongqing 400715, PR China
| | - Xiaoyan Yang
- Key Laboratory of Luminescence Analysis and Molecular Sensing, Ministry of Education, Institute for Clean Energy and Advanced Materials, School of Materials and Energy, Southwest University, Chongqing 400715, PR China
| | - Feng Chen
- Key Laboratory of Luminescence Analysis and Molecular Sensing, Ministry of Education, Institute for Clean Energy and Advanced Materials, School of Materials and Energy, Southwest University, Chongqing 400715, PR China
| | - Wei Sun
- College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Hainan Normal University, Haikou 571158, PR China
| | - Ling Yu
- Key Laboratory of Luminescence Analysis and Molecular Sensing, Ministry of Education, Institute for Clean Energy and Advanced Materials, School of Materials and Energy, Southwest University, Chongqing 400715, PR China.
| |
Collapse
|
25
|
van Rijt A, Stefanek E, Valente K. Preclinical Testing Techniques: Paving the Way for New Oncology Screening Approaches. Cancers (Basel) 2023; 15:4466. [PMID: 37760435 PMCID: PMC10526899 DOI: 10.3390/cancers15184466] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2023] [Revised: 08/24/2023] [Accepted: 08/31/2023] [Indexed: 09/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Prior to clinical trials, preclinical testing of oncology drug candidates is performed by evaluating drug candidates with in vitro and in vivo platforms. For in vivo testing, animal models are used to evaluate the toxicity and efficacy of drug candidates. However, animal models often display poor translational results as many drugs that pass preclinical testing fail when tested with humans, with oncology drugs exhibiting especially poor acceptance rates. The FDA Modernization Act 2.0 promotes alternative preclinical testing techniques, presenting the opportunity to use higher complexity in vitro models as an alternative to in vivo testing, including three-dimensional (3D) cell culture models. Three-dimensional tissue cultures address many of the shortcomings of 2D cultures by more closely replicating the tumour microenvironment through a combination of physiologically relevant drug diffusion, paracrine signalling, cellular phenotype, and vascularization that can better mimic native human tissue. This review will discuss the common forms of 3D cell culture, including cell spheroids, organoids, organs-on-a-chip, and 3D bioprinted tissues. Their advantages and limitations will be presented, aiming to discuss the use of these 3D models to accurately represent human tissue and as an alternative to animal testing. The use of 3D culture platforms for preclinical drug development is expected to accelerate as these platforms continue to improve in complexity, reliability, and translational predictivity.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Antonia van Rijt
- Biomedical Engineering Program, University of Victoria, Victoria, BC V8P 5C2, Canada;
| | - Evan Stefanek
- VoxCell BioInnovation Inc., Victoria, BC V8T 5L2, Canada;
| | - Karolina Valente
- Biomedical Engineering Program, University of Victoria, Victoria, BC V8P 5C2, Canada;
| |
Collapse
|
26
|
Bagus BI. Autologous natural killer cells as a promising immunotherapy for locally advanced colon adenocarcinoma: Three years follow-up of resectable case. Cancer Rep (Hoboken) 2023; 6:e1866. [PMID: 37439389 PMCID: PMC10480413 DOI: 10.1002/cnr2.1866] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2023] [Revised: 06/20/2023] [Accepted: 06/30/2023] [Indexed: 07/14/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Over the last decade, a new modality of immunotherapy has been announced, with the expectation of better long-term clinical outcomes and disease-free survival after the definitive surgical treatment of colon cancer. Natural killer (NK) cells as part of cellular therapy in immunotherapy have the potential effect as an adjuvant therapy for locally advanced and metastasized colorectal adenocarcinoma. We would evaluate the clinical outcome of autologous NK cell therapy for resectable colon cancer. CASE A 64-year-old woman presented with a transverse colon tumor-related partial intestinal obstruction and a history of bloody diarrhea. A transverse colectomy has been done, and the pathology report reported adenocarcinoma of the transverse colon and positive lymph node involvement (TNM stage III). The patient had R0 resection status. A PET scan was done 6 months later, with positive lymph node glucose uptake at mesocolic. NK cell therapy was administered for 2 cycles with a 3-month interval, and PET scan follow-up was done 3 years after resection; no more glucose uptake was found, and the patients tolerated the therapy well with no immune-related adverse effects reported. CONCLUSION As a new modality in immunotherapy strategies for locally advanced colon adenocarcinoma, particularly in cases unsuitable for standard chemotherapeutic treatment, autologous NK cells have a promising effect and are feasible and well tolerated in our clinical practice.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Budhi Ida Bagus
- Department of SurgerySebelas Maret UniversitySurakartaIndonesia
| |
Collapse
|
27
|
Han N, Liu Z. Targeting alternative splicing in cancer immunotherapy. Front Cell Dev Biol 2023; 11:1232146. [PMID: 37635865 PMCID: PMC10450511 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2023.1232146] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2023] [Accepted: 08/01/2023] [Indexed: 08/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Tumor immunotherapy has made great progress in cancer treatment but still faces several challenges, such as a limited number of targetable antigens and varying responses among patients. Alternative splicing (AS) is an essential process for the maturation of nearly all mammalian mRNAs. Recent studies show that AS contributes to expanding cancer-specific antigens and modulating immunogenicity, making it a promising solution to the above challenges. The organoid technology preserves the individual immune microenvironment and reduces the time/economic costs of the experiment model, facilitating the development of splicing-based immunotherapy. Here, we summarize three critical roles of AS in immunotherapy: resources for generating neoantigens, targets for immune-therapeutic modulation, and biomarkers to guide immunotherapy options. Subsequently, we highlight the benefits of adopting organoids to develop AS-based immunotherapies. Finally, we discuss the current challenges in studying AS-based immunotherapy in terms of existing bioinformatics algorithms and biological technologies.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Nan Han
- Chinese Academy of Sciences Key Laboratory of Genomic and Precision Medicine, Beijing Institute of Genomics, Chinese Academy of Sciences and China National Center for Bioinformation, Beijing, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Zhaoqi Liu
- Chinese Academy of Sciences Key Laboratory of Genomic and Precision Medicine, Beijing Institute of Genomics, Chinese Academy of Sciences and China National Center for Bioinformation, Beijing, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| |
Collapse
|
28
|
Liu J, Ye L, Lin K, Zhong T, Luo J, Wang T, Suo L, Mo Q, Li S, Chen Q, Yu Y. miR-4299 inhibits tumor progression in pancreatic cancer through targeting ADAM17. Mol Cell Biochem 2023; 478:1727-1742. [PMID: 36565360 DOI: 10.1007/s11010-022-04617-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2021] [Accepted: 11/18/2022] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Pancreatic cancer (PC) is one of the most aggressive malignant tumors in human beings. Tumor capacity of evading immune-mediated lysis is a critical step in PC malignant progression. We aimed to evaluate the underlying regulatory mechanism of miR-4299 in the proliferation, metastasis, apoptosis, and immune escape in PC. miR-4299 and ADAM17 expressions in PC tissues and cell lines were detected using qRT-PCR. MTT assay and flow cytometry were used to detect cell viability and apoptosis, respectively. A luciferase reporter gene assay was conducted to confirm the targeted relationship between miR-4299 and ADAM17. Xenograft tumors in nude mice were used to detect tumorigenesis in vivo. PC cells were co-cultured with NK cells for determining the immune escape ability. NKG2D-positive rate of NK cells was detected using flow cytometry; NK cell-killing ability was detected using MTT assay. miR-4299 was downregulated in PC tissues and cell lines. miR-4299 inhibited PC cell proliferation and invasion, promoted cell apoptosis, and reduced PC tumor growth in vivo. ADAM17 3'UTR directly bound to miR-4299. ADAM17 overexpression could reverse miR-4299 effects on PC cell viability, invasion, apoptosis, and immune escape. miR-4299 exerted suppressive effects on PC cell proliferation, invasion, and immune escape via targeting ADAM17 expression. This study revealed a novel miR-4299/ADAM17 axis-modulating PC progression and proposed to concern the immune regulatory mechanism of miRNAs in PC development.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Junhong Liu
- Department of Hepatobiliary and Pancreatic Surgery, Affiliated Hospital of Guilin Medical University, Guilin, 541002, China
| | - Lin Ye
- Department of Hepatobiliary and Pancreatic Surgery, Affiliated Hospital of Guilin Medical University, Guilin, 541002, China
| | - Kangqiang Lin
- Department of Hepatobiliary and Pancreatic Surgery, Affiliated Hospital of Guilin Medical University, Guilin, 541002, China
| | - Tieshan Zhong
- Department of Hepatobiliary and Pancreatic Surgery, Affiliated Hospital of Guilin Medical University, Guilin, 541002, China
| | - Jiguang Luo
- Department of Hepatobiliary and Pancreatic Surgery, Affiliated Hospital of Guilin Medical University, Guilin, 541002, China
| | - Tao Wang
- Department of Hepatobiliary and Pancreatic Surgery, Affiliated Hospital of Guilin Medical University, Guilin, 541002, China
| | - Liya Suo
- Department of Hepatobiliary and Pancreatic Surgery, Affiliated Hospital of Guilin Medical University, Guilin, 541002, China
| | - Qingrong Mo
- Department of Hepatobiliary and Pancreatic Surgery, Affiliated Hospital of Guilin Medical University, Guilin, 541002, China
| | - Shuqun Li
- Department of Hepatobiliary and Pancreatic Surgery, Affiliated Hospital of Guilin Medical University, Guilin, 541002, China
| | - Qian Chen
- Department of Hepatobiliary and Pancreatic Surgery, Affiliated Hospital of Guilin Medical University, Guilin, 541002, China
| | - Yaqun Yu
- Department of Hepatobiliary and Pancreatic Surgery, Affiliated Hospital of Guilin Medical University, Guilin, 541002, China.
