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Bohannon DG, Zablocki-Thomas LD, Leung ES, Dupont JK, Hattler JB, Kowalewska J, Zhao M, Luo J, Salemi M, Amedee AM, Li Q, Kuroda MJ, Kim WK. CSF1R inhibition depletes brain macrophages and reduces brain virus burden in SIV-infected macaques. Brain 2024; 147:3059-3069. [PMID: 39049445 PMCID: PMC11370798 DOI: 10.1093/brain/awae153] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2023] [Revised: 03/22/2024] [Accepted: 05/01/2024] [Indexed: 07/27/2024] Open
Abstract
Perivascular macrophages (PVMs) and, to a lesser degree, microglia are targets and reservoirs of HIV and simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) in the brain. Previously, we demonstrated that colony-stimulating factor 1 receptor (CSF1R) in PVMs was upregulated and activated in chronically SIV-infected rhesus macaques with encephalitis, correlating with SIV infection of PVMs. Herein, we investigated the role of CSF1R in the brain during acute SIV infection using BLZ945, a brain-penetrant CSF1R kinase inhibitor. Apart from three uninfected historic controls, nine Indian rhesus macaques were infected acutely with SIVmac251 and divided into three groups (n = 3 each): an untreated control and two groups treated for 20-30 days with low- (10 mg/kg/day) or high- (30 mg/kg/day) dose BLZ945. With the high-dose BLZ945 treatment, there was a significant reduction in cells expressing CD163 and CD206 across all four brain areas examined, compared with the low-dose treatment and control groups. In 9 of 11 tested regions, tissue viral DNA (vDNA) loads were reduced by 95%-99% following at least one of the two doses, and even to undetectable levels in some instances. Decreased numbers of CD163+ and CD206+ cells correlated significantly with lower levels of vDNA in all four corresponding brain areas. In contrast, BLZ945 treatment did not significantly affect the number of microglia. Our results indicate that doses as low as 10 mg/kg/day of BLZ945 are sufficient to reduce the tissue vDNA loads in the brain with no apparent adverse effect. This study provides evidence that infected PVMs are highly sensitive to CSF1R inhibition, opening new possibilities to achieve viral clearance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diana G Bohannon
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Cell Biology, Eastern Virginia Medical School, Norfolk, VA 23507, USA
| | - Laurent D Zablocki-Thomas
- Department of Anatomy, Physiology & Cell Biology, University California, Davis School of Veterinary Medicine, Davis, CA 95616, USA
| | - Evan S Leung
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Cell Biology, Eastern Virginia Medical School, Norfolk, VA 23507, USA
| | - Jinbum K Dupont
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Cell Biology, Eastern Virginia Medical School, Norfolk, VA 23507, USA
| | - Julian B Hattler
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Cell Biology, Eastern Virginia Medical School, Norfolk, VA 23507, USA
| | - Jolanta Kowalewska
- Department of Pathology and Anatomy, Eastern Virginia Medical School, Norfolk, VA 23507, USA
| | - Miaoyun Zhao
- Nebraska Center for Virology, School of Biological Sciences, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE 68583, USA
| | - Jiangtao Luo
- Department of Health Systems and Population Health Sciences, the Tilman J. Fertitta Family College of Medicine, University of Houston, Houston, TX 77204, USA
| | - Marco Salemi
- Department of Epidemiology, University of Florida College of Medicine, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA
| | - Angela M Amedee
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology & Parasitology, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center, New Orleans, LA 70112, USA
| | - Qingsheng Li
- Nebraska Center for Virology, School of Biological Sciences, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE 68583, USA
| | - Marcelo J Kuroda
- Department of Anatomy, Physiology & Cell Biology, University California, Davis School of Veterinary Medicine, Davis, CA 95616, USA
| | - Woong-Ki Kim
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Cell Biology, Eastern Virginia Medical School, Norfolk, VA 23507, USA
- Division of Microbiology, Tulane National Primate Research Center, Covington, LA, 70433, USA
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans, LA 70112, USA
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Qi C, Ren H, Fan Y. Microglia specific alternative splicing alterations in multiple sclerosis. Aging (Albany NY) 2024; 16:11656-11667. [PMID: 39115871 PMCID: PMC11346782 DOI: 10.18632/aging.206045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2024] [Accepted: 07/17/2024] [Indexed: 08/22/2024]
Abstract
Several aberrant alternative splicing (AS) events and their regulatory mechanisms are widely recognized in multiple sclerosis (MS). Yet the cell-type specific AS events have not been extensively examined. Here we assessed the diversity of AS events using web-based RNA-seq data of sorted CD15-CD11b+ microglia in white matter (WM) region from 10 patients with MS and 11 control subjects. The GSE111972 dataset was downloaded from GEO and ENA databases, aligned to the GRCh38 reference genome from ENSEMBL via STAR. rMATS was used to assess five types of AS events, alternative 3'SS (A3SS), alternative 5'SS (A5SS), skipped exon (SE), retained intron (RI) and mutually exclusive exons (MXE), followed by visualizing with rmats2sashimiplot and maser. Differential genes or transcripts were analyzed using the limma R package. Gene ontology (GO) analysis was performed with the clusterProfiler R package. 42,663 raw counts of AS events were identified and 132 significant AS events were retained based on the filtered criteria: 1) average coverage >10 and 2) delta percent spliced in (ΔPSI) >0.1. SE was the most common AS event (36.36%), followed by MXE events (32.58%), and RI (18.94%). Genes related to telomere maintenance and organization primarily underwent SE splicing, while genes associated with protein folding and mitochondrion organization were predominantly spliced in the MXE pattern. Conversely, genes experiencing RI were enriched in immune response and immunoglobulin production. In conclusion, we identified microglia-specific AS changes in the white matter of MS patients, which may shed light on novel pathological mechanisms underlying MS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caiyun Qi
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Major Obstetric Diseases, Guangdong Provincial Clinical Research Center for Obstetrics and Gynecology, Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macao Greater Bay Area Higher Education Joint Laboratory of Maternal-Fetal Medicine, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Honglei Ren
- Department of Neurology, Tianjin Neurological Institute, Tianjin Institute of Immunology, State Key Laboratory of Experimental Hematology, Haihe Laboratory of Cell Ecosystem, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin, China
| | - Yong Fan
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Major Obstetric Diseases, Guangdong Provincial Clinical Research Center for Obstetrics and Gynecology, Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macao Greater Bay Area Higher Education Joint Laboratory of Maternal-Fetal Medicine, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, China
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Evans LJ, O'Brien D, Shaw PJ. Current neuroprotective therapies and future prospects for motor neuron disease. INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF NEUROBIOLOGY 2024; 176:327-384. [PMID: 38802178 DOI: 10.1016/bs.irn.2024.04.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/29/2024]
Abstract
Four medications with neuroprotective disease-modifying effects are now in use for motor neuron disease (MND). With FDA approvals for tofersen, relyvrio and edaravone in just the past year, 2022 ended a quarter of a century when riluzole was the sole such drug to offer to patients. The acceleration of approvals may mean we are witnessing the beginning of a step-change in how MND can be treated. Improvements in understanding underlying disease biology has led to more therapies being developed to target specific and multiple disease mechanisms. Consideration for how the pipeline of new therapeutic agents coming through in clinical and preclinical development can be more effectively evaluated with biomarkers, advances in patient stratification and clinical trial design pave the way for more successful translation for this archetypal complex neurodegenerative disease. While it must be cautioned that only slowed rates of progression have so far been demonstrated, pre-empting rapid neurodegeneration by using neurofilament biomarkers to signal when to treat, as is currently being trialled with tofersen, may be more effective for patients with known genetic predisposition to MND. Early intervention with personalized medicines could mean that for some patients at least, in future we may be able to substantially treat what is considered by many to be one of the most distressing diseases in medicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura J Evans
- The Sheffield Institute for Translational Neuroscience, and the NIHR Sheffield Biomedical Research Centre, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, United Kingdom
| | - David O'Brien
- The Sheffield Institute for Translational Neuroscience, and the NIHR Sheffield Biomedical Research Centre, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, United Kingdom
| | - Pamela J Shaw
- The Sheffield Institute for Translational Neuroscience, and the NIHR Sheffield Biomedical Research Centre, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, United Kingdom.
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Searleman AC, Ma Y, Sampath S, Sampath S, Bussell R, Chang EY, Deaton L, Schumacher AM, Du J. 3D inversion recovery ultrashort echo time MRI can detect demyelination in cuprizone-treated mice. FRONTIERS IN NEUROIMAGING 2024; 3:1356713. [PMID: 38783990 PMCID: PMC11111995 DOI: 10.3389/fnimg.2024.1356713] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2023] [Accepted: 04/15/2024] [Indexed: 05/25/2024]
Abstract
Purpose To test the ability of inversion-recovery ultrashort echo time (IR-UTE) MRI to directly detect demyelination in mice using a standard cuprizone mouse model. Methods Non-aqueous myelin protons have ultrashort T2s and are "invisible" with conventional MRI sequences but can be detected with UTE sequences. The IR-UTE sequence uses an adiabatic inversion-recovery preparation to suppress the long T2 water signal so that the remaining signal is from the ultrashort T2 myelin component. In this study, eight 8-week-old C57BL/6 mice were fed cuprizone (n = 4) or control chow (n = 4) for 5 weeks and then imaged by 3D IR-UTE MRI. The differences in IR-UTE signal were compared in the major white matter tracts in the brain and correlated with the Luxol Fast Blue histochemical marker of myelin. Results IR-UTE signal decreased in cuprizone-treated mice in white matter known to be sensitive to demyelination in this model, such as the corpus callosum, but not in white matter known to be resistant to demyelination, such as the internal capsule. These findings correlated with histochemical staining of myelin content. Conclusions 3D IR-UTE MRI was sensitive to cuprizone-induced demyelination in the mouse brain, and is a promising noninvasive method for measuring brain myelin content.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam C. Searleman
- Department of Radiology, University of California, San Diego, San Diego, CA, United States
| | - Yajun Ma
- Department of Radiology, University of California, San Diego, San Diego, CA, United States
| | - Srihari Sampath
- Department of Radiology, University of California, San Diego, San Diego, CA, United States
| | - Srinath Sampath
- Department of Radiology, University of California, San Diego, San Diego, CA, United States
| | - Robert Bussell
- Department of Radiology, University of California, San Diego, San Diego, CA, United States
| | - Eric Y. Chang
- Department of Radiology, University of California, San Diego, San Diego, CA, United States
- Radiology Service, Veterans Affairs San Diego Healthcare System, San Diego, CA, United States
| | - Lisa Deaton
- Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, San Diego, CA, United States
| | | | - Jiang Du
- Department of Radiology, University of California, San Diego, San Diego, CA, United States
- Radiology Service, Veterans Affairs San Diego Healthcare System, San Diego, CA, United States
- Department of Bioengineering, University of California, San Diego, San Diego, CA, United States
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5
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Baek J, Kim H, Jun J, Kang D, Bae H, Cho H, Hah JM. Discovery of N-(5-amido-2-methylphenyl)-5-methylisoxazole-3-carboxamide as dual CSF-1R/c-Kit Inhibitors with improved stability and BBB permeability. Eur J Med Chem 2024; 268:116253. [PMID: 38401188 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2024.116253] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2023] [Revised: 01/29/2024] [Accepted: 02/15/2024] [Indexed: 02/26/2024]
Abstract
This study explores the potential of CSF-1R inhibitors as therapeutic agents for neurodegenerative diseases. CSF-1R, a receptor tyrosine kinase primarily expressed in macrophage lineages, plays a pivotal role in regulating various cellular processes. Recent research highlights the significance of CSF-1R inhibition in mitigating neuroinflammation, particularly in Alzheimer's disease, where microglial overactivation contributes to neurodegeneration. The research reveals a series of N-(5-amido-2-methylphenyl)-5-methylisoxazole-3-carboxamide CSF-1R inhibitors, where compounds 7d, 7e, and 9a exhibit outstanding inhibitory activities and selectivity, with IC50 values of 33, 31, and 64 nM, respectively. These most promising compounds in this series were profiled for cellular potency and subjected to in vitro pharmacokinetic profiling. These inhibitors exhibit minimal cytotoxicity, even at higher concentrations, and possess promising blood-brain barrier permeability, making them potential candidates for central nervous system diseases. The investigation into the in vitro ADME properties, including plasma and microsomal stability, reveals that these CSF-1R inhibitors maintain their structural integrity and plasma concentration. This resilience positions them for further development as therapeutic agents for neurodegenerative diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jihyun Baek
- Department of Pharmacy, Institute of Pharmaceutical Science and Technology, College of Pharmacy, Hanyang University, 55 Hanyangdaehak-ro, Sangnok-gu, Ansan, Kyeonggi-do, 15588, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyejin Kim
- Department of Pharmacy, Institute of Pharmaceutical Science and Technology, College of Pharmacy, Hanyang University, 55 Hanyangdaehak-ro, Sangnok-gu, Ansan, Kyeonggi-do, 15588, Republic of Korea
| | - Joonhong Jun
- Department of Pharmacy, Institute of Pharmaceutical Science and Technology, College of Pharmacy, Hanyang University, 55 Hanyangdaehak-ro, Sangnok-gu, Ansan, Kyeonggi-do, 15588, Republic of Korea
| | - Dahyun Kang
- Department of Pharmacy, Institute of Pharmaceutical Science and Technology, College of Pharmacy, Hanyang University, 55 Hanyangdaehak-ro, Sangnok-gu, Ansan, Kyeonggi-do, 15588, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyunah Bae
- Department of Pharmacy, Institute of Pharmaceutical Science and Technology, College of Pharmacy, Hanyang University, 55 Hanyangdaehak-ro, Sangnok-gu, Ansan, Kyeonggi-do, 15588, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyunwook Cho
- Department of Pharmacy, Institute of Pharmaceutical Science and Technology, College of Pharmacy, Hanyang University, 55 Hanyangdaehak-ro, Sangnok-gu, Ansan, Kyeonggi-do, 15588, Republic of Korea
| | - Jung-Mi Hah
- Department of Pharmacy, Institute of Pharmaceutical Science and Technology, College of Pharmacy, Hanyang University, 55 Hanyangdaehak-ro, Sangnok-gu, Ansan, Kyeonggi-do, 15588, Republic of Korea.