- Guangxi Key Laboratory of Molecular Medicine in Liver Injury and Repair, The Affiliated Hospital of Guilin Medical University, Guilin, 541001, Guangxi, China.
| |
Collapse
|
29
|
Plava J, Cehakova M, Kuniakova M, Trnkova L, Cihova M, Bohac M, Danisovic L. The third dimension of tumor microenvironment-The importance of tumor stroma in 3D cancer models. Exp Biol Med (Maywood) 2023; 248:1347-1358. [PMID: 37750028 PMCID: PMC10625342 DOI: 10.1177/15353702231198050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Recent advances in the three-dimensional (3D) cancer models give rise to a plethora of new possibilities in the development of anti-cancer drug therapies and bring us closer to personalized medicine. Three-dimensional models are undoubtedly more authentic than traditional two-dimensional (2D) cell cultures. Nowadays, they are becoming preferentially used in most cancer research fields due to their more accurate biomimetic characteristics. On the contrary, they still lack the cellular and matrix complexity of the native tumor microenvironment (TME). This review focuses on the description of existing 3D models, the incorporation of TME and fluidics into these models, and their perspective in the future research. It is clear that such an improvement would need not only biological but also technical progress. Therefore, the modern approach to anti-cancer drug discovery should involve various fields.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jana Plava
- Biomedical Research Center, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Bratislava 845 05, Slovakia
- Institute of Medical Biology, Genetics and Clinical Genetics, Faculty of Medicine, Comenius University, Bratislava 811 08, Slovakia
| | - Michaela Cehakova
- Institute of Medical Biology, Genetics and Clinical Genetics, Faculty of Medicine, Comenius University, Bratislava 811 08, Slovakia
- National Institute of Rheumatic Diseases, Piestany 921 12, Slovakia
| | - Marcela Kuniakova
- Institute of Medical Biology, Genetics and Clinical Genetics, Faculty of Medicine, Comenius University, Bratislava 811 08, Slovakia
| | - Lenka Trnkova
- Biomedical Research Center, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Bratislava 845 05, Slovakia
| | - Marina Cihova
- Biomedical Research Center, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Bratislava 845 05, Slovakia
| | - Martin Bohac
- 2nd Department of Oncology, Faculty of Medicine, Comenius University and National Cancer Institute, Bratislava 83310, Slovakia
- Department of Oncosurgery, National Cancer Institute, Bratislava 83310, Slovakia
- Regenmed Ltd., Bratislava 81108, Slovakia
| | - Lubos Danisovic
- Institute of Medical Biology, Genetics and Clinical Genetics, Faculty of Medicine, Comenius University, Bratislava 811 08, Slovakia
- National Institute of Rheumatic Diseases, Piestany 921 12, Slovakia
- Regenmed Ltd., Bratislava 81108, Slovakia
| |
Collapse
|
30
|
Urzì O, Gasparro R, Costanzo E, De Luca A, Giavaresi G, Fontana S, Alessandro R. Three-Dimensional Cell Cultures: The Bridge between In Vitro and In Vivo Models. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:12046. [PMID: 37569426 PMCID: PMC10419178 DOI: 10.3390/ijms241512046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2023] [Revised: 07/19/2023] [Accepted: 07/21/2023] [Indexed: 08/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Although historically, the traditional bidimensional in vitro cell system has been widely used in research, providing much fundamental information regarding cellular functions and signaling pathways as well as nuclear activities, the simplicity of this system does not fully reflect the heterogeneity and complexity of the in vivo systems. From this arises the need to use animals for experimental research and in vivo testing. Nevertheless, animal use in experimentation presents various aspects of complexity, such as ethical issues, which led Russell and Burch in 1959 to formulate the 3R (Replacement, Reduction, and Refinement) principle, underlying the urgent need to introduce non-animal-based methods in research. Considering this, three-dimensional (3D) models emerged in the scientific community as a bridge between in vitro and in vivo models, allowing for the achievement of cell differentiation and complexity while avoiding the use of animals in experimental research. The purpose of this review is to provide a general overview of the most common methods to establish 3D cell culture and to discuss their promising applications. Three-dimensional cell cultures have been employed as models to study both organ physiology and diseases; moreover, they represent a valuable tool for studying many aspects of cancer. Finally, the possibility of using 3D models for drug screening and regenerative medicine paves the way for the development of new therapeutic opportunities for many diseases.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ornella Urzì
- Department of Biomedicine, Neuroscience and Advanced Diagnostics (Bi.N.D), Section of Biology and Genetics, University of Palermo, 90133 Palermo, Italy; (O.U.); (R.G.); (E.C.); (R.A.)
| | - Roberta Gasparro
- Department of Biomedicine, Neuroscience and Advanced Diagnostics (Bi.N.D), Section of Biology and Genetics, University of Palermo, 90133 Palermo, Italy; (O.U.); (R.G.); (E.C.); (R.A.)
| | - Elisa Costanzo
- Department of Biomedicine, Neuroscience and Advanced Diagnostics (Bi.N.D), Section of Biology and Genetics, University of Palermo, 90133 Palermo, Italy; (O.U.); (R.G.); (E.C.); (R.A.)
| | - Angela De Luca
- IRCCS Istituto Ortopedico Rizzoli, SC Scienze e Tecnologie Chirurgiche, 40136 Bologna, Italy; (A.D.L.); (G.G.)
| | - Gianluca Giavaresi
- IRCCS Istituto Ortopedico Rizzoli, SC Scienze e Tecnologie Chirurgiche, 40136 Bologna, Italy; (A.D.L.); (G.G.)
| | - Simona Fontana
- Department of Biomedicine, Neuroscience and Advanced Diagnostics (Bi.N.D), Section of Biology and Genetics, University of Palermo, 90133 Palermo, Italy; (O.U.); (R.G.); (E.C.); (R.A.)
| | - Riccardo Alessandro
- Department of Biomedicine, Neuroscience and Advanced Diagnostics (Bi.N.D), Section of Biology and Genetics, University of Palermo, 90133 Palermo, Italy; (O.U.); (R.G.); (E.C.); (R.A.)