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Rao Y, Peng B. Allogenic microglia replacement: A novel therapeutic strategy for neurological disorders. FUNDAMENTAL RESEARCH 2024; 4:237-245. [PMID: 38933508 PMCID: PMC11197774 DOI: 10.1016/j.fmre.2023.02.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2022] [Revised: 11/17/2022] [Accepted: 02/19/2023] [Indexed: 03/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Microglia are resident immune cells in the central nervous system (CNS) that play vital roles in CNS development, homeostasis and disease pathogenesis. Genetic defects in microglia lead to microglial dysfunction, which in turn leads to neurological disorders. The correction of the specific genetic defects in microglia in these disorders can lead to therapeutic effects. Traditional genetic defect correction approaches are dependent on viral vector-based genetic defect corrections. However, the viruses used in these approaches, including adeno-associated viruses, lentiviruses and retroviruses, do not primarily target microglia; therefore, viral vector-based genetic defect corrections are ineffective in microglia. Microglia replacement is a novel approach to correct microglial genetic defects via replacing microglia of genetic defects with allogenic healthy microglia. In this paper, we systematically review the history, rationale and therapeutic perspectives of microglia replacement, which would be a novel strategy for treating CNS disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanxia Rao
- Department of Laboratory Animal Science, MOE Frontiers Center for Brain Science, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Bo Peng
- Department of Neurosurgery, Huashan Hospital, Institute for Translational Brain Research, State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology, MOE Frontiers Center for Brain Science, MOE Innovative Center for New Drug Development of Immune Inflammatory Diseases, Fudan University, Shanghai 200000, China
- Co-Innovation Center of Neuroregeneration, Nantong University, Nantong, Jiangsu 226001, China
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7
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Zhou P, Yu ZC, Cao C, Cui HR, Ding MC, Yang CX, Liao M. Pyruvate maintains and enhances the pro-inflammatory response of microglia caused by glucose deficiency in early stroke. J Cell Biochem 2024; 125:e30524. [PMID: 38226453 DOI: 10.1002/jcb.30524] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2023] [Accepted: 12/29/2023] [Indexed: 01/17/2024]
Abstract
Pro-inflammatory microglia mainly rely on glycolysis to maintain cytokine production during ischemia, accompanied by an increase in inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and monocarboxylate transporter 1 (MCT1). The role of energy metabolism in the pro-inflammatory response of microglia is currently unclear. In this study, we tested the response of microglia in mice after cerebral ischemia and simulated an energy environment in vitro using low glucose culture medium. The research results indicate that the expression levels of iNOS and arginase 1 (ARG1) increase in the ischemic mouse brain, but the upregulation of MCT1 expression is mainly present in iNOS positive microglia. In microglia exposed to low glucose conditions, iNOS and MCT1 levels increased, while ARG1 levels decreased. Under the same conditions, knocking down MCT1 in microglia leads to a decrease in iNOS levels, while overexpression of MCT1 leads to the opposite result. The use of NF-κB inhibitors reduced the expression levels of iNOS and MCT1 in microglia. In summary, our data indicate that pyruvate maintains and enhances the NF-κB regulated pro-inflammatory response of microglia induced by low glucose.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peng Zhou
- Institute of Neuroscience, Basic Medical College of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China
- Department of Anatomy, Basic Medical College of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China
| | - Zhe-Cheng Yu
- Institute of Neuroscience, Basic Medical College of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China
| | - Cong Cao
- Institute of Neuroscience, Basic Medical College of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China
| | - Huai-Rui Cui
- Department of Anatomy, Basic Medical College of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China
| | - Mao-Chao Ding
- Department of Anatomy, Basic Medical College of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China
| | - Chao-Xian Yang
- Department of Anatomy, Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, China
| | - Min Liao
- Institute of Neuroscience, Basic Medical College of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China
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8
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Adhikari A, Chauhan K, Adhikari M, Tiwari AK. Colony Stimulating Factor-1 Receptor: An emerging target for neuroinflammation PET imaging and AD therapy. Bioorg Med Chem 2024; 100:117628. [PMID: 38330850 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmc.2024.117628] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2023] [Revised: 01/01/2024] [Accepted: 01/29/2024] [Indexed: 02/10/2024]
Abstract
Although neuroinflammation is a significant pathogenic feature of many neurologic disorders, its precise function in-vivo is still not completely known. PET imaging enables the longitudinal examination, quantification, and tracking of different neuroinflammation biomarkers in living subjects. Particularly, PET imaging of Microglia, specialised dynamic immune cells crucial for maintaining brain homeostasis in central nervous system (CNS), is crucial for staging the neuroinflammation. Colony Stimulating Factor- 1 Receptor (CSF-1R) PET imaging is a novel method for the quantification of neuroinflammation. CSF-1R is mainly expressed on microglia, and neurodegenerative disorders greatly up-regulate its expression. The present review primarily focuses on the development, pros and cons of all the CSF-1R PET tracers reported for neuroinflammation imaging. Apart from neuroinflammation imaging, CSF-1R inhibitors are also reported for the therapy of neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's disease (AD). AD is a prevalent, advancing, and fatal neurodegenerative condition that have the characteristic feature of persistent neuroinflammation and primarily affects the elderly. The aetiology of AD is profoundly influenced by amyloid-beta (Aβ) plaques, intracellular neurofibrillary tangles, and microglial dysfunction. Increasing evidence suggests that CSF-1R inhibitors (CSF-1Ri) can be helpful in preclinical models of neurodegenerative diseases. This review article also summarises the most recent developments of CSF-1Ri-based therapy for AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anupriya Adhikari
- Department of Chemistry, Graphic Era Hill University, Clement Town, Dehradun, Uttarakhand, India.
| | - Kanchan Chauhan
- Centro de Nanociencias y Nanotecnología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Km 107 carretera, Tijuana-Ensenada, Baja California 22860, Mexico
| | - Manish Adhikari
- Department of Physiology and Cell Biology, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, AR, United States
| | - Anjani K Tiwari
- Department of Chemistry, Babasaheb, Bhimrao Ambedkar University, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India
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9
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Weyer MP, Strehle J, Schäfer MKE, Tegeder I. Repurposing of pexidartinib for microglia depletion and renewal. Pharmacol Ther 2024; 253:108565. [PMID: 38052308 DOI: 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2023.108565] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2023] [Revised: 11/20/2023] [Accepted: 11/22/2023] [Indexed: 12/07/2023]
Abstract
Pexidartinib (PLX3397) is a small molecule receptor tyrosine kinase inhibitor of colony stimulating factor 1 receptor (CSF1R) with moderate selectivity over other members of the platelet derived growth factor receptor family. It is approved for treatment of tenosynovial giant cell tumors (TGCT). CSF1R is highly expressed by microglia, which are macrophages of the central nervous system (CNS) that defend the CNS against injury and pathogens and contribute to synapse development and plasticity. Challenged by pathogens, apoptotic cells, debris, or inflammatory molecules they adopt a responsive state to propagate the inflammation and eventually return to a homeostatic state. The phenotypic switch may fail, and disease-associated microglia contribute to the pathophysiology in neurodegenerative or neuropsychiatric diseases or long-lasting detrimental brain inflammation after brain, spinal cord or nerve injury or ischemia/hemorrhage. Microglia also contribute to the growth permissive tumor microenvironment of glioblastoma (GBM). In rodents, continuous treatment for 1-2 weeks via pexidartinib food pellets leads to a depletion of microglia and subsequent repopulation from the remaining fraction, which is aided by peripheral monocytes that search empty niches for engraftment. The putative therapeutic benefit of such microglia depletion or forced renewal has been assessed in almost any rodent model of CNS disease or injury or GBM with heterogeneous outcomes, but a tendency of partial beneficial effects. So far, microglia monitoring e.g. via positron emission imaging is not standard of care for patients receiving Pexidartinib (e.g. for TGCT), so that the depletion and repopulation efficiency in humans is still largely unknown. Considering the virtuous functions of microglia, continuous depletion is likely no therapeutic option but short-lasting transient partial depletion to stimulate microglia renewal or replace microglia in genetic disease in combination with e.g. stem cell transplantation or as part of a multimodal concept in treatment of glioblastoma appears feasible. The present review provides an overview of the preclinical evidence pro and contra microglia depletion as a therapeutic approach.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marc-Philipp Weyer
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Goethe-University Frankfurt, Faculty of Medicine, Frankfurt, Germany
| | - Jenny Strehle
- Department of Anesthesiology, University Medical Center Johannes Gutenberg-University Mainz, Germany
| | - Michael K E Schäfer
- Department of Anesthesiology, University Medical Center Johannes Gutenberg-University Mainz, Germany
| | - Irmgard Tegeder
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Goethe-University Frankfurt, Faculty of Medicine, Frankfurt, Germany.
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10
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Baaklini CS, Ho MFS, Lange T, Hammond BP, Panda SP, Zirngibl M, Zia S, Himmelsbach K, Rana H, Phillips B, Antoszko D, Ibanga J, Lopez M, Lee KV, Keough MB, Caprariello AV, Kerr BJ, Plemel JR. Microglia promote remyelination independent of their role in clearing myelin debris. Cell Rep 2023; 42:113574. [PMID: 38100356 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2023.113574] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2023] [Revised: 10/17/2023] [Accepted: 11/27/2023] [Indexed: 12/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Multiple sclerosis (MS) is an inflammatory disease characterized by myelin loss. While therapies exist to slow MS progression, no treatment currently exists for remyelination. Remyelination, linked to reduced disability in MS, relies on microglia and monocyte-derived macrophages (MDMs). This study aims to understand the role of microglia during remyelination by lineage tracing and depleting them. Microglial lineage tracing reveals that both microglia and MDMs initially accumulate, but microglia later dominate the lesion. Microglia and MDMs engulf equal amounts of inhibitory myelin debris, but after microglial depletion, MDMs compensate by engulfing more myelin debris. Microglial depletion does, however, reduce the recruitment and proliferation of oligodendrocyte progenitor cells (OPCs) and impairs their subsequent differentiation and remyelination. These findings underscore the essential role of microglia during remyelination and offer insights for enhancing this process by understanding microglial regulation of remyelination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charbel S Baaklini
- Neuroscience and Mental Health Institute, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2R3, Canada
| | - Madelene F S Ho
- Neuroscience and Mental Health Institute, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2R3, Canada
| | - Tristan Lange
- Neuroscience and Mental Health Institute, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2R3, Canada
| | - Brady P Hammond
- Neuroscience and Mental Health Institute, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2R3, Canada
| | - Sharmistha P Panda
- Neuroscience and Mental Health Institute, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2R3, Canada
| | - Martin Zirngibl
- Neuroscience and Mental Health Institute, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2R3, Canada
| | - Sameera Zia
- Neuroscience and Mental Health Institute, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2R3, Canada
| | - Kassandre Himmelsbach
- Neuroscience and Mental Health Institute, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2R3, Canada
| | - Heli Rana
- Neuroscience and Mental Health Institute, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2R3, Canada
| | - Braxton Phillips
- Neuroscience and Mental Health Institute, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2R3, Canada
| | - Daria Antoszko
- Neuroscience and Mental Health Institute, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2R3, Canada
| | - Jeremies Ibanga
- Neuroscience and Mental Health Institute, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2R3, Canada
| | - Mizuki Lopez
- Neuroscience and Mental Health Institute, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2R3, Canada
| | - Kelly V Lee
- Neuroscience and Mental Health Institute, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2R3, Canada
| | - Michael B Keough
- Division of Neurosurgery, Department of Surgery, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2R3, Canada
| | - Andrew V Caprariello
- Department of Clinical Neurosciences, Hotchkiss Brain Institute, University of Calgary, Cumming School of Medicine, Calgary, AB T2N 1N4, Canada
| | - Bradley J Kerr
- Neuroscience and Mental Health Institute, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2R3, Canada; Department of Anesthesiology & Pain Medicine, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2R3, Canada
| | - Jason R Plemel
- Neuroscience and Mental Health Institute, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2R3, Canada; Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2R3, Canada; Department of Medicine, Division of Neurology, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2R3, Canada.
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Alkubaisi BO, Aljobowry R, Ali SM, Sultan S, Zaraei SO, Ravi A, Al-Tel TH, El-Gamal MI. The latest perspectives of small molecules FMS kinase inhibitors. Eur J Med Chem 2023; 261:115796. [PMID: 37708796 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2023.115796] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2023] [Revised: 09/03/2023] [Accepted: 09/04/2023] [Indexed: 09/16/2023]
Abstract
FMS kinase is a type III tyrosine kinase receptor that plays a central role in the pathophysiology and management of several diseases, including a range of cancer types, inflammatory disorders, neurodegenerative disorders, and bone disorders among others. In this review, the pathophysiological pathways of FMS kinase in different diseases and the recent developments of its monoclonal antibodies and inhibitors during the last five years are discussed. The biological and biochemical features of these inhibitors, including binding interactions, structure-activity relationships (SAR), selectivity, and potencies are discussed. The focus of this article is on the compounds that are promising leads and undergoing advanced clinical investigations, as well as on those that received FDA approval. In this article, we attempt to classify the reviewed FMS inhibitors according to their core chemical structure including pyridine, pyrrolopyridine, pyrazolopyridine, quinoline, and pyrimidine derivatives.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bilal O Alkubaisi
- Research Institute for Medical and Health Sciences, University of Sharjah, Sharjah, 27272, United Arab Emirates
| | - Raya Aljobowry
- College of Pharmacy, University of Sharjah, Sharjah, 27272, United Arab Emirates
| | - Salma M Ali
- College of Pharmacy, University of Sharjah, Sharjah, 27272, United Arab Emirates
| | - Sara Sultan
- College of Pharmacy, University of Sharjah, Sharjah, 27272, United Arab Emirates
| | - Seyed-Omar Zaraei
- Research Institute for Medical and Health Sciences, University of Sharjah, Sharjah, 27272, United Arab Emirates
| | - Anil Ravi
- Research Institute for Medical and Health Sciences, University of Sharjah, Sharjah, 27272, United Arab Emirates
| | - Taleb H Al-Tel
- Research Institute for Medical and Health Sciences, University of Sharjah, Sharjah, 27272, United Arab Emirates; College of Pharmacy, University of Sharjah, Sharjah, 27272, United Arab Emirates.
| | - Mohammed I El-Gamal
- Research Institute for Medical and Health Sciences, University of Sharjah, Sharjah, 27272, United Arab Emirates; College of Pharmacy, University of Sharjah, Sharjah, 27272, United Arab Emirates; Faculty of Pharmacy, Mansoura University, Mansoura, 35516, Egypt.
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12
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Mokhtarzadeh Khanghahi A, Rayatpour A, Baharvand H, Javan M. Neuroglial components of brain lesions may provide new therapeutic strategies for multiple sclerosis. Neurol Sci 2023; 44:3795-3807. [PMID: 37410268 DOI: 10.1007/s10072-023-06915-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2022] [Accepted: 06/14/2023] [Indexed: 07/07/2023]
Abstract
Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a chronic autoimmune and demyelinating disease of the central nervous system (CNS) which leads to focal demyelinated lesions in the brain and spinal cord. Failure of remyelination contributes to chronic disability in young adults. Characterization of events occurring during the demyelination and remyelination processes and those of which subsequently limit remyelination or contribute to demyelination can provide the possibility of new therapies development for MS. Most of the currently available therapies and investigations modulate immune responses and mediators. Since most therapeutic strategies have unsatisfied outcomes, developing new therapies that enhance brain lesion repair is a priority. A close look at cellular and chemical components of MS lesions will pave the way to a better understanding of lesions pathology and will provide possible opportunities for repair strategies and targeted pharmacotherapy. This review summarizes the lesion components and features, particularly the detrimental elements, and discusses the possibility of suggesting new potential targets as therapies for demyelinating diseases like MS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Akram Mokhtarzadeh Khanghahi
- Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Cell Science Research Center, Royan Institute for Stem Cell Biology and Technology, ACECR, Tehran, Iran
| | - Atefeh Rayatpour
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, Iran
- Institute for Brain and Cognition, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, Iran
| | - Hossein Baharvand
- Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Cell Science Research Center, Royan Institute for Stem Cell Biology and Technology, ACECR, Tehran, Iran
| | - Mohammad Javan
- Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Cell Science Research Center, Royan Institute for Stem Cell Biology and Technology, ACECR, Tehran, Iran.
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, Iran.
- Institute for Brain and Cognition, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, Iran.
- International Collaboration on Repair Discoveries (ICORD), the University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada.
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13
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Xavier S, Younesi S, Sominsky L, Spencer SJ. Inhibiting microglia exacerbates the early effects of cuprizone in males in a rat model of multiple sclerosis, with no effect in females. Front Neurol 2023; 14:989132. [PMID: 37745672 PMCID: PMC10516553 DOI: 10.3389/fneur.2023.989132] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2022] [Accepted: 08/28/2023] [Indexed: 09/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Hyper-activity of the brain's innate immune cells, microglia, is a hallmark of multiple sclerosis (MS). However, it is not clear whether this involvement of microglia is beneficial or detrimental or whether manipulating microglial activity may be therapeutic. We investigated if inhibiting microglial activity with minocycline prevents the early changes in oligodendrocyte and myelin-related markers associated with a demyelinating challenge in adult female and male rats. Cuprizone reduced the expression of myelin and oligodendrocyte genes in both females and males, reflective of cuprizone intoxication and the early phases demyelination, and reduced the number of oligodendrocytes in the corpus callosum. However, we see notable differences in the role for microglia in this response between females and males. In males, myelin and oligodendrocyte genes, as well as oligodendrocytes were also reduced by minocycline treatment; an effect that was not seen in females. In males, but not females, early changes in oligodendrocyte and myelin-related genes were associated with microglial proliferation in corpus callosum, and this increase was reversed by minocycline. These data indicate sex-specific effects of inhibiting microglia on the early changes leading to demyelination in an MS model and suggest microglia may play a key role in myelin stability in males but not in females. This highlights a strong need for sex-specific understanding of disease development in MS and suggest that treatments targeting microglia may be more effective in males than in females due to differing mechanisms of disease progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Soniya Xavier
- School of Health and Biomedical Sciences, RMIT University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Simin Younesi
- School of Health and Biomedical Sciences, RMIT University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Luba Sominsky
- School of Health and Biomedical Sciences, RMIT University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
- Barwon Health Laboratory, Barwon Health, University Hospital, Geelong, VIC, Australia
- School of Medicine, Institute for Physical and Mental Health and Clinical Transformation, Deakin University, Geelong, VIC, Australia
| | - Sarah J. Spencer
- School of Health and Biomedical Sciences, RMIT University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
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14
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Obrecht M, Zurbruegg S, Accart N, Lambert C, Doelemeyer A, Ledermann B, Beckmann N. Magnetic resonance imaging and ultrasound elastography in the context of preclinical pharmacological research: significance for the 3R principles. Front Pharmacol 2023; 14:1177421. [PMID: 37448960 PMCID: PMC10337591 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2023.1177421] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2023] [Accepted: 06/16/2023] [Indexed: 07/18/2023] Open
Abstract
The 3Rs principles-reduction, refinement, replacement-are at the core of preclinical research within drug discovery, which still relies to a great extent on the availability of models of disease in animals. Minimizing their distress, reducing their number as well as searching for means to replace them in experimental studies are constant objectives in this area. Due to its non-invasive character in vivo imaging supports these efforts by enabling repeated longitudinal assessments in each animal which serves as its own control, thereby enabling to reduce considerably the animal utilization in the experiments. The repetitive monitoring of pathology progression and the effects of therapy becomes feasible by assessment of quantitative biomarkers. Moreover, imaging has translational prospects by facilitating the comparison of studies performed in small rodents and humans. Also, learnings from the clinic may be potentially back-translated to preclinical settings and therefore contribute to refining animal investigations. By concentrating on activities around the application of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and ultrasound elastography to small rodent models of disease, we aim to illustrate how in vivo imaging contributes primarily to reduction and refinement in the context of pharmacological research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Obrecht
- Diseases of Aging and Regenerative Medicines, Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Stefan Zurbruegg
- Neurosciences Department, Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Nathalie Accart
- Diseases of Aging and Regenerative Medicines, Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Christian Lambert
- Diseases of Aging and Regenerative Medicines, Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Arno Doelemeyer
- Diseases of Aging and Regenerative Medicines, Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Birgit Ledermann
- 3Rs Leader, Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Nicolau Beckmann
- Diseases of Aging and Regenerative Medicines, Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, Basel, Switzerland
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15
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Haydar D, Ibañez-Vega J, Crawford JC, Chou CH, Guy C, Meehl M, Yi Z, Langfitt D, Vogel P, DeRenzo C, Gottschalk S, Roussel MF, Thomas PG, Krenciute G. CAR T-cell design dependent remodeling of the brain tumor immune microenvironment identify macrophages as key players that inhibit or promote anti-tumor activity. RESEARCH SQUARE 2023:rs.3.rs-2972427. [PMID: 37333156 PMCID: PMC10275057 DOI: 10.21203/rs.3.rs-2972427/v1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/20/2023]
Abstract
Understanding interactions between adoptively transferred immune cells and the tumor immune microenvironment (TIME) is critical for developing successful T-cell based immunotherapies. Here we investigated the impact of the TIME and chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) design on anti-glioma activity of B7-H3-specific CAR T-cells. We show that five out of six B7-H3 CARs with varying transmembrane, co-stimulatory, and activation domains, exhibit robust functionality in vitro. However, in an immunocompetent glioma model, these CAR T-cells demonstrated significantly varied levels of anti-tumor activity. We used single-cell RNA sequencing to examine the brain TIME after CAR T-cell therapy. We show that the TIME composition was influenced by CAR T-cell treatment. We also found that successful anti-tumor responses were supported by the presence and activity of macrophages and endogenous T-cells. Together, our study demonstrates that efficacy of CAR T-cell therapy in high-grade glioma is dependent on CAR structural design and its capacity to modulate the TIME.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dalia Haydar
- St. Jude Children’s Research Hospital, Department of Bone Marrow Transplantation and Cellular Therapy, Memphis, TN, USA
- Children’s National Hospital, Center for Cancer and Immunology Research, Washington, DC, USA
| | - Jorge Ibañez-Vega
- St. Jude Children’s Research Hospital, Department of Bone Marrow Transplantation and Cellular Therapy, Memphis, TN, USA
| | | | - Ching-Heng Chou
- St. Jude Children’s Research Hospital, Department of Immunology, Memphis, TN, USA
| | - Cliff Guy
- St. Jude Children’s Research Hospital, Department of Immunology, Memphis, TN, USA
| | - Michaela Meehl
- St. Jude Children’s Research Hospital, Department of Bone Marrow Transplantation and Cellular Therapy, Memphis, TN, USA
- University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Department of Microbiology Immunology Biochemistry, Memphis, TN, USA
| | - Zhongzhen Yi
- St. Jude Children’s Research Hospital, Department of Bone Marrow Transplantation and Cellular Therapy, Memphis, TN, USA
- Children’s National Hospital, Center for Cancer and Immunology Research, Washington, DC, USA
| | - Deanna Langfitt
- St. Jude Children’s Research Hospital, Department of Bone Marrow Transplantation and Cellular Therapy, Memphis, TN, USA
| | - Peter Vogel
- St. Jude Children’s Research Hospital, Department of Pathology, Memphis, TN, USA
| | - Christopher DeRenzo
- St. Jude Children’s Research Hospital, Department of Bone Marrow Transplantation and Cellular Therapy, Memphis, TN, USA
| | - Stephen Gottschalk
- St. Jude Children’s Research Hospital, Department of Bone Marrow Transplantation and Cellular Therapy, Memphis, TN, USA
| | - Martine F Roussel
- St. Jude Children’s Research Hospital, Department of Tumor Cell Biology, Memphis, TN, USA
| | - Paul G. Thomas
- St. Jude Children’s Research Hospital, Department of Immunology, Memphis, TN, USA
| | - Giedre Krenciute
- St. Jude Children’s Research Hospital, Department of Bone Marrow Transplantation and Cellular Therapy, Memphis, TN, USA
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16
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Distéfano-Gagné F, Bitarafan S, Lacroix S, Gosselin D. Roles and regulation of microglia activity in multiple sclerosis: insights from animal models. Nat Rev Neurosci 2023:10.1038/s41583-023-00709-6. [PMID: 37268822 DOI: 10.1038/s41583-023-00709-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 04/28/2023] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
As resident macrophages of the CNS, microglia are critical immune effectors of inflammatory lesions and associated neural dysfunctions. In multiple sclerosis (MS) and its animal models, chronic microglial inflammatory activity damages myelin and disrupts axonal and synaptic activity. In contrast to these detrimental effects, the potent phagocytic and tissue-remodelling capabilities of microglia support critical endogenous repair mechanisms. Although these opposing capabilities have long been appreciated, a precise understanding of their underlying molecular effectors is only beginning to emerge. Here, we review recent advances in our understanding of the roles of microglia in animal models of MS and demyelinating lesions and the mechanisms that underlie their damaging and repairing activities. We also discuss how the structured organization and regulation of the genome enables complex transcriptional heterogeneity within the microglial cell population at demyelinating lesions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Félix Distéfano-Gagné
- Axe Neuroscience, Centre de Recherche du CHU de Québec - Université Laval, Québec, Québec, Canada
- Département de Médecine Moléculaire de la Faculté de Médecine, Université Laval, Québec, Québec, Canada
| | - Sara Bitarafan
- Axe Neuroscience, Centre de Recherche du CHU de Québec - Université Laval, Québec, Québec, Canada
- Département de Médecine Moléculaire de la Faculté de Médecine, Université Laval, Québec, Québec, Canada
| | - Steve Lacroix
- Axe Neuroscience, Centre de Recherche du CHU de Québec - Université Laval, Québec, Québec, Canada
- Département de Médecine Moléculaire de la Faculté de Médecine, Université Laval, Québec, Québec, Canada
| | - David Gosselin
- Axe Neuroscience, Centre de Recherche du CHU de Québec - Université Laval, Québec, Québec, Canada.
- Département de Médecine Moléculaire de la Faculté de Médecine, Université Laval, Québec, Québec, Canada.
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17
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Beckmann N, Neuhaus A, Zurbruegg S, Volkmer P, Patino C, Joller S, Feuerbach D, Doelemeyer A, Schweizer T, Rudin S, Neumann U, Berth R, Frieauff W, Gasparini F, Shimshek DR. Genetic models of cleavage-reduced and soluble TREM2 reveal distinct effects on myelination and microglia function in the cuprizone model. J Neuroinflammation 2023; 20:29. [PMID: 36755323 PMCID: PMC9909920 DOI: 10.1186/s12974-022-02671-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2022] [Accepted: 12/12/2022] [Indexed: 02/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Triggering receptor expressed on myeloid cells 2 (TREM2) is a cell-surface immunoreceptor expressed on microglia, osteoclasts, dendritic cells and macrophages. Heterozygous loss-of-function mutations in TREM2, including mutations enhancing shedding form the cell surface, have been associated with myelin/neuronal loss and neuroinflammation in neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer`s disease and Frontotemporal Dementia. Using the cuprizone model, we investigated the involvement of soluble and cleavage-reduced TREM2 on central myelination processes in cleavage-reduced (TREM2-IPD), soluble-only (TREM2-sol), knockout (TREM2-KO) and wild-type (WT) mice. The TREM2-sol mouse is a new model with selective elimination of plasma membrane TREM2 and a reduced expression of soluble TREM2. In the acute cuprizone model demyelination and remyelination events were reflected by a T2-weighted signal intensity change in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), most prominently in the external capsule (EC). In contrast to WT and TREM2-IPD, TREM2-sol and TREM2-KO showed an additional increase in MRI signal during the recovery phase. Histological analyses of TREM2-IPD animals revealed no recovery of neuroinflammation as well as of the lysosomal marker LAMP-1 and displayed enhanced cytokine/chemokine levels in the brain. TREM2-sol and, to a much lesser extent, TREM2-KO, however, despite presenting reduced levels of some cytokines/chemokines, showed persistent microgliosis and astrocytosis during recovery, with both homeostatic (TMEM119) as well as activated (LAMP-1) microglia markers increased. This was accompanied, specifically in the EC, by no myelin recovery, with appearance of myelin debris and axonal pathology, while oligodendrocytes recovered. In the chronic model consisting of 12-week cuprizone administration followed by 3-week recovery TREM2-IPD displayed sustained microgliosis and enhanced remyelination in the recovery phase. Taken together, our data suggest that sustained microglia activation led to increased remyelination, whereas microglia without plasma membrane TREM2 and only soluble TREM2 had reduced phagocytic activity despite efficient lysosomal function, as observed in bone marrow-derived macrophages, leading to a dysfunctional phenotype with improper myelin debris removal, lack of remyelination and axonal pathology following cuprizone intoxication.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicolau Beckmann
- grid.419481.10000 0001 1515 9979Musculoskeletal Diseases Area, Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, Novartis Pharma AG, CH-4002 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Anna Neuhaus
- grid.419481.10000 0001 1515 9979Neuroscience, Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, Novartis Pharma AG, CH-4002 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Stefan Zurbruegg
- grid.419481.10000 0001 1515 9979Neuroscience, Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, Novartis Pharma AG, CH-4002 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Pia Volkmer
- grid.419481.10000 0001 1515 9979Neuroscience, Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, Novartis Pharma AG, CH-4002 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Claudia Patino
- grid.419481.10000 0001 1515 9979Neuroscience, Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, Novartis Pharma AG, CH-4002 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Stefanie Joller
- grid.419481.10000 0001 1515 9979Neuroscience, Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, Novartis Pharma AG, CH-4002 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Dominik Feuerbach
- grid.419481.10000 0001 1515 9979Neuroscience, Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, Novartis Pharma AG, CH-4002 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Arno Doelemeyer
- grid.419481.10000 0001 1515 9979Musculoskeletal Diseases Area, Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, Novartis Pharma AG, CH-4002 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Tatjana Schweizer
- grid.419481.10000 0001 1515 9979Neuroscience, Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, Novartis Pharma AG, CH-4002 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Stefan Rudin
- grid.419481.10000 0001 1515 9979Neuroscience, Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, Novartis Pharma AG, CH-4002 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Ulf Neumann
- grid.419481.10000 0001 1515 9979Neuroscience, Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, Novartis Pharma AG, CH-4002 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Ramon Berth
- grid.419481.10000 0001 1515 9979Neuroscience, Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, Novartis Pharma AG, CH-4002 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Wilfried Frieauff
- grid.419481.10000 0001 1515 9979Preclinical Safety, Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, Novartis Pharma AG, CH-4002 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Fabrizio Gasparini
- grid.419481.10000 0001 1515 9979Neuroscience, Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, Novartis Pharma AG, CH-4002 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Derya R. Shimshek
- grid.419481.10000 0001 1515 9979Neuroscience, Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, Novartis Pharma AG, CH-4002 Basel, Switzerland
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18
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Mapping myelin in white matter with T1-weighted/T2-weighted maps: discrepancy with histology and other myelin MRI measures. Brain Struct Funct 2023; 228:525-535. [PMID: 36692695 PMCID: PMC9944377 DOI: 10.1007/s00429-022-02600-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2022] [Accepted: 11/18/2022] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
The ratio of T1-weighted/T2-weighted magnetic resonance images (T1w/T2w MRI) has been successfully applied at the cortical level since 2011 and is now one of the most used myelin mapping methods. However, no reports have explored the histological validity of T1w/T2w myelin mapping in white matter. Here we compare T1w/T2w with ex vivo postmortem histology and in vivo MRI methods, namely quantitative susceptibility mapping (QSM) and multi-echo T2 myelin water fraction (MWF) mapping techniques. We report a discrepancy between T1w/T2w myelin maps of the human corpus callosum and the histology and analyse the putative causes behind such discrepancy. T1w/T2w does not positively correlate with Luxol Fast Blue (LFB)-Optical Density but shows a weak to moderate, yet significant, negative correlation. On the contrary, MWF is strongly and positively correlated with LFB, whereas T1w/T2w and MWF maps are weakly negatively correlated. The discrepancy between T1w/T2w MRI maps, MWF and histological myelin maps suggests caution in using T1w/T2w as a white matter mapping method at the callosal level. While T1w/T2w imaging may correlate with myelin content at the cortical level, it is not a specific method to map myelin density in white matter.
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19
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Xiang C, Li H, Tang W. Targeting CSF-1R represents an effective strategy in modulating inflammatory diseases. Pharmacol Res 2023; 187:106566. [PMID: 36423789 DOI: 10.1016/j.phrs.2022.106566] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2022] [Revised: 11/12/2022] [Accepted: 11/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Colony-stimulating factor-1 receptor (CSF-1R), also known as FMS kinase, is a type I single transmembrane protein mainly expressed in myeloid cells, such as monocytes, macrophages, glial cells, and osteoclasts. The endogenous ligands, colony-stimulating factor-1 (CSF-1) and Interleukin-34 (IL-34), activate CSF-1R and downstream signaling pathways including PI3K-AKT, JAK-STATs, and MAPKs, and modulate the proliferation, differentiation, migration, and activation of target immune cells. Over the past decades, the promising therapeutic potential of CSF-1R signaling inhibition has been widely studied for decreasing immune suppression and escape in tumors, owing to depletion and reprogramming of tumor-associated macrophages. In addition, the excessive activation of CSF-1R in inflammatory diseases is consecutively uncovered in recent years, which may result in inflammation in bone, kidney, lung, liver and central nervous system. Agents against CSF-1R signaling have been increasingly investigated in preclinical or clinical studies for inflammatory diseases treatment. However, the pathological mechanism of CSF-1R in inflammation is indistinct and whether CSF-1R signaling can be identified as biomarkers remains controversial. With the background information aforementioned, this review focus on the dialectical roles of CSF-1R and its ligands in regulating innate immune cells and highlights various therapeutic implications of blocking CSF-1R signaling in inflammatory diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caigui Xiang
- Laboratory of Anti-inflammation and Immunopharmacology, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 201203, China; School of Pharmacy, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Heng Li
- Laboratory of Anti-inflammation and Immunopharmacology, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 201203, China.
| | - Wei Tang
- Laboratory of Anti-inflammation and Immunopharmacology, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 201203, China; School of Pharmacy, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China.