| |
Collapse
|
31
|
Beelen NA, Aberle MR, Bruno V, Olde Damink SWM, Bos GMJ, Rensen SS, Wieten L. Antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity-inducing antibodies enhance the natural killer cell anti-cancer response against patient-derived pancreatic cancer organoids. Front Immunol 2023; 14:1133796. [PMID: 37520563 PMCID: PMC10375290 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2023.1133796] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2022] [Accepted: 06/13/2023] [Indexed: 08/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction Pancreatic cancer is associated with poor prognosis, and limited treatment options are available for the majority of patients. Natural killer (NK) cells in combination with antibodies inducing antibody-dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity (ADCC) could be a highly effective new therapeutic option in pancreatic cancer. Accurate predictive preclinical models are needed to develop successful NK cell immunotherapy. Tumor organoids, in vitro 3D organ-like structures that retain important pathophysiological characteristics of the in vivo tumor, may provide such a model. In the current study, we assessed the cytotoxic potential of adoptive NK cells against human pancreatic cancer organoids. We hypothesized that NK cell anti-tumor responses could be enhanced by including ADCC-triggering antibodies. Methods We performed cytotoxicity assays with healthy donor-derived IL-2-activated NK cells and pancreatic cancer organoids from four patients. A 3D cytotoxicity assay using live-cell-imaging was developed and enabled real-time assessment of the response. Results We show that NK cells migrate to and target pancreatic cancer organoids, resulting in an increased organoid death, compared to the no NK cell controls (reaching an average fold change from baseline of 2.1±0.8 vs 1.4±0.6). After 24-hours of co-culture, organoid 2D growth increased. Organoids from 2 out of 4 patients were sensitive to NK cells, while organoids from the other two patients were relatively resistant, indicating patient-specific heterogeneity among organoid cultures. The ADCC-inducing antibodies avelumab (anti-PD-L1) and trastuzumab (anti-HER2) increased NK cell-induced organoid cell death (reaching an average fold change from baseline of 3.5±1.0 and 4.5±1.8, respectively). Moreover, combination therapy with avelumab or trastuzumab resulted in complete disintegration of organoids. Finally, inclusion of ADCC-inducing antibodies was able to overcome resistance in NK-organoid combinations with low or no kill. Discussion These results support the use of organoids as a relevant and personalized model to study the anti-tumor response of NK cells in vitro and the potential of ADCC-inducing antibodies to enhance NK cell effector function.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Nicky A. Beelen
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Hematology, Maastricht University Medical Center+, Maastricht, Netherlands
- GROW-School for Oncology and Reproduction, Maastricht University, Maastricht, Netherlands
| | - Merel R. Aberle
- Department of Surgery and School of Nutrition and Translational Research in Metabolism (NUTRIM), School of Nutrition and Translational Research in Metabolism, Maastricht University, Maastricht, Netherlands
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, NUTRIM School of Nutrition and Translational Research in Metabolism, Maastricht University, Maastricht, Netherlands
| | - Virginia Bruno
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Hematology, Maastricht University Medical Center+, Maastricht, Netherlands
| | - Steven W. M. Olde Damink
- Department of Surgery and School of Nutrition and Translational Research in Metabolism (NUTRIM), School of Nutrition and Translational Research in Metabolism, Maastricht University, Maastricht, Netherlands
- Department of General, Visceral- and Transplantation Surgery, Rheinisch-Westfälische Technische Hochschule Aachen University, Aachen, Germany
| | - Gerard M. J. Bos
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Hematology, Maastricht University Medical Center+, Maastricht, Netherlands
- GROW-School for Oncology and Reproduction, Maastricht University, Maastricht, Netherlands
| | - Sander S. Rensen
- Department of Surgery and School of Nutrition and Translational Research in Metabolism (NUTRIM), School of Nutrition and Translational Research in Metabolism, Maastricht University, Maastricht, Netherlands
| | - Lotte Wieten
- GROW-School for Oncology and Reproduction, Maastricht University, Maastricht, Netherlands
- Department of Transplantation Immunology, Tissue Typing Laboratory, Maastricht University Medical Center+, Maastricht, Netherlands
| |
Collapse
|
32
|
Yau JNN, Adriani G. Three-dimensional heterotypic colorectal cancer spheroid models for evaluation of drug response. Front Oncol 2023; 13:1148930. [PMID: 37469395 PMCID: PMC10352797 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2023.1148930] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2023] [Accepted: 05/15/2023] [Indexed: 07/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Colorectal cancer (CRC) is a leading cause of death worldwide. Improved preclinical tumor models are needed to make treatment screening clinically relevant and address disease mortality. Advancements in 3D cell culture have enabled a greater recapitulation of the architecture and heterogeneity of the tumor microenvironment (TME). This has enhanced their pathophysiological relevance and enabled more accurate predictions of tumor progression and drug response in patients. An increasing number of 3D CRC spheroid models include cell populations such as cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs), endothelial cells (ECs), immune cells, and gut bacteria to better mimic the in vivo regulation of signaling pathways. Furthermore, cell heterogeneity within the 3D spheroid models enables the identification of new therapeutic targets to develop alternative treatments and test TME-target therapies. In this mini review, we present the advances in mimicking tumor heterogeneity in 3D CRC spheroid models by incorporating CAFs, ECs, immune cells, and gut bacteria. We introduce how, in these models, the diverse cells influence chemoresistance and tumor progression of the CRC spheroids. We also highlight important parameters evaluated during drug screening in the CRC heterocellular spheroids.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jia Ning Nicolette Yau
- Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Science, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Giulia Adriani
- Singapore Immunology Network (SIgN), Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR), Singapore, Singapore
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
| |
Collapse
|
33
|
Carannante V, Wiklund M, Önfelt B. In vitro models to study natural killer cell dynamics in the tumor microenvironment. Front Immunol 2023; 14:1135148. [PMID: 37457703 PMCID: PMC10338882 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2023.1135148] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2022] [Accepted: 06/05/2023] [Indexed: 07/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Immunotherapy is revolutionizing cancer therapy. The rapid development of new immunotherapeutic strategies to treat solid tumors is posing new challenges for preclinical research, demanding novel in vitro methods to test treatments. Such methods should meet specific requirements, such as enabling the evaluation of immune cell responses like cytotoxicity or cytokine release, and infiltration into the tumor microenvironment using cancer models representative of the original disease. They should allow high-throughput and high-content analysis, to evaluate the efficacy of treatments and understand immune-evasion processes to facilitate development of new therapeutic targets. Ideally, they should be suitable for personalized immunotherapy testing, providing information for patient stratification. Consequently, the application of in vitro 3-dimensional (3D) cell culture models, such as tumor spheroids and organoids, is rapidly expanding in the immunotherapeutic field, coupled with the development of novel imaging-based techniques and -omic analysis. In this paper, we review the recent advances in the development of in vitro 3D platforms applied to natural killer (NK) cell-based cancer immunotherapy studies, highlighting the benefits and limitations of the current methods, and discuss new concepts and future directions of the field.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Valentina Carannante
- Department of Applied Physics, Science for Life Laboratory, KTH Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Martin Wiklund
- Department of Applied Physics, Science for Life Laboratory, KTH Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Björn Önfelt
- Department of Applied Physics, Science for Life Laboratory, KTH Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden
- Center for Infectious Medicine, Department of Medicine Huddinge, Science for Life Laboratory, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| |
Collapse
|
34
|
Yi B, Fu Q, Zheng Z, Zhang M, Liu D, Liang Z, Xu S, Zhang Z. Pan-cancer analysis reveals the prognostic and immunotherapeutic value of cytoskeleton-associated protein 2-like. Sci Rep 2023; 13:8368. [PMID: 37225919 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-35633-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2022] [Accepted: 05/21/2023] [Indexed: 05/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Cytoskeleton-associated protein 2-like (CKAP2L), a cell cycle-related protein, is correlated to tumor progression in some tumors. But there were no pan-cancer studies on CKAP2L, and its role in cancer immunotherapy is also unclear. The expression levels, expression activity, genomic alterations, DNA methylation and functions of CKAP2L in various tumors, as well as the associations between CKAP2L expression and patient prognosis, chemotherapy sensitivity, and tumor immune microenvironment, were all analyzed in a comprehensive pan-cancer analysis of CKAP2L by various databases, analysis websites, and R software. The experiments were also conducted to verify the analysis results. In the majority of cancers, CKAP2L expression and activity were markedly elevated. Elevated CKAP2L expression led to poor prognostic outcomes in patients, and is an independent risk factor for most tumors. Elevated CKAP2L causes decreased sensitivity to chemotherapeutic agents. Knockdown of CKAP2L significantly inhibited the proliferation and metastasis capacity of the KIRC cell lines and resulted in cell cycle G2/M arrest. In addition, CKAP2L was closely related to immune subtypes, immune cell infiltration, immunomodulators and immunotherapy markers (TMB, MSI), patients with high CKAP2L expression were more sensitive to immunotherapy in the IMvigor210 cohort. The results indicate that CKAP2L is a pro-cancer gene that serves as a potential biomarker for predicting patient outcomes. By inducing cells to transition from the G2 phase to the M phase, CKAP2L may promote cell proliferation and metastasis. Furthermore, CKAP2L is closely related to the tumor immune microenvironment and can be used as a biomarker to predict tumor immunotherapy.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Bocun Yi
- Department of Urology, Tianjin Institute of Urology, The Second Hospital of Tianjin Medical University, Tianjin, China
| | - Qingfeng Fu
- Department of Urology, Tianjin Institute of Urology, The Second Hospital of Tianjin Medical University, Tianjin, China
| | - Zhiwen Zheng
- Department of Urology, Tianjin Institute of Urology, The Second Hospital of Tianjin Medical University, Tianjin, China
| | - Man Zhang
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Metabolic Diseases, Tianjin Institute of Endocrinology, Chu Hsien-I Memorial Hospital of Tianjin Medical University, Tianjin, China
| | - Dongze Liu
- Department of Urology, Tianjin Institute of Urology, The Second Hospital of Tianjin Medical University, Tianjin, China
| | - Zhengxin Liang
- Department of Urology, Tianjin Institute of Urology, The Second Hospital of Tianjin Medical University, Tianjin, China
| | - Shengxian Xu
- Department of Urology, Tianjin Institute of Urology, The Second Hospital of Tianjin Medical University, Tianjin, China
| | - Zhihong Zhang
- Department of Urology, Tianjin Institute of Urology, The Second Hospital of Tianjin Medical University, Tianjin, China.