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20
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Implications of microglial heterogeneity in spinal cord injury progression and therapy. Exp Neurol 2023; 359:114239. [PMID: 36216123 DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2022.114239] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2022] [Revised: 09/21/2022] [Accepted: 10/03/2022] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
Microglia are widely distributed in the central nervous system (CNS), where they aid in the maintenance of neuronal function and perform key auxiliary roles in phagocytosis, neural repair, immunological control, and nutrition delivery. Microglia in the undamaged spinal cord is in a stable state and serve as immune monitors. In the event of spinal cord injury (SCI), severe changes in the microenvironment and glial scar formation lead to axonal regeneration failure. Microglia participates in a series of pathophysiological processes and behave both positive and negative consequences during this period. A deep understanding of the characteristics and functions of microglia can better identify therapeutic targets for SCI. Technological innovations such as single-cell RNA sequencing (Sc-RNAseq) have led to new advances in the study of microglia heterogeneity throughout the lifespan. Here,We review the updated studies searching for heterogeneity of microglia from the developmental and pathological state, survey the activity and function of microglia in SCI and explore the recent therapeutic strategies targeting microglia in the CNS injury.
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21
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Leo H, Kipp M. Remyelination in Multiple Sclerosis: Findings in the Cuprizone Model. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms232416093. [PMID: 36555733 PMCID: PMC9783537 DOI: 10.3390/ijms232416093] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2022] [Revised: 12/14/2022] [Accepted: 12/15/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Remyelination therapies, which are currently under development, have a great potential to delay, prevent or even reverse disability in multiple sclerosis patients. Several models are available to study the effectiveness of novel compounds in vivo, among which is the cuprizone model. This model is characterized by toxin-induced demyelination, followed by endogenous remyelination after cessation of the intoxication. Due to its high reproducibility and ease of use, this model enjoys high popularity among various research and industrial groups. In this review article, we will summarize recent findings using this model and discuss the potential of some of the identified compounds to promote remyelination in multiple sclerosis patients.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Markus Kipp
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +49-(0)-381-494-8400
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22
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Javanmehr N, Saleki K, Alijanizadeh P, Rezaei N. Microglia dynamics in aging-related neurobehavioral and neuroinflammatory diseases. J Neuroinflammation 2022; 19:273. [PMID: 36397116 PMCID: PMC9669544 DOI: 10.1186/s12974-022-02637-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2022] [Accepted: 11/01/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Microglia represent the first line of immune feedback in the brain. Beyond immune surveillance, they are essential for maintaining brain homeostasis. Recent research has revealed the microglial cells' spatiotemporal heterogeneity based on their local and time-based functions in brain trauma or disease when homeostasis is disrupted. Distinct "microglial signatures" have been recorded in physiological states and brain injuries, with discrete or sometimes overlapping pro- and anti-inflammatory functions. Microglia are involved in the neurological repair processes, such as neurovascular unit restoration and synaptic plasticity, and manage the extent of the damage due to their phenotype switching. The versatility of cellular phenotypes beyond the classical M1/M2 classification, as well as the double-edge actions of microglia in neurodegeneration, indicate the need for further exploration of microglial cell dynamics and their contribution to neurodegenerative processes. This review discusses the homeostatic functions of different microglial subsets focusing on neuropathological conditions. Also, we address the feasibility of targeting microglia as a therapeutic strategy in neurodegenerative diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nima Javanmehr
- Student Research Committee, Babol University of Medical Sciences, Babol, Iran
- USERN Office, Babol University of Medical Sciences, Babol, Iran
| | - Kiarash Saleki
- Student Research Committee, Babol University of Medical Sciences, Babol, Iran
- USERN Office, Babol University of Medical Sciences, Babol, Iran
| | - Parsa Alijanizadeh
- Student Research Committee, Babol University of Medical Sciences, Babol, Iran
- USERN Office, Babol University of Medical Sciences, Babol, Iran
| | - Nima Rezaei
- Research Center for Immunodeficiencies, Children's Medical Center Hospital, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Dr. Qarib St, Keshavarz Blvd, Tehran, 14194, Iran.
- Department of Immunology, School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.
- Network of Immunity in Infection, Malignancy and Autoimmunity (NIIMA), Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN), Tehran, Iran.
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Chokr SM, Milinkeviciute G, Jimenez GA, Abubakr H, Cramer KS. Long-term microglia depletion impairs synapse elimination and auditory brainstem function. Sci Rep 2022; 12:18521. [PMID: 36323869 PMCID: PMC9630367 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-23250-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2022] [Accepted: 10/27/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Specialized sound localization circuit development requires synapse strengthening, refinement, and pruning. Many of these functions are carried out by microglia, immune cells that aid in regulating neurogenesis, synaptogenesis, apoptosis, and synaptic removal. We previously showed that postnatal treatment with BLZ945 (BLZ), an inhibitor of colony stimulating factor 1 receptor (CSF1R), eliminates microglia in the brainstem and disables calyceal pruning and maturation of astrocytes in the medial nucleus of the trapezoid body (MNTB). BLZ treatment results in elevated hearing thresholds and delayed signal propagation as measured by auditory brainstem responses (ABR). However, when microglia repopulate the brain following the cessation of BLZ, most of the deficits are repaired. It is unknown whether this recovery is achievable without the return of microglia. Here, we induced sustained microglial elimination with a two-drug approach using BLZ and PLX5622 (PLX). We found that BLZ/PLX treated mice had impaired calyceal pruning, diminished astrocytic GFAP in the lateral, low frequency, region of MNTB, and elevated glycine transporter 2 (GLYT2) levels. BLZ/PLX treated mice had elevated hearing thresholds, diminished peak amplitudes, and altered latencies and inter-peak latencies. These findings suggest that microglia are required to repopulate the brain in order to rectify deficits from their ablation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sima M Chokr
- Department of Neurobiology and Behavior, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, 92697, USA
| | - Giedre Milinkeviciute
- Department of Neurobiology and Behavior, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, 92697, USA
| | - Gisselle A Jimenez
- Department of Neurobiology and Behavior, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, 92697, USA
| | - Hakeem Abubakr
- Department of Neurobiology and Behavior, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, 92697, USA
| | - Karina S Cramer
- Department of Neurobiology and Behavior, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, 92697, USA.
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24
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Yong VW. Microglia in multiple sclerosis: Protectors turn destroyers. Neuron 2022; 110:3534-3548. [PMID: 35882229 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuron.2022.06.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2022] [Revised: 06/15/2022] [Accepted: 06/27/2022] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Microglia are implicated in all stages of multiple sclerosis (MS). Microglia alterations are detected by positron emission tomography in people living with MS prior to the formation of structural lesions determined through magnetic resonance imaging. In histological specimens, clusters of microglia form in normal-appearing tissue likely predating the development of lesions. Features of degeneration-associated/pro-inflammatory states of microglia increase with chronicity of MS. However, microglia play many beneficial roles including the removal of neurotoxins and in fostering repair. The protector-gone-rogue microglia in MS is featured herein. We consider mechanisms of microglia neurotoxicity and discuss factors, including aging, osteopontin, and iron metabolism, that cause microglia to lose their protective states and become injurious. We evaluate medications to affect microglia in MS, such as the emerging class of Bruton's tyrosine kinase inhibitors. The framework of microglia-turned-destroyers may instigate new approaches to counter microglia-driven neurodegeneration in MS.
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Affiliation(s)
- V Wee Yong
- Hotchkiss Brain Institute and the Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada.
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25
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Battis K, Florio JB, Mante M, Lana A, Naumann I, Gauer C, Lambrecht V, Müller SJ, Cobo I, Fixsen B, Kim HY, Masliah E, Glass CK, Schlachetzki JCM, Rissman RA, Winkler J, Hoffmann A. CSF1R-Mediated Myeloid Cell Depletion Prolongs Lifespan But Aggravates Distinct Motor Symptoms in a Model of Multiple System Atrophy. J Neurosci 2022; 42:7673-7688. [PMID: 36333098 PMCID: PMC9546481 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.0417-22.2022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2022] [Revised: 08/03/2022] [Accepted: 08/15/2022] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
As the CNS-resident macrophages and member of the myeloid lineage, microglia fulfill manifold functions important for brain development and homeostasis. In the context of neurodegenerative diseases, they have been implicated in degenerative and regenerative processes. The discovery of distinct activation patterns, including increased phagocytosis, indicated a damaging role of myeloid cells in multiple system atrophy (MSA), a devastating, rapidly progressing atypical parkinsonian disorder. Here, we analyzed the gene expression profile of microglia in a mouse model of MSA (MBP29-hα-syn) and identified a disease-associated expression profile and upregulation of the colony-stimulating factor 1 (Csf1). Thus, we hypothesized that CSF1 receptor-mediated depletion of myeloid cells using PLX5622 modifies the disease progression and neuropathological phenotype in this mouse model. Intriguingly, sex-balanced analysis of myeloid cell depletion in MBP29-hα-syn mice revealed a two-faced outcome comprising an improved survival rate accompanied by a delayed onset of neurological symptoms in contrast to severely impaired motor functions. Furthermore, PLX5622 reversed gene expression profiles related to myeloid cell activation but reduced gene expression associated with transsynaptic signaling and signal release. While transcriptional changes were accompanied by a reduction of dopaminergic neurons in the SNpc, striatal neuritic density was increased upon myeloid cell depletion in MBP29-hα-syn mice. Together, our findings provide insight into the complex, two-faced role of myeloid cells in the context of MSA emphasizing the importance to carefully balance the beneficial and adverse effects of CSF1R inhibition in different models of neurodegenerative disorders before its clinical translation.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Myeloid cells have been implicated as detrimental in the disease pathogenesis of multiple system atrophy. However, long-term CSF1R-dependent depletion of these cells in a mouse model of multiple system atrophy demonstrates a two-faced effect involving an improved survival associated with a delayed onset of disease and reduced inflammation which was contrasted by severely impaired motor functions, synaptic signaling, and neuronal circuitries. Thus, this study unraveled a complex role of myeloid cells in multiple system atrophy, which indicates important functions beyond the previously described disease-associated, destructive phenotype and emphasized the need of further investigation to carefully and individually fine-tune immunologic processes in different neurodegenerative diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristina Battis
- Department of Molecular Neurology, University Hospital Erlangen, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, 91054, Germany
| | - Jazmin B Florio
- Department of Neurosciences, University of California-San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093
| | - Michael Mante
- Department of Neurosciences, University of California-San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093
| | - Addison Lana
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, University of California-San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093
| | - Isabel Naumann
- Department of Molecular Neurology, University Hospital Erlangen, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, 91054, Germany
| | - Carina Gauer
- Department of Molecular Neurology, University Hospital Erlangen, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, 91054, Germany
| | - Vera Lambrecht
- Department of Molecular Neurology, University Hospital Erlangen, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, 91054, Germany
- Center of Rare Diseases Erlangen (ZSEER), University Hospital Erlangen, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, 91054, Germany
| | - Simon Julian Müller
- Department of Molecular Neurology, University Hospital Erlangen, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, 91054, Germany
| | - Isidoro Cobo
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, University of California-San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093
| | - Bethany Fixsen
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, University of California-San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093
| | - Ha Yeon Kim
- Department of Neurosciences, University of California-San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093
| | - Eliezer Masliah
- Division of Neuroscience, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892
| | - Christopher K Glass
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, University of California-San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093
| | - Johannes C M Schlachetzki
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, University of California-San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093
| | - Robert A Rissman
- Department of Neurosciences, University of California-San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093
| | - Jürgen Winkler
- Department of Molecular Neurology, University Hospital Erlangen, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, 91054, Germany
- Center of Rare Diseases Erlangen (ZSEER), University Hospital Erlangen, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, 91054, Germany
| | - Alana Hoffmann
- Department of Molecular Neurology, University Hospital Erlangen, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, 91054, Germany
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Bu Shen Yi Sui Capsule Promotes Myelin Repair by Modulating the Transformation of A1/A2 Reactive Astrocytes In Vivo and In Vitro. OXIDATIVE MEDICINE AND CELLULAR LONGEVITY 2022; 2022:3800004. [PMID: 36092158 PMCID: PMC9458373 DOI: 10.1155/2022/3800004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2022] [Accepted: 07/29/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Background/Aims. Multiple sclerosis (MS) is an autoimmune disorder that affects the central nervous system (CNS) primarily hallmarked by neuroinflammation and demyelination. The activation of astrocytes exerts double-edged sword effects, which perform an integral function in demyelination and remyelination. In this research, we examined the therapeutic effects of the Bu Shen Yi Sui capsule (BSYS), a traditional Chinese medicine prescription, in a cuprizone- (CPZ-) triggered demyelination model of MS (CPZ mice). This research intended to evaluate if BSYS might promote remyelination by shifting A1 astrocytes to A2 astrocytes. Methods. The effects of BSYS on astrocyte polarization and the potential mechanisms were explored in vitro and in vivo utilizing real-time quantitative reverse transcription PCR, immunofluorescence, and Western blotting. Histopathology, expression of inflammatory cytokines (IL-10, IL-1β, and IL-6), growth factors (TGF-β, BDNF), and motor coordination were assessed to verify the effects of BSYS (3.02 g/kg/d) on CPZ mice. In vitro, A1 astrocytes were induced by TNF-α (30 ng/mL), IL-1α (3 ng/mL), and C1q (400 ng/mL), following which the effect of BSYS-containing serum (concentration of 15%) on the transformation of A1/A2 reactive astrocytes was also evaluated. Results and Conclusions. BSYS treatment improved motor function in CPZ mice as assessed by rotarod tests. Intragastric administration of BSYS considerably lowered the proportion of A1 astrocytes, but the number of A2 astrocytes, MOG+, PLP+, CNPase+, and MBP+ cells was upregulated. Meanwhile, dysregulation of glutathione peroxidase, malondialdehyde, and superoxide dismutase was reversed in CPZ mice after treatment with BSYS. In addition, the lesion area and expression of proinflammatory cytokines were decreased and neuronal protection factors and anti-inflammatory cytokines were increased. In vitro, BSYS-containing serum suppressed the A1 astrocytic markers' expression and elevated the expression levels of A2 markers in primary astrocytes triggered by C1q, TNF-α, and IL-1α. Importantly, the miR-155/SOCS1 signaling pathway was involved in the modulation of the A1/A2 phenotype shift. Overall, this study demonstrated that BSYS has neuroprotective effects in myelin repair by modulating astrocyte polarization via the miR-155/SOCS1 pathway.
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Upadhayay S, Mehan S, Prajapati A, Sethi P, Suri M, Zawawi A, Almashjary MN, Tabrez S. Nrf2/HO-1 Signaling Stimulation through Acetyl-11-Keto-Beta-Boswellic Acid (AKBA) Provides Neuroprotection in Ethidium Bromide-Induced Experimental Model of Multiple Sclerosis. Genes (Basel) 2022; 13:genes13081324. [PMID: 35893061 PMCID: PMC9331916 DOI: 10.3390/genes13081324] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2022] [Revised: 07/20/2022] [Accepted: 07/21/2022] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a severe immune-mediated neurological disease characterized by neuroinflammation, demyelination, and axonal degeneration in the central nervous system (CNS). This is frequently linked to motor abnormalities and cognitive impairments. The pathophysiological hallmarks of MS include inflammatory demyelination, axonal injury, white matter degeneration, and the development of CNS lesions that result in severe neuronal degeneration. Several studies suggested downregulation of nuclear factor erythroid-2-related factor-2 (Nrf2)/Heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) signaling is a causative factor for MS pathogenesis. Acetyl-11-keto-β-boswellic acid (AKBA) is an active pentacyclictriterpenoid obtained from Boswellia serrata, possessing antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. The present study explores the protective potential of AKBA on behavioral, molecular, neurochemical, and gross pathological abnormalitiesandhistopathological alterations by H&E and LFB staining techniques in an experimental model of multiple sclerosis, emphasizing the increase inNrf2/HO-1 levels in the brain. Moreover, we also examine the effect of AKBA on the intensity of myelin basic protein (MBP) in CSF and rat brain homogenate. Specific apoptotic markers (Bcl-2, Bax, andcaspase-3) were also estimated in rat brain homogenate. Neuro behavioralabnormalities in rats were examined using an actophotometer, rotarod test, beam crossing task (BCT),and Morris water maze (MWM). AKBA 50 mg/kg and 100 mg/kg were given orally from day 8 to 35 to alleviate MS symptoms in the EB-injected rats. Furthermore, cellular, molecular, neurotransmitter, neuroinflammatory cytokine, and oxidative stress markers in rat whole brain homogenate, blood plasma, and cerebral spinal fluid were investigated. This study shows that AKBA upregulates the level of antioxidant proteins such as Nrf2 and HO-1 in the rat brain. AKBA restores altered neurochemical levels, potentially preventing gross pathological abnormalities during MS progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shubham Upadhayay
- Division of Neuroscience, Department of Pharmacology, ISF College of Pharmacy, Moga 142001, Punjab, India; (S.U.); (A.P.); (P.S.); (M.S.)
| | - Sidharth Mehan
- Division of Neuroscience, Department of Pharmacology, ISF College of Pharmacy, Moga 142001, Punjab, India; (S.U.); (A.P.); (P.S.); (M.S.)
- Correspondence: (S.M.); (S.T.)
| | - Aradhana Prajapati
- Division of Neuroscience, Department of Pharmacology, ISF College of Pharmacy, Moga 142001, Punjab, India; (S.U.); (A.P.); (P.S.); (M.S.)
| | - Pranshul Sethi
- Division of Neuroscience, Department of Pharmacology, ISF College of Pharmacy, Moga 142001, Punjab, India; (S.U.); (A.P.); (P.S.); (M.S.)
| | - Manisha Suri
- Division of Neuroscience, Department of Pharmacology, ISF College of Pharmacy, Moga 142001, Punjab, India; (S.U.); (A.P.); (P.S.); (M.S.)
| | - Ayat Zawawi
- Department of Medical Laboratory Sciences, Faculty of Applied Medical Sciences, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia; (A.Z.); (M.N.A.)
- Vaccines and Immunotherapy Unit, King Fahd Medical Research Center, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia
| | - Majed N. Almashjary
- Department of Medical Laboratory Sciences, Faculty of Applied Medical Sciences, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia; (A.Z.); (M.N.A.)
- Hematology Research Unit, King Fahd Medical Research Center, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia
- Animal House Unit, King Fahd Medical Research Center, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia
| | - Shams Tabrez
- Department of Medical Laboratory Sciences, Faculty of Applied Medical Sciences, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia; (A.Z.); (M.N.A.)
- King Fahd Medical Research Center, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia
- Correspondence: (S.M.); (S.T.)
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Shi W, Zhang J, Shang Z, Zhang Y, Xia Y, Fu H, Yu T. Restorative therapy using microglial depletion and repopulation for central nervous system injuries and diseases. Front Immunol 2022; 13:969127. [PMID: 35911768 PMCID: PMC9329909 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.969127] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2022] [Accepted: 06/27/2022] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Microglia are important resident immune cells in the central nervous system (CNS) and play an important role in its development, homeostasis, and disease treatments. Activated microglia perform diverse functions in mouse models of CNS neurodegenerative diseases or deficits. In humans, microglia have been linked to various neurodegenerative diseases. Following brain or spinal cord injury, microglia express pro- and anti-inflammatory phenotypes at different stages of recovery. With the development of pharmacological and genetic tools for microglial depletion, studies have demonstrated that microglial depletion exerts both positive and negative effects in the treatment of CNS diseases. Notably, microglial depletion provides an empty niche that stimulates production of new microglia. Microglial depletion and repopulation can not only treat diseases by eliminating dysfunctional microglia but can also provide an indication of the molecular mechanisms of diseases. Although this approach has shown impressive results, its use is still in its infancy. In this review, we summarize the current pharmacological and genetic tools for microglial depletion and highlight recent advances in microglial repopulation therapy for the treatment and functional recovery of neurological diseases and deficits. Finally, we briefly discuss the therapeutic challenges and prospective uses of microglial repopulation therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Weipeng Shi
- Department of Sports Medicine, The Affiliated Hospital of Qingdao University, Qingdao University, Qingdao, China
- Medical Department of Qingdao University, Qingdao, China
| | - Jing Zhang
- Department of Sports Medicine, The Affiliated Hospital of Qingdao University, Qingdao University, Qingdao, China
- Medical Department of Qingdao University, Qingdao, China
| | - Zhen Shang
- Department of Sports Medicine, The Affiliated Hospital of Qingdao University, Qingdao University, Qingdao, China
- Medical Department of Qingdao University, Qingdao, China
| | - Yingze Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Biomechanics of Hebei Province, Department of Trauma Emergency Center, The Third Hospital of Hebei Medical University, Orthopaedics Research Institution of Hebei Province, Shijiazhuang, China
| | - Yanzhi Xia
- State Key Laboratory of Bio-Fibers and Eco-Textiles, Collaborative Innovation Center for Marine Biomass Fibers, Materials and Textiles of Shandong Province, College of Materials Science and Engineering, Institute of Marine Biobased Materials, Qingdao University, Qingdao, China
| | - Haitao Fu
- Department of Sports Medicine, The Affiliated Hospital of Qingdao University, Qingdao University, Qingdao, China
- *Correspondence: Haitao Fu, ; Tengbo Yu,
| | - Tengbo Yu
- Department of Sports Medicine, The Affiliated Hospital of Qingdao University, Qingdao University, Qingdao, China
- *Correspondence: Haitao Fu, ; Tengbo Yu,
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Deng J, Meng F, Zhang K, Gao J, Liu Z, Li M, Liu X, Li J, Wang Y, Zhang L, Tang P. Emerging Roles of Microglia Depletion in the Treatment of Spinal Cord Injury. Cells 2022; 11:cells11121871. [PMID: 35741000 PMCID: PMC9221038 DOI: 10.3390/cells11121871] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2022] [Revised: 05/31/2022] [Accepted: 06/06/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Microglia, as the resident immune cells and first responder to neurological insults, play an extremely important role in the pathophysiological process of spinal cord injury. On the one hand, microglia respond rapidly and gather around the lesion in the early stage of injury to exert a protective role, but with the continuous stimulation of the injury, the excessive activated microglia secrete a large number of harmful substances, aggravate the injury of spinal cord tissue, and affect functional recovery. The effects of microglia depletion on the repair of spinal cord injury remain unclear, and there is no uniformly accepted paradigm for the removal methods and timing of microglia depletion, but different microglia depletion strategies greatly affect the outcomes after spinal cord injury. Therefore, this review summarizes the physiological and pathological roles of microglia, especially the effects of microglia depletion on spinal cord injury-sustained microglial depletion would aggravate injury and impair functional recovery, while the short-term depletion of microglial population in diseased conditions seems to improve tissue repair and promote functional improvement after spinal cord injury. Furthermore, we discuss the advantages and disadvantages of major strategies and timing of microglia depletion to provide potential strategy for the treatment of spinal cord injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Junhao Deng
- Senior Department of Orthopedics, The Fourth Medical Center of Chinese PLA General Hospital, Beijing 100037, China;
- National Clinical Research Center for Orthopedics, Sports Medicine and Rehabilitation, Beijing 100853, China; (J.G.); (Z.L.); (M.L.); (X.L.); (J.L.)
| | - Fanqi Meng
- Department of Spine Surgery, Peking University People’s Hospital, Beijing 100044, China;
| | - Kexue Zhang
- Department of Pediatric Surgery, The Chinese PLA General Hospital, Beijing 100853, China;
| | - Jianpeng Gao
- National Clinical Research Center for Orthopedics, Sports Medicine and Rehabilitation, Beijing 100853, China; (J.G.); (Z.L.); (M.L.); (X.L.); (J.L.)
| | - Zhongyang Liu
- National Clinical Research Center for Orthopedics, Sports Medicine and Rehabilitation, Beijing 100853, China; (J.G.); (Z.L.); (M.L.); (X.L.); (J.L.)
| | - Ming Li
- National Clinical Research Center for Orthopedics, Sports Medicine and Rehabilitation, Beijing 100853, China; (J.G.); (Z.L.); (M.L.); (X.L.); (J.L.)
| | - Xiao Liu
- National Clinical Research Center for Orthopedics, Sports Medicine and Rehabilitation, Beijing 100853, China; (J.G.); (Z.L.); (M.L.); (X.L.); (J.L.)
| | - Jiantao Li
- National Clinical Research Center for Orthopedics, Sports Medicine and Rehabilitation, Beijing 100853, China; (J.G.); (Z.L.); (M.L.); (X.L.); (J.L.)
| | - Yu Wang
- Beijing Key Lab of Regenerative Medicine in Orthopaedics, Key Laboratory of Musculoskeletal Trauma and War Injuries PLA, Institute of Orthopaedics, The Chinese PLA General Hospital, Beijing 100853, China;
| | - Licheng Zhang
- Senior Department of Orthopedics, The Fourth Medical Center of Chinese PLA General Hospital, Beijing 100037, China;
- National Clinical Research Center for Orthopedics, Sports Medicine and Rehabilitation, Beijing 100853, China; (J.G.); (Z.L.); (M.L.); (X.L.); (J.L.)
- Correspondence: (L.Z.); (P.T.)
| | - Peifu Tang
- Senior Department of Orthopedics, The Fourth Medical Center of Chinese PLA General Hospital, Beijing 100037, China;
- National Clinical Research Center for Orthopedics, Sports Medicine and Rehabilitation, Beijing 100853, China; (J.G.); (Z.L.); (M.L.); (X.L.); (J.L.)
- Correspondence: (L.Z.); (P.T.)
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Dietrich M, Hecker C, Martin E, Langui D, Gliem M, Stankoff B, Lubetzki C, Gruchot J, Göttle P, Issberner A, Nasiri M, Ramseier P, Beerli C, Tisserand S, Beckmann N, Shimshek D, Petzsch P, Akbar D, Levkau B, Stark H, Köhrer K, Hartung HP, Küry P, Meuth SG, Bigaud M, Zalc B, Albrecht P. Increased Remyelination and Proregenerative Microglia Under Siponimod Therapy in Mechanistic Models. NEUROLOGY(R) NEUROIMMUNOLOGY & NEUROINFLAMMATION 2022; 9:9/3/e1161. [PMID: 35354603 PMCID: PMC8969301 DOI: 10.1212/nxi.0000000000001161] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2021] [Accepted: 01/27/2022] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Background and Objectives Siponimod is an oral, selective sphingosine-1-phosphate receptor-1/5 modulator approved for treatment of multiple sclerosis. Methods Mouse MRI was used to investigate remyelination in the cuprizone model. We then used a conditional demyelination Xenopus laevis model to assess the dose-response of siponimod on remyelination. In experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis–optic neuritis (EAEON) in C57Bl/6J mice, we monitored the retinal thickness and the visual acuity using optical coherence tomography and optomotor response. Optic nerve inflammatory infiltrates, demyelination, and microglial and oligodendroglial differentiation were assessed by immunohistochemistry, quantitative real-time PCR, and bulk RNA sequencing. Results An increased remyelination was observed in the cuprizone model. Siponimod treatment of demyelinated tadpoles improved remyelination in comparison to control in a bell-shaped dose-response curve. Siponimod in the EAEON model attenuated the clinical score, reduced the retinal degeneration, and improved the visual function after prophylactic and therapeutic treatment, also in a bell-shaped manner. Inflammatory infiltrates and demyelination of the optic nerve were reduced, the latter even after therapeutic treatment, which also shifted microglial differentiation to a promyelinating phenotype. Discussion These results confirm the immunomodulatory effects of siponimod and suggest additional regenerative and promyelinating effects, which follow the dynamics of a bell-shaped curve with high being less efficient than low concentrations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Dietrich
- From the Department of Neurology (M.D., C.H., M.G., J.G., P.G., A.I., M.N., H.-P.H., P.K., S.G.M.), Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Medical Faculty (P.A.), Düsseldorf, Germany; Sorbonne Université (E.M., D.L., B.S., C.L., D.A., B.Z.), Inserm, CNRS, Institut du Cerveau, Pitié-Salpêtrière Hospital; AP-HP (B.S.), Saint-Antoine Hospital; AP-HP (C.L.), Pitié-Salpêtrière Hospital, Paris, France; Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research (P.R., C.B., S.T., N.B., D.S., M.B.), Basel, Switzerland; Biological and Medical Research Center (BMFZ) (P.P., K.K.), Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Medical Faculty; Institute for Molecular Medicine III (B.L.), University Hospital Düsseldorf and Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf; Institute of Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry (H.S.), Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Duesseldorf, Germany; Brain and Mind Center (H.-P.H.), University of Sydney, NSW, Australia; and Medical University of Vienna (H.-P.H.), Vienna, Austria
| | - Christina Hecker
- From the Department of Neurology (M.D., C.H., M.G., J.G., P.G., A.I., M.N., H.-P.H., P.K., S.G.M.), Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Medical Faculty (P.A.), Düsseldorf, Germany; Sorbonne Université (E.M., D.L., B.S., C.L., D.A., B.Z.), Inserm, CNRS, Institut du Cerveau, Pitié-Salpêtrière Hospital; AP-HP (B.S.), Saint-Antoine Hospital; AP-HP (C.L.), Pitié-Salpêtrière Hospital, Paris, France; Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research (P.R., C.B., S.T., N.B., D.S., M.B.), Basel, Switzerland; Biological and Medical Research Center (BMFZ) (P.P., K.K.), Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Medical Faculty; Institute for Molecular Medicine III (B.L.), University Hospital Düsseldorf and Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf; Institute of Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry (H.S.), Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Duesseldorf, Germany; Brain and Mind Center (H.-P.H.), University of Sydney, NSW, Australia; and Medical University of Vienna (H.-P.H.), Vienna, Austria
| | - Elodie Martin
- From the Department of Neurology (M.D., C.H., M.G., J.G., P.G., A.I., M.N., H.-P.H., P.K., S.G.M.), Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Medical Faculty (P.A.), Düsseldorf, Germany; Sorbonne Université (E.M., D.L., B.S., C.L., D.A., B.Z.), Inserm, CNRS, Institut du Cerveau, Pitié-Salpêtrière Hospital; AP-HP (B.S.), Saint-Antoine Hospital; AP-HP (C.L.), Pitié-Salpêtrière Hospital, Paris, France; Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research (P.R., C.B., S.T., N.B., D.S., M.B.), Basel, Switzerland; Biological and Medical Research Center (BMFZ) (P.P., K.K.), Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Medical Faculty; Institute for Molecular Medicine III (B.L.), University Hospital Düsseldorf and Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf; Institute of Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry (H.S.), Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Duesseldorf, Germany; Brain and Mind Center (H.-P.H.), University of Sydney, NSW, Australia; and Medical University of Vienna (H.-P.H.), Vienna, Austria
| | - Dominique Langui
- From the Department of Neurology (M.D., C.H., M.G., J.G., P.G., A.I., M.N., H.-P.H., P.K., S.G.M.), Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Medical Faculty (P.A.), Düsseldorf, Germany; Sorbonne Université (E.M., D.L., B.S., C.L., D.A., B.Z.), Inserm, CNRS, Institut du Cerveau, Pitié-Salpêtrière Hospital; AP-HP (B.S.), Saint-Antoine Hospital; AP-HP (C.L.), Pitié-Salpêtrière Hospital, Paris, France; Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research (P.R., C.B., S.T., N.B., D.S., M.B.), Basel, Switzerland; Biological and Medical Research Center (BMFZ) (P.P., K.K.), Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Medical Faculty; Institute for Molecular Medicine III (B.L.), University Hospital Düsseldorf and Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf; Institute of Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry (H.S.), Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Duesseldorf, Germany; Brain and Mind Center (H.-P.H.), University of Sydney, NSW, Australia; and Medical University of Vienna (H.-P.H.), Vienna, Austria
| | - Michael Gliem
- From the Department of Neurology (M.D., C.H., M.G., J.G., P.G., A.I., M.N., H.-P.H., P.K., S.G.M.), Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Medical Faculty (P.A.), Düsseldorf, Germany; Sorbonne Université (E.M., D.L., B.S., C.L., D.A., B.Z.), Inserm, CNRS, Institut du Cerveau, Pitié-Salpêtrière Hospital; AP-HP (B.S.), Saint-Antoine Hospital; AP-HP (C.L.), Pitié-Salpêtrière Hospital, Paris, France; Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research (P.R., C.B., S.T., N.B., D.S., M.B.), Basel, Switzerland; Biological and Medical Research Center (BMFZ) (P.P., K.K.), Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Medical Faculty; Institute for Molecular Medicine III (B.L.), University Hospital Düsseldorf and Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf; Institute of Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry (H.S.), Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Duesseldorf, Germany; Brain and Mind Center (H.-P.H.), University of Sydney, NSW, Australia; and Medical University of Vienna (H.-P.H.), Vienna, Austria
| | - Bruno Stankoff
- From the Department of Neurology (M.D., C.H., M.G., J.G., P.G., A.I., M.N., H.-P.H., P.K., S.G.M.), Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Medical Faculty (P.A.), Düsseldorf, Germany; Sorbonne Université (E.M., D.L., B.S., C.L., D.A., B.Z.), Inserm, CNRS, Institut du Cerveau, Pitié-Salpêtrière Hospital; AP-HP (B.S.), Saint-Antoine Hospital; AP-HP (C.L.), Pitié-Salpêtrière Hospital, Paris, France; Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research (P.R., C.B., S.T., N.B., D.S., M.B.), Basel, Switzerland; Biological and Medical Research Center (BMFZ) (P.P., K.K.), Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Medical Faculty; Institute for Molecular Medicine III (B.L.), University Hospital Düsseldorf and Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf; Institute of Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry (H.S.), Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Duesseldorf, Germany; Brain and Mind Center (H.-P.H.), University of Sydney, NSW, Australia; and Medical University of Vienna (H.-P.H.), Vienna, Austria
| | - Catherine Lubetzki