| |
Collapse
|
35
|
Kutle I, Polten R, Hachenberg J, Klapdor R, Morgan M, Schambach A. Tumor Organoid and Spheroid Models for Cervical Cancer. Cancers (Basel) 2023; 15:cancers15092518. [PMID: 37173984 PMCID: PMC10177622 DOI: 10.3390/cancers15092518] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2023] [Revised: 04/25/2023] [Accepted: 04/26/2023] [Indexed: 05/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Cervical cancer is one of the most common malignant diseases in women worldwide. Despite the global introduction of a preventive vaccine against the leading cause of cervical cancer, human papillomavirus (HPV) infection, the incidence of this malignant disease is still very high, especially in economically challenged areas. New advances in cancer therapy, especially the rapid development and application of different immunotherapy strategies, have shown promising pre-clinical and clinical results. However, mortality from advanced stages of cervical cancer remains a significant concern. Precise and thorough evaluation of potential novel anti-cancer therapies in pre-clinical phases is indispensable for efficient development of new, more successful treatment options for cancer patients. Recently, 3D tumor models have become the gold standard in pre-clinical cancer research due to their capacity to better mimic the architecture and microenvironment of tumor tissue as compared to standard two-dimensional (2D) cell cultures. This review will focus on the application of spheroids and patient-derived organoids (PDOs) as tumor models to develop novel therapies against cervical cancer, with an emphasis on the immunotherapies that specifically target cancer cells and modulate the tumor microenvironment (TME).
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ivana Kutle
- Institute of Experimental Hematology, Hannover Medical School, 30625 Hannover, Germany
| | - Robert Polten
- Institute of Experimental Hematology, Hannover Medical School, 30625 Hannover, Germany
| | - Jens Hachenberg
- Institute of Experimental Hematology, Hannover Medical School, 30625 Hannover, Germany
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Hannover Medical School, 30625 Hannover, Germany
| | - Rüdiger Klapdor
- Institute of Experimental Hematology, Hannover Medical School, 30625 Hannover, Germany
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Hannover Medical School, 30625 Hannover, Germany
| | - Michael Morgan
- Institute of Experimental Hematology, Hannover Medical School, 30625 Hannover, Germany
| | - Axel Schambach
- Institute of Experimental Hematology, Hannover Medical School, 30625 Hannover, Germany
- Division of Hematology/Oncology, Boston Children's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| |
Collapse
|
36
|
Mitrakas AG, Tsolou A, Didaskalou S, Karkaletsou L, Efstathiou C, Eftalitsidis E, Marmanis K, Koffa M. Applications and Advances of Multicellular Tumor Spheroids: Challenges in Their Development and Analysis. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24086949. [PMID: 37108113 PMCID: PMC10138394 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24086949] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2023] [Revised: 03/31/2023] [Accepted: 04/06/2023] [Indexed: 04/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Biomedical research requires both in vitro and in vivo studies in order to explore disease processes or drug interactions. Foundational investigations have been performed at the cellular level using two-dimensional cultures as the gold-standard method since the early 20th century. However, three-dimensional (3D) cultures have emerged as a new tool for tissue modeling over the last few years, bridging the gap between in vitro and animal model studies. Cancer has been a worldwide challenge for the biomedical community due to its high morbidity and mortality rates. Various methods have been developed to produce multicellular tumor spheroids (MCTSs), including scaffold-free and scaffold-based structures, which usually depend on the demands of the cells used and the related biological question. MCTSs are increasingly utilized in studies involving cancer cell metabolism and cell cycle defects. These studies produce massive amounts of data, which demand elaborate and complex tools for thorough analysis. In this review, we discuss the advantages and disadvantages of several up-to-date methods used to construct MCTSs. In addition, we also present advanced methods for analyzing MCTS features. As MCTSs more closely mimic the in vivo tumor environment, compared to 2D monolayers, they can evolve to be an appealing model for in vitro tumor biology studies.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Achilleas G Mitrakas
- Cell Biology Lab, Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Democritus University of Thrace, 68100 Alexandroupolis, Greece
| | - Avgi Tsolou
- Cell Biology Lab, Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Democritus University of Thrace, 68100 Alexandroupolis, Greece
| | - Stylianos Didaskalou
- Cell Biology Lab, Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Democritus University of Thrace, 68100 Alexandroupolis, Greece
| | - Lito Karkaletsou
- Cell Biology Lab, Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Democritus University of Thrace, 68100 Alexandroupolis, Greece
| | - Christos Efstathiou
- Cell Biology Lab, Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Democritus University of Thrace, 68100 Alexandroupolis, Greece
| | - Evgenios Eftalitsidis
- Cell Biology Lab, Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Democritus University of Thrace, 68100 Alexandroupolis, Greece
| | - Konstantinos Marmanis
- Cell Biology Lab, Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Democritus University of Thrace, 68100 Alexandroupolis, Greece
| | - Maria Koffa
- Cell Biology Lab, Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Democritus University of Thrace, 68100 Alexandroupolis, Greece
| |
Collapse
|
37
|
Mu P, Zhou S, Lv T, Xia F, Shen L, Wan J, Wang Y, Zhang H, Cai S, Peng J, Hua G, Zhang Z. Newly developed 3D in vitro models to study tumor-immune interaction. J Exp Clin Cancer Res 2023; 42:81. [PMID: 37016422 PMCID: PMC10074642 DOI: 10.1186/s13046-023-02653-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2022] [Accepted: 03/24/2023] [Indexed: 04/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Immunotherapy as a rapidly developing therapeutic approach has revolutionized cancer treatment and revitalized the field of tumor immunology research. 3D in vitro models are emerging as powerful tools considering their feature to maintain tumor cells in a near-native state and have been widely applied in oncology research. The novel 3D culture methods including the co-culture of organoids and immune cells, ALI culture, 3D-microfluidic culture and 3D-bioprinting offer new approaches for tumor immunology study and can be applied in many fields such as personalized treatment, immunotherapy optimizing and adoptive cell therapy. In this review, we introduce commonly used 3D in vitro models and summarize their applications in different aspects of tumor immunology research. We also provide a preliminary analysis of the current shortcomings of these models and the outlook of future development.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Peiyuan Mu
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Fudan University Shanghai Cancer Center, Shanghai, 200032, China
- Department of Oncology, Shanghai Medical College, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200032, China
- Shanghai Clinical Research Center for Radiation Oncology, Shanghai, 200032, China
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Radiation Oncology, Shanghai, 200032, China
| | - Shujuan Zhou
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Fudan University Shanghai Cancer Center, Shanghai, 200032, China
- Department of Oncology, Shanghai Medical College, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200032, China
- Shanghai Clinical Research Center for Radiation Oncology, Shanghai, 200032, China
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Radiation Oncology, Shanghai, 200032, China
| | - Tao Lv
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Fudan University Shanghai Cancer Center, Shanghai, 200032, China
- Department of Oncology, Shanghai Medical College, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200032, China
- Shanghai Clinical Research Center for Radiation Oncology, Shanghai, 200032, China
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Radiation Oncology, Shanghai, 200032, China
| | - Fan Xia
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Fudan University Shanghai Cancer Center, Shanghai, 200032, China
- Department of Oncology, Shanghai Medical College, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200032, China
- Shanghai Clinical Research Center for Radiation Oncology, Shanghai, 200032, China
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Radiation Oncology, Shanghai, 200032, China
| | - Lijun Shen
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Fudan University Shanghai Cancer Center, Shanghai, 200032, China
- Department of Oncology, Shanghai Medical College, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200032, China
- Shanghai Clinical Research Center for Radiation Oncology, Shanghai, 200032, China