- From the Department of Neurology (M.D., C.H., M.G., J.G., P.G., A.I., M.N., H.-P.H., P.K., S.G.M.), Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Medical Faculty (P.A.), Düsseldorf, Germany; Sorbonne Université (E.M., D.L., B.S., C.L., D.A., B.Z.), Inserm, CNRS, Institut du Cerveau, Pitié-Salpêtrière Hospital; AP-HP (B.S.), Saint-Antoine Hospital; AP-HP (C.L.), Pitié-Salpêtrière Hospital, Paris, France; Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research (P.R., C.B., S.T., N.B., D.S., M.B.), Basel, Switzerland; Biological and Medical Research Center (BMFZ) (P.P., K.K.), Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Medical Faculty; Institute for Molecular Medicine III (B.L.), University Hospital Düsseldorf and Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf; Institute of Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry (H.S.), Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Duesseldorf, Germany; Brain and Mind Center (H.-P.H.), University of Sydney, NSW, Australia; and Medical University of Vienna (H.-P.H.), Vienna, Austria
| | - Joel Gruchot
- From the Department of Neurology (M.D., C.H., M.G., J.G., P.G., A.I., M.N., H.-P.H., P.K., S.G.M.), Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Medical Faculty (P.A.), Düsseldorf, Germany; Sorbonne Université (E.M., D.L., B.S., C.L., D.A., B.Z.), Inserm, CNRS, Institut du Cerveau, Pitié-Salpêtrière Hospital; AP-HP (B.S.), Saint-Antoine Hospital; AP-HP (C.L.), Pitié-Salpêtrière Hospital, Paris, France; Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research (P.R., C.B., S.T., N.B., D.S., M.B.), Basel, Switzerland; Biological and Medical Research Center (BMFZ) (P.P., K.K.), Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Medical Faculty; Institute for Molecular Medicine III (B.L.), University Hospital Düsseldorf and Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf; Institute of Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry (H.S.), Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Duesseldorf, Germany; Brain and Mind Center (H.-P.H.), University of Sydney, NSW, Australia; and Medical University of Vienna (H.-P.H.), Vienna, Austria
| | - Peter Göttle
- From the Department of Neurology (M.D., C.H., M.G., J.G., P.G., A.I., M.N., H.-P.H., P.K., S.G.M.), Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Medical Faculty (P.A.), Düsseldorf, Germany; Sorbonne Université (E.M., D.L., B.S., C.L., D.A., B.Z.), Inserm, CNRS, Institut du Cerveau, Pitié-Salpêtrière Hospital; AP-HP (B.S.), Saint-Antoine Hospital; AP-HP (C.L.), Pitié-Salpêtrière Hospital, Paris, France; Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research (P.R., C.B., S.T., N.B., D.S., M.B.), Basel, Switzerland; Biological and Medical Research Center (BMFZ) (P.P., K.K.), Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Medical Faculty; Institute for Molecular Medicine III (B.L.), University Hospital Düsseldorf and Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf; Institute of Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry (H.S.), Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Duesseldorf, Germany; Brain and Mind Center (H.-P.H.), University of Sydney, NSW, Australia; and Medical University of Vienna (H.-P.H.), Vienna, Austria
| | - Andrea Issberner
- From the Department of Neurology (M.D., C.H., M.G., J.G., P.G., A.I., M.N., H.-P.H., P.K., S.G.M.), Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Medical Faculty (P.A.), Düsseldorf, Germany; Sorbonne Université (E.M., D.L., B.S., C.L., D.A., B.Z.), Inserm, CNRS, Institut du Cerveau, Pitié-Salpêtrière Hospital; AP-HP (B.S.), Saint-Antoine Hospital; AP-HP (C.L.), Pitié-Salpêtrière Hospital, Paris, France; Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research (P.R., C.B., S.T., N.B., D.S., M.B.), Basel, Switzerland; Biological and Medical Research Center (BMFZ) (P.P., K.K.), Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Medical Faculty; Institute for Molecular Medicine III (B.L.), University Hospital Düsseldorf and Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf; Institute of Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry (H.S.), Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Duesseldorf, Germany; Brain and Mind Center (H.-P.H.), University of Sydney, NSW, Australia; and Medical University of Vienna (H.-P.H.), Vienna, Austria
| | - Milad Nasiri
- From the Department of Neurology (M.D., C.H., M.G., J.G., P.G., A.I., M.N., H.-P.H., P.K., S.G.M.), Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Medical Faculty (P.A.), Düsseldorf, Germany; Sorbonne Université (E.M., D.L., B.S., C.L., D.A., B.Z.), Inserm, CNRS, Institut du Cerveau, Pitié-Salpêtrière Hospital; AP-HP (B.S.), Saint-Antoine Hospital; AP-HP (C.L.), Pitié-Salpêtrière Hospital, Paris, France; Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research (P.R., C.B., S.T., N.B., D.S., M.B.), Basel, Switzerland; Biological and Medical Research Center (BMFZ) (P.P., K.K.), Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Medical Faculty; Institute for Molecular Medicine III (B.L.), University Hospital Düsseldorf and Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf; Institute of Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry (H.S.), Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Duesseldorf, Germany; Brain and Mind Center (H.-P.H.), University of Sydney, NSW, Australia; and Medical University of Vienna (H.-P.H.), Vienna, Austria
| | - Pamela Ramseier
- From the Department of Neurology (M.D., C.H., M.G., J.G., P.G., A.I., M.N., H.-P.H., P.K., S.G.M.), Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Medical Faculty (P.A.), Düsseldorf, Germany; Sorbonne Université (E.M., D.L., B.S., C.L., D.A., B.Z.), Inserm, CNRS, Institut du Cerveau, Pitié-Salpêtrière Hospital; AP-HP (B.S.), Saint-Antoine Hospital; AP-HP (C.L.), Pitié-Salpêtrière Hospital, Paris, France; Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research (P.R., C.B., S.T., N.B., D.S., M.B.), Basel, Switzerland; Biological and Medical Research Center (BMFZ) (P.P., K.K.), Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Medical Faculty; Institute for Molecular Medicine III (B.L.), University Hospital Düsseldorf and Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf; Institute of Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry (H.S.), Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Duesseldorf, Germany; Brain and Mind Center (H.-P.H.), University of Sydney, NSW, Australia; and Medical University of Vienna (H.-P.H.), Vienna, Austria
| | - Christian Beerli
- From the Department of Neurology (M.D., C.H., M.G., J.G., P.G., A.I., M.N., H.-P.H., P.K., S.G.M.), Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Medical Faculty (P.A.), Düsseldorf, Germany; Sorbonne Université (E.M., D.L., B.S., C.L., D.A., B.Z.), Inserm, CNRS, Institut du Cerveau, Pitié-Salpêtrière Hospital; AP-HP (B.S.), Saint-Antoine Hospital; AP-HP (C.L.), Pitié-Salpêtrière Hospital, Paris, France; Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research (P.R., C.B., S.T., N.B., D.S., M.B.), Basel, Switzerland; Biological and Medical Research Center (BMFZ) (P.P., K.K.), Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Medical Faculty; Institute for Molecular Medicine III (B.L.), University Hospital Düsseldorf and Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf; Institute of Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry (H.S.), Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Duesseldorf, Germany; Brain and Mind Center (H.-P.H.), University of Sydney, NSW, Australia; and Medical University of Vienna (H.-P.H.), Vienna, Austria
| | - Sarah Tisserand
- From the Department of Neurology (M.D., C.H., M.G., J.G., P.G., A.I., M.N., H.-P.H., P.K., S.G.M.), Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Medical Faculty (P.A.), Düsseldorf, Germany; Sorbonne Université (E.M., D.L., B.S., C.L., D.A., B.Z.), Inserm, CNRS, Institut du Cerveau, Pitié-Salpêtrière Hospital; AP-HP (B.S.), Saint-Antoine Hospital; AP-HP (C.L.), Pitié-Salpêtrière Hospital, Paris, France; Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research (P.R., C.B., S.T., N.B., D.S., M.B.), Basel, Switzerland; Biological and Medical Research Center (BMFZ) (P.P., K.K.), Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Medical Faculty; Institute for Molecular Medicine III (B.L.), University Hospital Düsseldorf and Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf; Institute of Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry (H.S.), Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Duesseldorf, Germany; Brain and Mind Center (H.-P.H.), University of Sydney, NSW, Australia; and Medical University of Vienna (H.-P.H.), Vienna, Austria
| | - Nicolau Beckmann
- From the Department of Neurology (M.D., C.H., M.G., J.G., P.G., A.I., M.N., H.-P.H., P.K., S.G.M.), Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Medical Faculty (P.A.), Düsseldorf, Germany; Sorbonne Université (E.M., D.L., B.S., C.L., D.A., B.Z.), Inserm, CNRS, Institut du Cerveau, Pitié-Salpêtrière Hospital; AP-HP (B.S.), Saint-Antoine Hospital; AP-HP (C.L.), Pitié-Salpêtrière Hospital, Paris, France; Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research (P.R., C.B., S.T., N.B., D.S., M.B.), Basel, Switzerland; Biological and Medical Research Center (BMFZ) (P.P., K.K.), Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Medical Faculty; Institute for Molecular Medicine III (B.L.), University Hospital Düsseldorf and Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf; Institute of Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry (H.S.), Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Duesseldorf, Germany; Brain and Mind Center (H.-P.H.), University of Sydney, NSW, Australia; and Medical University of Vienna (H.-P.H.), Vienna, Austria
| | - Derya Shimshek
- From the Department of Neurology (M.D., C.H., M.G., J.G., P.G., A.I., M.N., H.-P.H., P.K., S.G.M.), Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Medical Faculty (P.A.), Düsseldorf, Germany; Sorbonne Université (E.M., D.L., B.S., C.L., D.A., B.Z.), Inserm, CNRS, Institut du Cerveau, Pitié-Salpêtrière Hospital; AP-HP (B.S.), Saint-Antoine Hospital; AP-HP (C.L.), Pitié-Salpêtrière Hospital, Paris, France; Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research (P.R., C.B., S.T., N.B., D.S., M.B.), Basel, Switzerland; Biological and Medical Research Center (BMFZ) (P.P., K.K.), Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Medical Faculty; Institute for Molecular Medicine III (B.L.), University Hospital Düsseldorf and Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf; Institute of Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry (H.S.), Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Duesseldorf, Germany; Brain and Mind Center (H.-P.H.), University of Sydney, NSW, Australia; and Medical University of Vienna (H.-P.H.), Vienna, Austria
| | - Patrick Petzsch
- From the Department of Neurology (M.D., C.H., M.G., J.G., P.G., A.I., M.N., H.-P.H., P.K., S.G.M.), Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Medical Faculty (P.A.), Düsseldorf, Germany; Sorbonne Université (E.M., D.L., B.S., C.L., D.A., B.Z.), Inserm, CNRS, Institut du Cerveau, Pitié-Salpêtrière Hospital; AP-HP (B.S.), Saint-Antoine Hospital; AP-HP (C.L.), Pitié-Salpêtrière Hospital, Paris, France; Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research (P.R., C.B., S.T., N.B., D.S., M.B.), Basel, Switzerland; Biological and Medical Research Center (BMFZ) (P.P., K.K.), Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Medical Faculty; Institute for Molecular Medicine III (B.L.), University Hospital Düsseldorf and Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf; Institute of Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry (H.S.), Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Duesseldorf, Germany; Brain and Mind Center (H.-P.H.), University of Sydney, NSW, Australia; and Medical University of Vienna (H.-P.H.), Vienna, Austria
| | - David Akbar
- From the Department of Neurology (M.D., C.H., M.G., J.G., P.G., A.I., M.N., H.-P.H., P.K., S.G.M.), Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Medical Faculty (P.A.), Düsseldorf, Germany; Sorbonne Université (E.M., D.L., B.S., C.L., D.A., B.Z.), Inserm, CNRS, Institut du Cerveau, Pitié-Salpêtrière Hospital; AP-HP (B.S.), Saint-Antoine Hospital; AP-HP (C.L.), Pitié-Salpêtrière Hospital, Paris, France; Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research (P.R., C.B., S.T., N.B., D.S., M.B.), Basel, Switzerland; Biological and Medical Research Center (BMFZ) (P.P., K.K.), Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Medical Faculty; Institute for Molecular Medicine III (B.L.), University Hospital Düsseldorf and Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf; Institute of Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry (H.S.), Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Duesseldorf, Germany; Brain and Mind Center (H.-P.H.), University of Sydney, NSW, Australia; and Medical University of Vienna (H.-P.H.), Vienna, Austria
| | - Bodo Levkau
- From the Department of Neurology (M.D., C.H., M.G., J.G., P.G., A.I., M.N., H.-P.H., P.K., S.G.M.), Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Medical Faculty (P.A.), Düsseldorf, Germany; Sorbonne Université (E.M., D.L., B.S., C.L., D.A., B.Z.), Inserm, CNRS, Institut du Cerveau, Pitié-Salpêtrière Hospital; AP-HP (B.S.), Saint-Antoine Hospital; AP-HP (C.L.), Pitié-Salpêtrière Hospital, Paris, France; Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research (P.R., C.B., S.T., N.B., D.S., M.B.), Basel, Switzerland; Biological and Medical Research Center (BMFZ) (P.P., K.K.), Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Medical Faculty; Institute for Molecular Medicine III (B.L.), University Hospital Düsseldorf and Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf; Institute of Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry (H.S.), Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Duesseldorf, Germany; Brain and Mind Center (H.-P.H.), University of Sydney, NSW, Australia; and Medical University of Vienna (H.-P.H.), Vienna, Austria
| | - Holger Stark
- From the Department of Neurology (M.D., C.H., M.G., J.G., P.G., A.I., M.N., H.-P.H., P.K., S.G.M.), Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Medical Faculty (P.A.), Düsseldorf, Germany; Sorbonne Université (E.M., D.L., B.S., C.L., D.A., B.Z.), Inserm, CNRS, Institut du Cerveau, Pitié-Salpêtrière Hospital; AP-HP (B.S.), Saint-Antoine Hospital; AP-HP (C.L.), Pitié-Salpêtrière Hospital, Paris, France; Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research (P.R., C.B., S.T., N.B., D.S., M.B.), Basel, Switzerland; Biological and Medical Research Center (BMFZ) (P.P., K.K.), Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Medical Faculty; Institute for Molecular Medicine III (B.L.), University Hospital Düsseldorf and Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf; Institute of Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry (H.S.), Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Duesseldorf, Germany; Brain and Mind Center (H.-P.H.), University of Sydney, NSW, Australia; and Medical University of Vienna (H.-P.H.), Vienna, Austria
| | - Karl Köhrer
- From the Department of Neurology (M.D., C.H., M.G., J.G., P.G., A.I., M.N., H.-P.H., P.K., S.G.M.), Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Medical Faculty (P.A.), Düsseldorf, Germany; Sorbonne Université (E.M., D.L., B.S., C.L., D.A., B.Z.), Inserm, CNRS, Institut du Cerveau, Pitié-Salpêtrière Hospital; AP-HP (B.S.), Saint-Antoine Hospital; AP-HP (C.L.), Pitié-Salpêtrière Hospital, Paris, France; Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research (P.R., C.B., S.T., N.B., D.S., M.B.), Basel, Switzerland; Biological and Medical Research Center (BMFZ) (P.P., K.K.), Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Medical Faculty; Institute for Molecular Medicine III (B.L.), University Hospital Düsseldorf and Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf; Institute of Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry (H.S.), Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Duesseldorf, Germany; Brain and Mind Center (H.-P.H.), University of Sydney, NSW, Australia; and Medical University of Vienna (H.-P.H.), Vienna, Austria
| | - Hans-Peter Hartung
- From the Department of Neurology (M.D., C.H., M.G., J.G., P.G., A.I., M.N., H.-P.H., P.K., S.G.M.), Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Medical Faculty (P.A.), Düsseldorf, Germany; Sorbonne Université (E.M., D.L., B.S., C.L., D.A., B.Z.), Inserm, CNRS, Institut du Cerveau, Pitié-Salpêtrière Hospital; AP-HP (B.S.), Saint-Antoine Hospital; AP-HP (C.L.), Pitié-Salpêtrière Hospital, Paris, France; Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research (P.R., C.B., S.T., N.B., D.S., M.B.), Basel, Switzerland; Biological and Medical Research Center (BMFZ) (P.P., K.K.), Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Medical Faculty; Institute for Molecular Medicine III (B.L.), University Hospital Düsseldorf and Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf; Institute of Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry (H.S.), Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Duesseldorf, Germany; Brain and Mind Center (H.-P.H.), University of Sydney, NSW, Australia; and Medical University of Vienna (H.-P.H.), Vienna, Austria
| | - Patrick Küry
- From the Department of Neurology (M.D., C.H., M.G., J.G., P.G., A.I., M.N., H.-P.H., P.K., S.G.M.), Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Medical Faculty (P.A.), Düsseldorf, Germany; Sorbonne Université (E.M., D.L., B.S., C.L., D.A., B.Z.), Inserm, CNRS, Institut du Cerveau, Pitié-Salpêtrière Hospital; AP-HP (B.S.), Saint-Antoine Hospital; AP-HP (C.L.), Pitié-Salpêtrière Hospital, Paris, France; Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research (P.R., C.B., S.T., N.B., D.S., M.B.), Basel, Switzerland; Biological and Medical Research Center (BMFZ) (P.P., K.K.), Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Medical Faculty; Institute for Molecular Medicine III (B.L.), University Hospital Düsseldorf and Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf; Institute of Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry (H.S.), Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Duesseldorf, Germany; Brain and Mind Center (H.-P.H.), University of Sydney, NSW, Australia; and Medical University of Vienna (H.-P.H.), Vienna, Austria
| | - Sven Günther Meuth
- From the Department of Neurology (M.D., C.H., M.G., J.G., P.G., A.I., M.N., H.-P.H., P.K., S.G.M.), Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Medical Faculty (P.A.), Düsseldorf, Germany; Sorbonne Université (E.M., D.L., B.S., C.L., D.A., B.Z.), Inserm, CNRS, Institut du Cerveau, Pitié-Salpêtrière Hospital; AP-HP (B.S.), Saint-Antoine Hospital; AP-HP (C.L.), Pitié-Salpêtrière Hospital, Paris, France; Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research (P.R., C.B., S.T., N.B., D.S., M.B.), Basel, Switzerland; Biological and Medical Research Center (BMFZ) (P.P., K.K.), Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Medical Faculty; Institute for Molecular Medicine III (B.L.), University Hospital Düsseldorf and Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf; Institute of Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry (H.S.), Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Duesseldorf, Germany; Brain and Mind Center (H.-P.H.), University of Sydney, NSW, Australia; and Medical University of Vienna (H.-P.H.), Vienna, Austria
| | - Marc Bigaud
- From the Department of Neurology (M.D., C.H., M.G., J.G., P.G., A.I., M.N., H.-P.H., P.K., S.G.M.), Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Medical Faculty (P.A.), Düsseldorf, Germany; Sorbonne Université (E.M., D.L., B.S., C.L., D.A., B.Z.), Inserm, CNRS, Institut du Cerveau, Pitié-Salpêtrière Hospital; AP-HP (B.S.), Saint-Antoine Hospital; AP-HP (C.L.), Pitié-Salpêtrière Hospital, Paris, France; Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research (P.R., C.B., S.T., N.B., D.S., M.B.), Basel, Switzerland; Biological and Medical Research Center (BMFZ) (P.P., K.K.), Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Medical Faculty; Institute for Molecular Medicine III (B.L.), University Hospital Düsseldorf and Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf; Institute of Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry (H.S.), Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Duesseldorf, Germany; Brain and Mind Center (H.-P.H.), University of Sydney, NSW, Australia; and Medical University of Vienna (H.-P.H.), Vienna, Austria
| | - Bernard Zalc
- From the Department of Neurology (M.D., C.H., M.G., J.G., P.G., A.I., M.N., H.-P.H., P.K., S.G.M.), Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Medical Faculty (P.A.), Düsseldorf, Germany; Sorbonne Université (E.M., D.L., B.S., C.L., D.A., B.Z.), Inserm, CNRS, Institut du Cerveau, Pitié-Salpêtrière Hospital; AP-HP (B.S.), Saint-Antoine Hospital; AP-HP (C.L.), Pitié-Salpêtrière Hospital, Paris, France; Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research (P.R., C.B., S.T., N.B., D.S., M.B.), Basel, Switzerland; Biological and Medical Research Center (BMFZ) (P.P., K.K.), Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Medical Faculty; Institute for Molecular Medicine III (B.L.), University Hospital Düsseldorf and Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf; Institute of Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry (H.S.), Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Duesseldorf, Germany; Brain and Mind Center (H.-P.H.), University of Sydney, NSW, Australia; and Medical University of Vienna (H.-P.H.), Vienna, Austria
| | - Philipp Albrecht
- From the Department of Neurology (M.D., C.H., M.G., J.G., P.G., A.I., M.N., H.-P.H., P.K., S.G.M.), Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Medical Faculty (P.A.), Düsseldorf, Germany; Sorbonne Université (E.M., D.L., B.S., C.L., D.A., B.Z.), Inserm, CNRS, Institut du Cerveau, Pitié-Salpêtrière Hospital; AP-HP (B.S.), Saint-Antoine Hospital; AP-HP (C.L.), Pitié-Salpêtrière Hospital, Paris, France; Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research (P.R., C.B., S.T., N.B., D.S., M.B.), Basel, Switzerland; Biological and Medical Research Center (BMFZ) (P.P., K.K.), Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Medical Faculty; Institute for Molecular Medicine III (B.L.), University Hospital Düsseldorf and Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf; Institute of Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry (H.S.), Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Duesseldorf, Germany; Brain and Mind Center (H.-P.H.), University of Sydney, NSW, Australia; and Medical University of Vienna (H.-P.H.), Vienna, Austria
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Han J, Chitu V, Stanley ER, Wszolek ZK, Karrenbauer VD, Harris RA. Inhibition of colony stimulating factor-1 receptor (CSF-1R) as a potential therapeutic strategy for neurodegenerative diseases: opportunities and challenges. Cell Mol Life Sci 2022; 79:219. [PMID: 35366105 PMCID: PMC8976111 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-022-04225-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2021] [Revised: 02/06/2022] [Accepted: 02/26/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Microglia are specialized dynamic immune cells in the central nervous system (CNS) that plays a crucial role in brain homeostasis and in disease states. Persistent neuroinflammation is considered a hallmark of many neurodegenerative diseases, including Alzheimer’s disease (AD), Parkinson's disease (PD), Huntington’s disease (HD), amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and primary progressive multiple sclerosis (MS). Colony stimulating factor 1-receptor (CSF-1R) is predominantly expressed on microglia and its expression is significantly increased in neurodegenerative diseases. Cumulative findings have indicated that CSF-1R inhibitors can have beneficial effects in preclinical neurodegenerative disease models. Research using CSF-1R inhibitors has now been extended into non-human primates and humans. This review article summarizes the most recent advances using CSF-1R inhibitors in different neurodegenerative conditions including AD, PD, HD, ALS and MS. Potential challenges for translating these findings into clinical practice are presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinming Han
- Department of Neurology, Xuanwu Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Violeta Chitu
- Department of Developmental and Molecular Biology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461 USA
| | - E. Richard Stanley
- Department of Developmental and Molecular Biology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461 USA
| | | | - Virginija Danylaité Karrenbauer
- Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Center for Molecular Medicine L8:04, Karolinska Institutet, Karolinska University Hospital, 171 76 Stockholm, Sweden
- Department of Neurology, Karolinska University Hospital, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Robert A. Harris
- Applied Immunology and Immunotherapy, Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Center for Molecular Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, Karolinska University Hospital, Solna, Sweden
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Development of a Chemical Cocktail That Rescues Mouse Brain Demyelination in a Cuprizone-Induced Model. Cells 2022; 11:cells11071091. [PMID: 35406658 PMCID: PMC8997971 DOI: 10.3390/cells11071091] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2022] [Revised: 03/16/2022] [Accepted: 03/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Oligodendrocytes are glial cells located in the central nervous system (CNS) that play essential roles in the transmission of nerve signals and in the neuroprotection of myelinated neurons. The dysfunction or loss of oligodendrocytes leads to demyelinating diseases such as multiple sclerosis (MS). To treat demyelinating diseases, the development of a therapy that promotes remyelination is required. In the present study, we established an in vitro method to convert human fibroblasts into induced oligodendrocyte-like cells (iOLCs) in 3 days. The induced cells displayed morphologies and molecular signatures similar to oligodendrocytes after treatment with valproic acid and exposure to the small molecules Y27632, SU9516, and forskolin (FSK). To pursue the development of a cell-free remyelination therapy in vivo, we used a cuprizone-induced demyelinated mouse model. The small molecules (Y27632, SU9516, and FSK) were directly injected into the demyelinated corpus callosum of the mouse brain. This combination of small molecules rescued the demyelination phenotype within two weeks as observed by light and electron microscopy. These results provide a foundation for exploring the development of a treatment for demyelinating diseases via regenerative medicine.
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Colony-stimulating factor 1 receptor signaling in the central nervous system and the potential of its pharmacological inhibitors to halt the progression of neurological disorders. Inflammopharmacology 2022; 30:821-842. [PMID: 35290551 DOI: 10.1007/s10787-022-00958-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2021] [Accepted: 02/24/2022] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Colony Stimulating Factor-1 (CSF-1)/Colony Stimulating Factor-1 Receptor (CSF-1R) signaling axis plays an essential role in the development, maintenance, and proliferation of macrophage lineage cells. Within the central nervous system, CSF-1R signaling primarily maintains microglial homeostasis. Microglia, being the resident macrophage and first responder to any neurological insults, plays critical importance in overall health of the human brain. Aberrant and sustained activation of microglia along with continued proliferation and release of neurotoxic proinflammatory cytokines have been reported in various neurological and neurodegenerative diseases. Therefore, halting the neuroinflammatory pathway via targeting microglial proliferation, which depends on CSF-1R signaling, has emerged as a potential therapeutic target for neurological disorders. However, apart from regulating the microglial function, recently it has been discovered that CSF-1R has much broader role in central nervous system. These findings limit the therapeutic utility of CSF-1R inhibitors but also highlight the need for a complete understanding of CSF-1R function within the central nervous system. Moreover, it has been found that selective inhibitors of CSF-1R may be more efficient in avoiding non-specific targeting and associated side effects. Short-term depletion of microglial population in diseased conditions have also been found to be beneficial; however, the dose and therapeutic window for optimum effects may need to be standardized further.This review summarizes the present understanding of CSF-1R function within the central nervous system. We discuss the CSF-1R signaling in the context of microglia function, crosstalk between microglia and astroglia, and regulation of neuronal cell function. We also discuss a few of the neurological disorders with a focus on the utility of CSF-1R inhibitors as potential therapeutic strategy for halting the progression of neurological diseases.
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Ahn K, Lee SJ, Mook-Jung I. White matter-associated microglia: New players in brain aging and neurodegenerative diseases. Ageing Res Rev 2022; 75:101574. [PMID: 35093614 DOI: 10.1016/j.arr.2022.101574] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2021] [Revised: 12/09/2021] [Accepted: 01/24/2022] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
There has been growing interest in brain aging and rejuvenation. It is well known that brain aging is one of the leading causes of neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer's disease, but brain aging alone can cause cognitive decline. Microglia are thought to act as 'conductors' of white matter aging by modulating diverse glial cells and phagocytosing white matter-derived myelin debris. A recent study identified a specific subpopulation of microglia in the white matter of aged mice, termed white matter-associated microglia (WAM). Additionally, senescent microglia show impaired phagocytic function and altered lipid metabolism, which cause accumulation of lipid metabolites and eventually lead to myelin sheath degeneration. These results suggest that senescent WAM could be pivotal players in axonal loss during brain aging. The aim of this review is to assess the current state of knowledge on brain aging, with an emphasis on the roles of the white matter and microglia, and suggest potential approaches for rejuvenating the aged brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kyusik Ahn
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine, Seoul National University, Seoul 03080, Republic of Korea
| | - Seung-Jae Lee
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine, Seoul National University, Seoul 03080, Republic of Korea; Neuroscience Research Institute, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul 03080, Republic of Korea; SNU Dementia Research Center, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul 03080, Korea
| | - Inhee Mook-Jung
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine, Seoul National University, Seoul 03080, Republic of Korea; Neuroscience Research Institute, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul 03080, Republic of Korea; SNU Dementia Research Center, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul 03080, Korea.
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35
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Sen MK, Mahns DA, Coorssen JR, Shortland PJ. The roles of microglia and astrocytes in phagocytosis and myelination: Insights from the cuprizone model of multiple sclerosis. Glia 2022; 70:1215-1250. [PMID: 35107839 PMCID: PMC9302634 DOI: 10.1002/glia.24148] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 29.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2021] [Revised: 01/10/2022] [Accepted: 01/11/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
In human demyelinating diseases such as multiple sclerosis (MS), an imbalance between demyelination and remyelination can trigger progressive degenerative processes. The clearance of myelin debris (phagocytosis) from the site of demyelination by microglia is critically important to achieve adequate remyelination and to slow the progression of the disease. However, how microglia phagocytose the myelin debris, and why clearance is impaired in MS, is not fully known; likewise, the role of the microglia in remyelination remains unclear. Recent studies using cuprizone (CPZ) as an animal model of central nervous system demyelination revealed that the up‐regulation of signaling proteins in microglia facilitates effective phagocytosis of myelin debris. Moreover, during demyelination, protective mediators are released from activated microglia, resulting in the acceleration of remyelination in the CPZ model. In contrast, inadequate microglial activation or recruitment to the site of demyelination, and the production of toxic mediators, impairs remyelination resulting in progressive demyelination. In addition to the microglia‐mediated phagocytosis, astrocytes play an important role in the phagocytic process by recruiting microglia to the site of demyelination and producing regenerative mediators. The current review is an update of these emerging findings from the CPZ animal model, discussing the roles of microglia and astrocytes in phagocytosis and myelination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Monokesh K Sen
- School of Medicine, Western Sydney University, Penrith, Australia
| | - David A Mahns
- School of Medicine, Western Sydney University, Penrith, Australia
| | - Jens R Coorssen
- Faculty of Applied Health Sciences and Faculty of Mathematics & Science, Brock University, St. Cathari, Canada
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36
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White matter microglia heterogeneity in the CNS. Acta Neuropathol 2022; 143:125-141. [PMID: 34878590 DOI: 10.1007/s00401-021-02389-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2021] [Revised: 11/17/2021] [Accepted: 11/28/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Microglia, the resident myeloid cells in the central nervous system (CNS) play critical roles in shaping the brain during development, responding to invading pathogens, and clearing tissue debris or aberrant protein aggregations during ageing and neurodegeneration. The original concept that like macrophages, microglia are either damaging (pro-inflammatory) or regenerative (anti-inflammatory) has been updated to a kaleidoscope view of microglia phenotypes reflecting their wide-ranging roles in maintaining homeostasis in the CNS and, their contribution to CNS diseases, as well as aiding repair. The use of new technologies including single cell/nucleus RNA sequencing has led to the identification of many novel microglia states, allowing for a better understanding of their complexity and distinguishing regional variations in the CNS. This has also revealed differences between species and diseases, and between microglia and other myeloid cells in the CNS. However, most of the data on microglia heterogeneity have been generated on cells isolated from the cortex or whole brain, whereas white matter changes and differences between white and grey matter have been relatively understudied. Considering the importance of microglia in regulating white matter health, we provide a brief update on the current knowledge of microglia heterogeneity in the white matter, how microglia are important for the development of the CNS, and how microglial ageing affects CNS white matter homeostasis. We discuss how microglia are intricately linked to the classical white matter diseases such as multiple sclerosis and genetic white matter diseases, and their putative roles in neurodegenerative diseases in which white matter is also affected. Understanding the wide variety of microglial functions in the white matter may provide the basis for microglial targeted therapies for CNS diseases.