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Radiation Oncology, Shanghai, 200032, China
| | - Juefeng Wan
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Fudan University Shanghai Cancer Center, Shanghai, 200032, China
- Department of Oncology, Shanghai Medical College, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200032, China
- Shanghai Clinical Research Center for Radiation Oncology, Shanghai, 200032, China
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Radiation Oncology, Shanghai, 200032, China
| | - Yaqi Wang
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Fudan University Shanghai Cancer Center, Shanghai, 200032, China
- Department of Oncology, Shanghai Medical College, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200032, China
- Shanghai Clinical Research Center for Radiation Oncology, Shanghai, 200032, China
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Radiation Oncology, Shanghai, 200032, China
| | - Hui Zhang
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Fudan University Shanghai Cancer Center, Shanghai, 200032, China
- Department of Oncology, Shanghai Medical College, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200032, China
- Shanghai Clinical Research Center for Radiation Oncology, Shanghai, 200032, China
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Radiation Oncology, Shanghai, 200032, China
| | - Sanjun Cai
- Department of Oncology, Shanghai Medical College, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200032, China
- Cancer institute, Fudan University Shanghai Cancer Center, 200032, Shanghai, China
- Department of Colorectal Surgery, Fudan University Shanghai Cancer Center, Fudan University, 200032, Shanghai, China
| | - Junjie Peng
- Department of Oncology, Shanghai Medical College, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200032, China
- Department of Colorectal Surgery, Fudan University Shanghai Cancer Center, Fudan University, 200032, Shanghai, China
| | - Guoqiang Hua
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Fudan University Shanghai Cancer Center, Shanghai, 200032, China.
- Department of Oncology, Shanghai Medical College, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200032, China.
- Shanghai Clinical Research Center for Radiation Oncology, Shanghai, 200032, China.
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Radiation Oncology, Shanghai, 200032, China.
- Cancer institute, Fudan University Shanghai Cancer Center, 200032, Shanghai, China.
| | - Zhen Zhang
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Fudan University Shanghai Cancer Center, Shanghai, 200032, China.
- Department of Oncology, Shanghai Medical College, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200032, China.
- Shanghai Clinical Research Center for Radiation Oncology, Shanghai, 200032, China.
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Radiation Oncology, Shanghai, 200032, China.
| |
Collapse
|
38
|
Bonnereau J, Courau T, Asesio N, Salfati D, Bouhidel F, Corte H, Hamoudi S, Hammoudi N, Lavolé J, Vivier-Chicoteau J, Chardiny V, Maggiori L, Blery M, Remark R, Bonnafous C, Cattan P, Toubert A, Bhat P, Allez M, Aparicio T, Le Bourhis L. Autologous T cell responses to primary human colorectal cancer spheroids are enhanced by ectonucleotidase inhibition. Gut 2023; 72:699-709. [PMID: 35803702 DOI: 10.1136/gutjnl-2021-326553] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2021] [Accepted: 06/29/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE T cells are major effectors of the antitumoural immune response. Their activation by tumour-associated antigens can unleash their proliferation and cytotoxic functions, leading to tumour cell elimination. However, tumour-related immunosuppressive mechanisms including the overexpression of immune checkpoints like programmed cell death protein-1 (PD-1), are also engaged, promoting immune escape. Current immunotherapies targeting these pathways have demonstrated weak efficacy in colorectal cancer (CRC). It is thus crucial to find new targets for immunotherapy in this cancer type. DESIGN In a prospective cohort of patients with CRC, we investigated the phenotype of tumour-related and non-tumour related intestinal T cells (n=44), particularly the adenosinergic pathway, correlating with clinical phenotype. An autologous coculture model was developed between patient-derived primary tumour spheroids and their autologous tumour-associated lymphocytes. We used this relevant model to assess the effects of CD39 blockade on the antitumour T cell response. RESULTS We show the increased expression of CD39, and its co-expression with PD-1, on tumour infiltrating T cells compared with mucosal lymphocytes. CD39 expression was higher in the right colon and early-stage tumours, thus defining a subset of patients potentially responsive to CD39 blockade. Finally, we demonstrate in autologous conditions that CD39 blockade triggers T cell infiltration and tumour spheroid destruction in cocultures. CONCLUSION In CRC, CD39 is strongly expressed on tumour infiltrating lymphocytes and its inhibition represents a promising therapeutic strategy for treating patients.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Julie Bonnereau
- INSERM U1160, Institut de Recherche Saint-Louis, Saint Louis Hospital, Université de Paris, Paris, France
| | - Tristan Courau
- INSERM U1160, Institut de Recherche Saint-Louis, Saint Louis Hospital, Université de Paris, Paris, France
| | - Nicolas Asesio
- Department of Hepato-Gastroenterology, Hôpital Saint-Louis, Paris, France
| | - Delphine Salfati
- Department of Hepato-Gastroenterology, Hôpital Saint-Louis, Paris, France
| | - Fatiha Bouhidel
- Anatomopathology Department, Hôpital Saint-Louis, Paris, France
| | - Hélène Corte
- Digestive Surgery Department, Hôpital Saint-Louis, Paris, France
| | - Sarah Hamoudi
- INSERM U1160, Institut de Recherche Saint-Louis, Saint Louis Hospital, Université de Paris, Paris, France
| | - Nassim Hammoudi
- INSERM U1160, Institut de Recherche Saint-Louis, Saint Louis Hospital, Université de Paris, Paris, France.,Department of Hepato-Gastroenterology, Hôpital Saint-Louis, Paris, France
| | - Julie Lavolé
- INSERM U1160, Institut de Recherche Saint-Louis, Saint Louis Hospital, Université de Paris, Paris, France
| | - Justine Vivier-Chicoteau
- INSERM U1160, Institut de Recherche Saint-Louis, Saint Louis Hospital, Université de Paris, Paris, France.,Department of Hepato-Gastroenterology, Hôpital Saint-Louis, Paris, France
| | - Victor Chardiny
- INSERM U1160, Institut de Recherche Saint-Louis, Saint Louis Hospital, Université de Paris, Paris, France
| | - Leon Maggiori
- Digestive Surgery Department, Hôpital Saint-Louis, Paris, France
| | | | | | | | - Pierre Cattan
- Digestive Surgery Department, Hôpital Saint-Louis, Paris, France
| | - Antoine Toubert
- INSERM U1160, Institut de Recherche Saint-Louis, Saint Louis Hospital, Université de Paris, Paris, France
| | - Purnima Bhat
- Medical School, The Australian National University, Canberra, Australian Capital Territory, Australia.,Gastroenterology and Hepatology Unit, Canberra Hospital, Canberra, Australian Capital Territory, Australia
| | - Matthieu Allez
- INSERM U1160, Institut de Recherche Saint-Louis, Saint Louis Hospital, Université de Paris, Paris, France.,Department of Hepato-Gastroenterology, Hôpital Saint-Louis, Paris, France
| | - Thomas Aparicio
- INSERM U1160, Institut de Recherche Saint-Louis, Saint Louis Hospital, Université de Paris, Paris, France.,Department of Hepato-Gastroenterology, Hôpital Saint-Louis, Paris, France
| | - Lionel Le Bourhis
- INSERM U1160, Institut de Recherche Saint-Louis, Saint Louis Hospital, Université de Paris, Paris, France
| |
Collapse
|
39
|
Tosca EM, Ronchi D, Facciolo D, Magni P. Replacement, Reduction, and Refinement of Animal Experiments in Anticancer Drug Development: The Contribution of 3D In Vitro Cancer Models in the Drug Efficacy Assessment. Biomedicines 2023; 11:biomedicines11041058. [PMID: 37189676 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines11041058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2023] [Revised: 03/26/2023] [Accepted: 03/27/2023] [Indexed: 04/03/2023] Open
Abstract
In the last decades three-dimensional (3D) in vitro cancer models have been proposed as a bridge between bidimensional (2D) cell cultures and in vivo animal models, the gold standards in the preclinical assessment of anticancer drug efficacy. 3D in vitro cancer models can be generated through a multitude of techniques, from both immortalized cancer cell lines and primary patient-derived tumor tissue. Among them, spheroids and organoids represent the most versatile and promising models, as they faithfully recapitulate the complexity and heterogeneity of human cancers. Although their recent applications include drug screening programs and personalized medicine, 3D in vitro cancer models have not yet been established as preclinical tools for studying anticancer drug efficacy and supporting preclinical-to-clinical translation, which remains mainly based on animal experimentation. In this review, we describe the state-of-the-art of 3D in vitro cancer models for the efficacy evaluation of anticancer agents, focusing on their potential contribution to replace, reduce and refine animal experimentations, highlighting their strength and weakness, and discussing possible perspectives to overcome current challenges.
Collapse
|
40
|
El Harane S, Zidi B, El Harane N, Krause KH, Matthes T, Preynat-Seauve O. Cancer Spheroids and Organoids as Novel Tools for Research and Therapy: State of the Art and Challenges to Guide Precision Medicine. Cells 2023; 12:cells12071001. [PMID: 37048073 PMCID: PMC10093533 DOI: 10.3390/cells12071001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2023] [Revised: 03/14/2023] [Accepted: 03/20/2023] [Indexed: 04/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Spheroids and organoids are important novel players in medical and life science research. They are gradually replacing two-dimensional (2D) cell cultures. Indeed, three-dimensional (3D) cultures are closer to the in vivo reality and open promising perspectives for academic research, drug screening, and personalized medicine. A large variety of cells and tissues, including tumor cells, can be the starting material for the generation of 3D cultures, including primary tissues, stem cells, or cell lines. A panoply of methods has been developed to generate 3D structures, including spontaneous or forced cell aggregation, air-liquid interface conditions, low cell attachment supports, magnetic levitation, and scaffold-based technologies. The choice of the most appropriate method depends on (i) the origin of the tissue, (ii) the presence or absence of a disease, and (iii) the intended application. This review summarizes methods and approaches for the generation of cancer spheroids and organoids, including their advantages and limitations. We also highlight some of the challenges and unresolved issues in the field of cancer spheroids and organoids, and discuss possible therapeutic applications.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sanae El Harane
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Geneva, 1206 Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Bochra Zidi
- Department of Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Geneva, 1206 Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Nadia El Harane
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Geneva, 1206 Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Karl-Heinz Krause
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Geneva, 1206 Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Thomas Matthes
- Department of Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Geneva, 1206 Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Olivier Preynat-Seauve
- Department of Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Geneva, 1206 Geneva, Switzerland
- Laboratory of Experimental Cell Therapy, Department of Diagnostics, Geneva University Hospitals, 1206 Geneva, Switzerland
| |
Collapse
|
41
|
Curio S, Lin W, Bromley C, McGovern J, Triulzi C, Jonsson G, Ghislat G, Zelenay S, Guerra N. NKG2D Fine-Tunes the Local Inflammatory Response in Colorectal Cancer. Cancers (Basel) 2023; 15:1792. [PMID: 36980678 PMCID: PMC10046042 DOI: 10.3390/cancers15061792] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2023] [Revised: 03/12/2023] [Accepted: 03/14/2023] [Indexed: 03/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Treating colorectal cancer (CRC) is a major challenge due to the heterogeneous immunological, clinical and pathological landscapes. Immunotherapy has so far only proven effective in a very limited subgroup of CRC patients. To better define the immune landscape, we examined the immune gene expression profile in various subsets of CRC patients and used a mouse model of intestinal tumors to dissect immune functions. We found that the NK cell receptor, natural-killer group 2 member D (NKG2D, encoded by KLRK1) and NKG2D ligand gene expression is elevated in the most immunogenic subset of CRC patients. High level of KLRK1 positively correlated with the mRNA expression of IFNG and associated with a poor survival of CRC patients. We further show that NKG2D deficiency in the Apcmin/+ mouse model of intestinal tumorigenesis led to reduced intratumoral IFNγ production, reduced tumorigenesis and enhanced survival, suggesting that the high levels of IFNγ observed in the tumors of CRC patients may be a consequence of NKG2D engagement. The mechanisms governing the contribution of NKG2D to CRC progression highlighted in this study will fuel discussions about (i) the benefit of targeting NKG2D in CRC patients and (ii) the need to define the predictive value of NKG2D and NKG2D ligand expression across tumor types.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sophie Curio
- Department of Life Sciences, Imperial College London, London SW7 2BX, UK
- The University of Queensland Frazer Institute, Faculty of Medicine, The University of Queensland, Woolloongabba, QLD 4102, Australia
| | - Wanzun Lin
- Department of Life Sciences, Imperial College London, London SW7 2BX, UK
| | - Christian Bromley
- Cancer Inflammation and Immunity Group, Cancer Research UK Manchester Institute, The University of Manchester, Alderley Park, Manchester M20 4BX, UK
| | - Jenny McGovern
- Department of Life Sciences, Imperial College London, London SW7 2BX, UK
| | - Chiara Triulzi
- Department of Life Sciences, Imperial College London, London SW7 2BX, UK
| | - Gustav Jonsson
- Department of Life Sciences, Imperial College London, London SW7 2BX, UK
| | - Ghita Ghislat
- Department of Life Sciences, Imperial College London, London SW7 2BX, UK
| | - Santiago Zelenay
- Cancer Inflammation and Immunity Group, Cancer Research UK Manchester Institute, The University of Manchester, Alderley Park, Manchester M20 4BX, UK
| | - Nadia Guerra
- Department of Life Sciences, Imperial College London, London SW7 2BX, UK
| |
Collapse
|
42
|
Payne MC, Ho S, Hashimoto T, Imboden S, Diaz JA, Lee BS, Rupert MJ, Cai NY, Goldstein AS, Lin NYC. Microwell-based flow culture increases viability and restores drug response in prostate cancer spheroids. Biotechnol J 2023:e2200434. [PMID: 36905340 DOI: 10.1002/biot.202200434] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2022] [Revised: 02/20/2023] [Accepted: 03/02/2023] [Indexed: 03/12/2023]
Abstract
3D cancer spheroids represent a highly promising model for study of cancer progression and therapeutic development. Wide-scale adoption of cancer spheroids, however, remains a challenge due to the lack of control over hypoxic gradients that may cloud the assessment of cell morphology and drug response. Here, we present a Microwell Flow Device (MFD) that generates in-well laminar flow around 3D tissues via repetitive tissue sedimentation. Using a prostate cancer cell line, we demonstrate the spheroids in the MFD exhibit improved cell growth, reduced necrotic core formation, enhanced structural integrity, and downregulated expression of cell stress genes. The flow-cultured spheroids also exhibit an improved sensitivity to chemotherapy with greater transcriptional response. These results demonstrate how fluidic stimuli reveal the cellular phenotype previously masked by severe necrosis. Our platform advances 3D cellular models and enables study into hypoxia modulation, cancer metabolism, and drug screening within pathophysiological conditions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Marie C Payne
- Department of Mechanical & Aerospace Engineering, University of California, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - SumYat Ho
- Department of Biochemistry, University of California, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Takao Hashimoto
- Departments of Molecular, Cell & Developmental Biology and Urology, University of California, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Sara Imboden
- Department of Mechanical & Aerospace Engineering, University of California, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Johnny A Diaz
- Departments of Molecular, Cell & Developmental Biology and Urology, University of California, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Brandon S Lee
- Department of Bioengineering, University of California, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Melissa J Rupert
- Department of Bioengineering, University of California, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Nathan Y Cai
- Department of Bioengineering, University of California, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Andrew S Goldstein
- Departments of Molecular, Cell & Developmental Biology and Urology, University of California, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Neil Y C Lin
- Department of Mechanical & Aerospace Engineering, University of California, Los Angeles, California, USA
- Department of Bioengineering, University of California, Los Angeles, California, USA
- Institute for Quantitative and Computational Biosciences, University of California, Los Angeles, California, USA
| |
Collapse
|
43
|
Formslag CR, Zhao L, Heslin AJ, Lewis CC, Miller CW, Bai Q, Wakefield MR, Fang Y. The past, present, and future of immunotherapy for colorectal cancer. Med Oncol 2023; 40:95. [PMID: 36786890 DOI: 10.1007/s12032-023-01967-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2022] [Accepted: 02/02/2023] [Indexed: 02/15/2023]
Abstract
Colorectal cancer is prevalent worldwide, with various factors influencing the survival rate of late-stage metastatic cases. Current standard treatments include surgical removal, adjuvant chemotherapy, and neoadjuvant chemotherapy. Novel immunotherapy research shows promising results for various cancer types, including colorectal cancer. Current immunotherapy options are limited to specific molecular subtypes of colorectal cancer, while the remaining are limited to standard protocol. This review article summarizes approved, developing, and potential sources for novel colorectal cancer immunotherapy treatment through active-specific, checkpoint inhibitor, cytokine, cytotoxic, and adoptive T-cell immunotherapy. Such a study would be beneficial to patients with colorectal cancer.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Cole R Formslag
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology & Pathology, Des Moines University, Des Moines, IA, 50312, USA
| | - Lei Zhao
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, The Second People's Hospital of Hefei, Hefei Hospital Affiliated to Anhui Medical University, Hefei, AH, 230011, China
| | - Aidan J Heslin
- Department of Surgery, University of Missouri School of Medicine, Columbia, MO, 65212, USA
| | - Cade C Lewis
- Department of Surgery, University of Missouri School of Medicine, Columbia, MO, 65212, USA
| | - Caleb W Miller
- Department of Surgery, University of Missouri School of Medicine, Columbia, MO, 65212, USA
| | - Qian Bai
- Department of Surgery, University of Missouri School of Medicine, Columbia, MO, 65212, USA
| | - Mark R Wakefield
- Department of Surgery, University of Missouri School of Medicine, Columbia, MO, 65212, USA.,Ellis Fischel Cancer Center, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO, 65212, USA
| | - Yujiang Fang
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology & Pathology, Des Moines University, Des Moines, IA, 50312, USA. .,Department of Surgery, University of Missouri School of Medicine, Columbia, MO, 65212, USA. .,Ellis Fischel Cancer Center, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO, 65212, USA. .,Department of Microbiology, Des Moines University College of Osteopathic Medicine, Immunology & Pathology, Des Moines, IA, 50312, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
44
|
Promises and challenges for targeting the immunological players in the tumor micro-environment – Critical determinants for NP-based therapy. OPENNANO 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.onano.2023.100134] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/25/2023]
|
45
|
Yip S, Wang N, Sugimura R. Give Them Vasculature and Immune Cells: How to Fill the Gap of Organoids. Cells Tissues Organs 2023; 212:369-382. [PMID: 36716724 PMCID: PMC10711768 DOI: 10.1159/000529431] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2022] [Accepted: 01/23/2023] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Valid and relevant models are critical for research to have biological relevance or to proceed in the right path. As well-established two-dimensional cell cultures lack niches and cues and rodent models differ in species, three-dimensional organoids emerged as a powerful platform for research. Cultured in vitro from stem cells, organoids are heterogeneous in cells and closely resemble the in vivo settings. Organoids also recapitulate the unique human features if cultured from a human source and are subjected to genetic modification. However, one type of organoid possesses only a limited selection of cells. In particular, the absence of vasculature and immune cells restricts the organoids from nutrition, cues, or critical interactions, undermining the validity of organoids as physiological or pathological models. To fill the current gap, there is an urgent need to provide organoids with vasculature and immune cells. In this paper, we review the methods to generate physiological and pathological organoid models and summarize ways to vascularize or immunize them. Our discussion continues with some advantages and disadvantages of each method and some emerging solutions to current problems.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sophronia Yip
- Faculty of Science, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR
- Centre for Translational Stem Cell Biology, Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR
| | - Nan Wang
- Faculty of Science, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR
| | - Ryohichi Sugimura
- Centre for Translational Stem Cell Biology, Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Li Ka Shing Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR
| |
Collapse
|
46
|
Miserocchi G, Bocchini M, Cortesi M, Arienti C, De Vita A, Liverani C, Mercatali L, Bravaccini S, Ulivi P, Zanoni M. Combining preclinical tools and models to unravel tumor complexity: Jump into the next dimension. Front Immunol 2023; 14:1171141. [PMID: 37033986 PMCID: PMC10080004 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2023.1171141] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2023] [Accepted: 03/10/2023] [Indexed: 04/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Tumors are complex and heterogeneous diseases characterized by an intricate milieu and dynamically in connection with surrounding and distant tissues. In the last decades, great efforts have been made to develop novel preclinical models able to recapitulate the original features of tumors. However, the development of an in vitro functional and realistic tumor organ is still utopic and represents one of the major challenges to reproduce the architecture of the tumor ecosystem. A strategy to decrypt the whole picture and predict its behavior could be started from the validation of simplified biomimetic systems and then proceed with their integration. Variables such as the cellular and acellular composition of tumor microenvironment (TME) and its spatio-temporal distribution have to be considered in order to respect the dynamic evolution of the oncologic disease. In this perspective, we aim to explore the currently available strategies to improve and integrate in vitro and in vivo models, such as three-dimensional (3D) cultures, organoids, and zebrafish, in order to better understand the disease biology and improve the therapeutic approaches.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Giacomo Miserocchi
- Biosciences Laboratory, IRCCS Istituto Romagnolo per lo Studio dei Tumori (IRST) “Dino Amadori”, Meldola, Italy
- *Correspondence: Giacomo Miserocchi, ; Michele Zanoni,
| | - Martine Bocchini
- Biosciences Laboratory, IRCCS Istituto Romagnolo per lo Studio dei Tumori (IRST) “Dino Amadori”, Meldola, Italy
| | - Michela Cortesi
- Biosciences Laboratory, IRCCS Istituto Romagnolo per lo Studio dei Tumori (IRST) “Dino Amadori”, Meldola, Italy
| | - Chiara Arienti
- Osteoncology and Rare Tumors Center, Immunotherapy, Cell Therapy and Biobank, IRCCS Istituto Romagnolo per lo Studio dei Tumori (IRST) “Dino Amadori”, Meldola, Italy
| | - Alessandro De Vita
- Biosciences Laboratory, IRCCS Istituto Romagnolo per lo Studio dei Tumori (IRST) “Dino Amadori”, Meldola, Italy
| | - Chiara Liverani
- Biosciences Laboratory, IRCCS Istituto Romagnolo per lo Studio dei Tumori (IRST) “Dino Amadori”, Meldola, Italy
| | - Laura Mercatali
- Biosciences Laboratory, IRCCS Istituto Romagnolo per lo Studio dei Tumori (IRST) “Dino Amadori”, Meldola, Italy
| | - Sara Bravaccini
- Biosciences Laboratory, IRCCS Istituto Romagnolo per lo Studio dei Tumori (IRST) “Dino Amadori”, Meldola, Italy
| | - Paola Ulivi
- Biosciences Laboratory, IRCCS Istituto Romagnolo per lo Studio dei Tumori (IRST) “Dino Amadori”, Meldola, Italy
| | - Michele Zanoni
- Biosciences Laboratory, IRCCS Istituto Romagnolo per lo Studio dei Tumori (IRST) “Dino Amadori”, Meldola, Italy
- *Correspondence: Giacomo Miserocchi, ; Michele Zanoni,
| |
Collapse
|
47
|
Tutty MA, Prina-Mello A. Three-Dimensional Spheroids for Cancer Research. Methods Mol Biol 2023; 2645:65-103. [PMID: 37202612 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-0716-3056-3_3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
In vitro cell culture is one of the most widely used tools used today for increasing our understanding of various things such as protein production, mechanisms of drug action, tissue engineering, and overall cellular biology. For the past decades, however, cancer researchers have relied heavily on conventional two-dimensional (2D) monolayer culture techniques to test a variety of aspects of cancer research ranging from the cytotoxic effects of antitumor drugs to the toxicity of diagnostic dyes and contact tracers. However, many promising cancer therapies have either weak or no efficacy in real-life conditions, therefore delaying or stopping altogether their translating to the clinic. This is, in part, due to the reductionist 2D cultures used to test these materials, which lack appropriate cell-cell contacts, have altered signaling, do not represent the natural tumor microenvironment, and have different drug responses, due to their reduced malignant phenotype when compared to real in vivo tumors. With the most recent advances, cancer research has moved into 3D biological investigation. Three-dimensional (3D) cultures of cancer cells not only recapitulate the in vivo environment better than their 2D counterparts, but they have, in recent years, emerged as a relatively low-cost and scientifically accurate methodology for studying cancer. In this chapter, we highlight the importance of 3D culture, specifically 3D spheroid culture, reviewing some key methodologies for forming 3D spheroids, discussing the experimental tools that can be used in conjunction with 3D spheroids and finally their applications in cancer research.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Melissa Anne Tutty
- Laboratory for Biological Characterization of Advanced Materials (LBCAM), Trinity Translational Medicine Institute, Trinity Centre for Health Sciences, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland.
| | - Adriele Prina-Mello
- Laboratory for Biological Characterization of Advanced Materials (LBCAM), Trinity Translational Medicine Institute, Trinity Centre for Health Sciences, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
- Nanomedicine and Molecular Imaging Group, Trinity Translational Medicine Institute, (TTMI), School of Medicine, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
- Trinity St. James's Cancer Institute, St. James's Hospital, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
- Advanced Materials and Bioengineering Research (AMBER) Centre, CRANN Institute, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| |
Collapse
|
48
|
Manduca N, Maccafeo E, De Maria R, Sistigu A, Musella M. 3D cancer models: One step closer to in vitro human studies. Front Immunol 2023; 14:1175503. [PMID: 37114038 PMCID: PMC10126361 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2023.1175503] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2023] [Accepted: 03/23/2023] [Indexed: 04/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Cancer immunotherapy is the great breakthrough in cancer treatment as it displayed prolonged progression-free survival over conventional therapies, yet, to date, in only a minority of patients. In order to broad cancer immunotherapy clinical applicability some roadblocks need to be overcome, first among all the lack of preclinical models that faithfully depict the local tumor microenvironment (TME), which is known to dramatically affect disease onset, progression and response to therapy. In this review, we provide the reader with a detailed overview of current 3D models developed to mimick the complexity and the dynamics of the TME, with a focus on understanding why the TME is a major target in anticancer therapy. We highlight the advantages and translational potentials of tumor spheroids, organoids and immune Tumor-on-a-Chip models in disease modeling and therapeutic response, while outlining pending challenges and limitations. Thinking forward, we focus on the possibility to integrate the know-hows of micro-engineers, cancer immunologists, pharmaceutical researchers and bioinformaticians to meet the needs of cancer researchers and clinicians interested in using these platforms with high fidelity for patient-tailored disease modeling and drug discovery.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Nicoletta Manduca
- Dipartimento di Medicina e Chirurgia Traslazionale, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Rome, Italy
| | - Ester Maccafeo
- Dipartimento di Medicina e Chirurgia Traslazionale, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Rome, Italy
| | - Ruggero De Maria
- Dipartimento di Medicina e Chirurgia Traslazionale, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Rome, Italy
- Fondazione Policlinico Universitario ‘A. Gemelli’ - Istituti di Ricovero e Cura a Carattere Scientifico (IRCCS), Rome, Italy
| | - Antonella Sistigu
- Dipartimento di Medicina e Chirurgia Traslazionale, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Rome, Italy
- *Correspondence: Martina Musella, ; ; Antonella Sistigu, ;
| | - Martina Musella
- Dipartimento di Medicina e Chirurgia Traslazionale, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Rome, Italy
- *Correspondence: Martina Musella, ; ; Antonella Sistigu, ;
| |
Collapse
|
49
|
Mason J, Öhlund D. Key aspects for conception and construction of co-culture models of tumor-stroma interactions. Front Bioeng Biotechnol 2023; 11:1150764. [PMID: 37091337 PMCID: PMC10119418 DOI: 10.3389/fbioe.2023.1150764] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2023] [Accepted: 03/31/2023] [Indexed: 04/25/2023] Open
Abstract
The tumor microenvironment is crucial in the initiation and progression of cancers. The interplay between cancer cells and the surrounding stroma shapes the tumor biology and dictates the response to cancer therapies. Consequently, a better understanding of the interactions between cancer cells and different components of the tumor microenvironment will drive progress in developing novel, effective, treatment strategies. Co-cultures can be used to study various aspects of these interactions in detail. This includes studies of paracrine relationships between cancer cells and stromal cells such as fibroblasts, endothelial cells, and immune cells, as well as the influence of physical and mechanical interactions with the extracellular matrix of the tumor microenvironment. The development of novel co-culture models to study the tumor microenvironment has progressed rapidly over recent years. Many of these models have already been shown to be powerful tools for further understanding of the pathophysiological role of the stroma and provide mechanistic insights into tumor-stromal interactions. Here we give a structured overview of different co-culture models that have been established to study tumor-stromal interactions and what we have learnt from these models. We also introduce a set of guidelines for generating and reporting co-culture experiments to facilitate experimental robustness and reproducibility.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- James Mason
- Department of Radiation Sciences, Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden
- Wallenberg Centre for Molecular Medicine, Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden
| | - Daniel Öhlund
- Department of Radiation Sciences, Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden
- Wallenberg Centre for Molecular Medicine, Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden
- *Correspondence: Daniel Öhlund,
| |
Collapse
|
50
|
Michielon E, de Gruijl TD, Gibbs S. From simplicity to complexity in current melanoma models. Exp Dermatol 2022; 31:1818-1836. [PMID: 36103206 PMCID: PMC10092692 DOI: 10.1111/exd.14675] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2022] [Revised: 08/30/2022] [Accepted: 09/11/2022] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Despite the recent impressive clinical success of immunotherapy against melanoma, development of primary and adaptive resistance against immune checkpoint inhibitors remains a major issue in a large number of treated patients. This highlights the need for melanoma models that replicate the tumor's intricate dynamics in the tumor microenvironment (TME) and associated immune suppression to study possible resistance mechanisms in order to improve current and test novel therapeutics. While two-dimensional melanoma cell cultures have been widely used to perform functional genomics screens in a high-throughput fashion, they are not suitable to answer more complex scientific questions. Melanoma models have also been established in a variety of experimental (humanized) animals. However, due to differences in physiology, such models do not fully represent human melanoma development. Therefore, fully human three-dimensional in vitro models mimicking melanoma cell interactions with the TME are being developed to address this need for more physiologically relevant models. Such models include melanoma organoids, spheroids, and reconstructed human melanoma-in-skin cultures. Still, while major advances have been made to complement and replace animals, these in vitro systems have yet to fully recapitulate human tumor complexity. Lastly, technical advancements have been made in the organ-on-chip field to replicate functions and microstructures of in vivo human tissues and organs. This review summarizes advancements made in understanding and treating melanoma and specifically aims to discuss the progress made towards developing melanoma models, their applications, limitations, and the advances still needed to further facilitate the development of therapeutics.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Elisabetta Michielon
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology and Immunology, Amsterdam University Medical Center, Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.,Amsterdam Institute for Infection and Immunity, Amsterdam University Medical Center, Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.,Cancer Center Amsterdam, Cancer Biology and Immunology, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Tanja D de Gruijl
- Amsterdam Institute for Infection and Immunity, Amsterdam University Medical Center, Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.,Cancer Center Amsterdam, Cancer Biology and Immunology, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.,Department of Medical Oncology, Amsterdam University Medical Center, Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Susan Gibbs
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology and Immunology, Amsterdam University Medical Center, Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.,Amsterdam Institute for Infection and Immunity, Amsterdam University Medical Center, Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.,Department of Oral Cell Biology, Academic Centre for Dentistry Amsterdam (ACTA), University of Amsterdam and Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| |
Collapse
|