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37
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Xu L, Wang J, Ding Y, Wang L, Zhu YJ. Current Knowledge of Microglia in Traumatic Spinal Cord Injury. Front Neurol 2022; 12:796704. [PMID: 35087472 PMCID: PMC8787368 DOI: 10.3389/fneur.2021.796704] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2021] [Accepted: 12/07/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Microglia are the resident immune cells in the central nervous system (CNS). After traumatic spinal cord injury (SCI), microglia undergo activation, proliferation, and changes in gene and protein expression and morphology, with detrimental and beneficial effects. Activated microglia cause secondary neuronal injury via the production of proinflammatory cytokines, reactive oxygen species, and proteases. However, activated microglia also promote neuronal repair through the secretion of anti-inflammatory growth factors and cytokines. Proinflammatory cytokines increase endothelial permeability, promote A1 astrocyte activation and axonal demyelination, and reduce neural stem/progenitor cells (NSPCs), leading to the exacerbation of neuronal injury. In contrast, anti-inflammatory factors facilitate angiogenesis, reduce reactive astrocytes, and promote axonal remyelination and the propagation of NSPCs, contributing to tissue repair and locomotor recovery. Due to its limited regenerative capacity, the CNS requires beneficial microglia for continuous protection against injury. Understanding and regulating microglial activation status are beneficial to reducing detrimental effects and promoting repair behaviors and to obtain more information on efficient therapies for traumatic SCI. This review discusses microglial activation and the differences between microglia and similar immune cells, microglial interactions with other cells in the spinal cord, and the progress in the development of therapies targeting microglia in SCI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lintao Xu
- Department of Neurosurgery, Second Affiliated Hospital of Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China
| | - Jingyu Wang
- Department of Neurosurgery, Second Affiliated Hospital of Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China
| | - Yueming Ding
- School of Medicine, Zhejiang University City College, Hangzhou, China
| | - Linlin Wang
- Department of Basic Medicine Sciences, and Department of Orthopaedics of Sir Run Run Shaw Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China
| | - Yong-Jian Zhu
- Department of Neurosurgery, Second Affiliated Hospital of Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China
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38
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Christopoulos PF. Hacking macrophages to combat cancer and inflammatory diseases-Current advances and challenges. Scand J Immunol 2022; 95:e13140. [PMID: 35000232 DOI: 10.1111/sji.13140] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2021] [Revised: 12/23/2021] [Accepted: 01/03/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Recently, immunotherapy has been served as the treatment of choice for various human pathophysiologies, including inflammatory diseases and cancer. Though most of the current approaches target the lymphoid compartment, macrophages intimately implicated in the induction or resolution of inflammation have rationally gained their place into the therapeutics arena. In this review, I discuss the past and novel groundbreaking strategies focusing on macrophages in different human diseases and highlight the current challenges and considerations underlying their translational potentials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Panagiotis F Christopoulos
- Department of Pathology, section of Research, Rikshospitalet, Oslo University Hospital and University of Oslo, 0424, Oslo, Norway
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Yadav RK, Mehan S, Sahu R, Kumar S, Khan A, Makeen HA, Al Bratty M. Protective effects of apigenin on methylmercury-induced behavioral/neurochemical abnormalities and neurotoxicity in rats. Hum Exp Toxicol 2022; 41:9603271221084276. [PMID: 35373622 DOI: 10.1177/09603271221084276] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Methylmercury (MeHg) is a neurotoxin that induces neurotoxicity and cell death in neurons. MeHg increases oligodendrocyte death, glial cell activation, and motor neuron demyelination in the motor cortex and spinal cord. As a result, MeHg plays an important role in developing neurocomplications similar to amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). Recent research has implicated c-JNK and p38MAPK overactivation in the pathogenesis of ALS. Apigenin (APG) is a flavonoid having anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and c-JNK/p38MAPK inhibitory activities. The purpose of this study is to determine whether APG possesses neuroprotective effects in MeHg-induced neurotoxicity in adult rats associated with ALS-like neuropathological alterations. In the current study, the neurotoxin MeHg causes an ALS-like phenotype in Wistar rats after 21 days of oral administration at a dose of 5 mg/kg. Prolonged administration of APG (40 and 80 mg/kg) improved neurobehavioral parameters such as learning memory, cognition, motor coordination, and grip strength. This is mainly associated with the downregulation of c-JNK and p38MAPK signaling as well as the restoration of myelin basic protein within the brain. Furthermore, APG inhibited neuronal apoptotic markers (Bax, Bcl-2, and caspase-3), restored neurotransmitter imbalance, decreased inflammatory markers (TNF- and IL-1), and alleviated oxidative damage. As a result, the current study shows that APG has neuroprotective potential as a c-JNK and p38MAPK signaling inhibitor against MeHg-induced neurotoxicity in adult rats. Based on these promising findings, we suggested that APG could be a potential new therapeutic approach over other conventional therapeutic approaches for MeHg-induced neurotoxicity in neurobehavioral, molecular, and neurochemical abnormalities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rajeshwar Kumar Yadav
- Neuropharmacology Division, Department of Pharmacology, 75126ISF College of Pharmacy, Moga, Punjab, India
| | - Sidharth Mehan
- Neuropharmacology Division, Department of Pharmacology, 75126ISF College of Pharmacy, Moga, Punjab, India
| | - Rakesh Sahu
- Neuropharmacology Division, Department of Pharmacology, 75126ISF College of Pharmacy, Moga, Punjab, India
| | - Sumit Kumar
- Neuropharmacology Division, Department of Pharmacology, 75126ISF College of Pharmacy, Moga, Punjab, India
| | - Andleeb Khan
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Pharmacy, 123285Jazan University, Jazan, Saudi Arabia
| | - Hafiz Antar Makeen
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy, College of Pharmacy, 123285Jazan University, Jazan, Saudi Arabia
| | - Mohammed Al Bratty
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, 123285Jazan University, Jazan, Saudi Arabia
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40
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Morozzi G, Rothen J, Toussaint G, De Lange K, Westritschnig K, Doelemeyer A, Ueberschlag VP, Kahle P, Lambert C, Obrecht M, Beckmann N, Ritter V, Panesar M, Stauffer D, Garnier I, Mueller M, Guerini D, Keller CG, Knehr J, Roma G, Bidinosti M, Brachat S, Morvan F, Fornaro M. STING regulates peripheral nerve regeneration and colony stimulating factor 1 receptor (CSF1R) processing in microglia. iScience 2021; 24:103434. [PMID: 34877494 PMCID: PMC8633968 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2021.103434] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2021] [Revised: 07/29/2021] [Accepted: 11/10/2021] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Inflammatory responses are crucial for regeneration following peripheral nerve injury (PNI). PNI triggers inflammatory responses at the site of injury. The DNA-sensing receptor cyclic GMP-AMP synthase (cGAS) and its downstream effector stimulator of interferon genes (STING) sense foreign and self-DNA and trigger type I interferon (IFN) immune responses. We demonstrate here that following PNI, the cGAS/STING pathway is upregulated in the sciatic nerve of naive rats and dysregulated in old rats. In a nerve crush mouse model where STING is knocked out, myelin content in sciatic nerve is increased resulting in accelerated functional axon recovery. STING KO mice have lower macrophage number in sciatic nerve and decreased microglia activation in spinal cord 1 week post injury. STING activation regulated processing of colony stimulating factor 1 receptor (CSF1R) and microglia survival in vitro. Taking together, these data highlight a previously unrecognized role of STING in the regulation of nerve regeneration. The cGAS/STING pathway is upregulated in sciatic nerve post nerve injury and in aging STING ablation increases myelin content and accelerates functional axon recovery STING KO mice reduces macrophage number in sciatic nerve and microglia activation post injury
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Affiliation(s)
- Giulio Morozzi
- Musculoskeletal Disease Area, Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, 4002 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Julian Rothen
- Musculoskeletal Disease Area, Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, 4002 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Gauthier Toussaint
- Musculoskeletal Disease Area, Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, 4002 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Katrina De Lange
- Chemical Biology & Therapeutics, Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, 4002 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Katrin Westritschnig
- Musculoskeletal Disease Area, Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, 4002 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Arno Doelemeyer
- Musculoskeletal Disease Area, Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, 4002 Basel, Switzerland
| | | | - Peter Kahle
- Musculoskeletal Disease Area, Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, 4002 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Christian Lambert
- Musculoskeletal Disease Area, Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, 4002 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Michael Obrecht
- Musculoskeletal Disease Area, Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, 4002 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Nicolau Beckmann
- Musculoskeletal Disease Area, Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, 4002 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Veronique Ritter
- Musculoskeletal Disease Area, Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, 4002 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Moh Panesar
- Musculoskeletal Disease Area, Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, 4002 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Daniela Stauffer
- Musculoskeletal Disease Area, Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, 4002 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Isabelle Garnier
- Musculoskeletal Disease Area, Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, 4002 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Matthias Mueller
- Chemical Biology & Therapeutics, Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, 4002 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Danilo Guerini
- Autoimmunity and Inflammation, Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, 4002 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Caroline Gubser Keller
- Chemical Biology & Therapeutics, Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, 4002 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Judith Knehr
- Chemical Biology & Therapeutics, Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, 4002 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Guglielmo Roma
- Chemical Biology & Therapeutics, Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, 4002 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Michael Bidinosti
- Musculoskeletal Disease Area, Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, 4002 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Sophie Brachat
- Musculoskeletal Disease Area, Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, 4002 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Frederic Morvan
- Musculoskeletal Disease Area, Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, 4002 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Mara Fornaro
- Musculoskeletal Disease Area, Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, 4002 Basel, Switzerland
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Soto-Diaz K, Vailati-Riboni M, Louie AY, McKim DB, Gaskins HR, Johnson RW, Steelman AJ. Treatment With the CSF1R Antagonist GW2580, Sensitizes Microglia to Reactive Oxygen Species. Front Immunol 2021; 12:734349. [PMID: 34899694 PMCID: PMC8664563 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2021.734349] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2021] [Accepted: 11/01/2021] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Microglia activation and proliferation are hallmarks of many neurodegenerative disorders and may contribute to disease pathogenesis. Neurons actively regulate microglia survival and function, in part by secreting the microglia mitogen interleukin (IL)-34. Both IL-34 and colony stimulating factor (CSF)-1 bind colony stimulating factor receptor (CSFR)1 expressed on microglia. Systemic treatment with central nervous system (CNS) penetrant, CSFR1 antagonists, results in microglia death in a dose dependent matter, while others, such as GW2580, suppress activation during disease states without altering viability. However, it is not known how treatment with non-penetrant CSF1R antagonists, such as GW2580, affect the normal physiology of microglia. To determine how GW2580 affects microglia function, C57BL/6J mice were orally gavaged with vehicle or GW2580 (80mg/kg/d) for 8 days. Body weights and burrowing behavior were measured throughout the experiment. The effects of GW2580 on circulating leukocyte populations, brain microglia morphology, and the transcriptome of magnetically isolated adult brain microglia were determined. Body weights, burrowing behavior, and circulating leukocytes were not affected by treatment. Analysis of Iba-1 stained brain microglia indicated that GW2580 treatment altered morphology, but not cell number. Analysis of RNA-sequencing data indicated that genes related to reactive oxygen species (ROS) regulation and survival were suppressed by treatment. Treatment of primary microglia cultures with GW2580 resulted in a dose-dependent reduction in viability only when the cells were concurrently treated with LPS, an inducer of ROS. Pre-treatment with the ROS inhibitor, YCG063, blocked treatment induced reductions in viability. Finally, GW2580 sensitized microglia to hydrogen peroxide induced cell death. Together, these data suggest that partial CSF1R antagonism may render microglia more susceptible to reactive oxygen and nitrogen species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katiria Soto-Diaz
- Neuroscience Program, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, United States
| | - Mario Vailati-Riboni
- Department of Animal Sciences, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, United States
| | - Allison Y Louie
- Neuroscience Program, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, United States
| | - Daniel B McKim
- Neuroscience Program, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, United States.,Department of Animal Sciences, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, United States.,Division of Nutritional Sciences, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, United States
| | - H Rex Gaskins
- Department of Animal Sciences, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, United States.,Division of Nutritional Sciences, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, United States.,Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, United States.,Cancer Center at Illinois, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, United States.,Department of Pathobiology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, United States.,Department of Biomedical and Translational Sciences, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, United States
| | - Rodney W Johnson
- Neuroscience Program, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, United States.,Department of Animal Sciences, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, United States.,Division of Nutritional Sciences, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, United States
| | - Andrew J Steelman
- Neuroscience Program, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, United States.,Department of Animal Sciences, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, United States.,Division of Nutritional Sciences, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, United States.,Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, United States
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Hu B, Duan S, Wang Z, Li X, Zhou Y, Zhang X, Zhang YW, Xu H, Zheng H. Insights Into the Role of CSF1R in the Central Nervous System and Neurological Disorders. Front Aging Neurosci 2021; 13:789834. [PMID: 34867307 PMCID: PMC8634759 DOI: 10.3389/fnagi.2021.789834] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2021] [Accepted: 10/26/2021] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
The colony-stimulating factor 1 receptor (CSF1R) is a key tyrosine kinase transmembrane receptor modulating microglial homeostasis, neurogenesis, and neuronal survival in the central nervous system (CNS). CSF1R, which can be proteolytically cleaved into a soluble ectodomain and an intracellular protein fragment, supports the survival of myeloid cells upon activation by two ligands, colony stimulating factor 1 and interleukin 34. CSF1R loss-of-function mutations are the major cause of adult-onset leukoencephalopathy with axonal spheroids and pigmented glia (ALSP) and its dysfunction has also been implicated in other neurodegenerative disorders including Alzheimer’s disease (AD). Here, we review the physiological functions of CSF1R in the CNS and its pathological effects in neurological disorders including ALSP, AD, frontotemporal dementia and multiple sclerosis. Understanding the pathophysiology of CSF1R is critical for developing targeted therapies for related neurological diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Banglian Hu
- Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Disease and Aging Research, School of Medicine, Institute of Neuroscience, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China
| | - Shengshun Duan
- Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Disease and Aging Research, School of Medicine, Institute of Neuroscience, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China
| | - Ziwei Wang
- Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Disease and Aging Research, School of Medicine, Institute of Neuroscience, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China
| | - Xin Li
- Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Disease and Aging Research, School of Medicine, Institute of Neuroscience, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China
| | - Yuhang Zhou
- Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Disease and Aging Research, School of Medicine, Institute of Neuroscience, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China
| | - Xian Zhang
- Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Disease and Aging Research, School of Medicine, Institute of Neuroscience, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China
| | - Yun-Wu Zhang
- Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Disease and Aging Research, School of Medicine, Institute of Neuroscience, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China
| | - Huaxi Xu
- Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Disease and Aging Research, School of Medicine, Institute of Neuroscience, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China
| | - Honghua Zheng
- Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Disease and Aging Research, School of Medicine, Institute of Neuroscience, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China.,Basic Medical Sciences, School of Medicine, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China
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Chitu V, Biundo F, Stanley ER. Colony stimulating factors in the nervous system. Semin Immunol 2021; 54:101511. [PMID: 34743926 DOI: 10.1016/j.smim.2021.101511] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2021] [Accepted: 10/23/2021] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Although traditionally seen as regulators of hematopoiesis, colony-stimulating factors (CSFs) have emerged as important players in the nervous system, both in health and disease. This review summarizes the cellular sources, patterns of expression and physiological roles of the macrophage (CSF-1, IL-34), granulocyte-macrophage (GM-CSF) and granulocyte (G-CSF) colony stimulating factors within the nervous system, with a particular focus on their actions on microglia. CSF-1 and IL-34, via the CSF-1R, are required for the development, proliferation and maintenance of essentially all CNS microglia in a temporal and regional specific manner. In contrast, in steady state, GM-CSF and G-CSF are mainly involved in regulation of microglial function. The alterations in expression of these growth factors and their receptors, that have been reported in several neurological diseases, are described and the outcomes of their therapeutic targeting in mouse models and humans are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Violeta Chitu
- Department of Developmental and Molecular Biology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461, USA.
| | - Fabrizio Biundo
- Department of Developmental and Molecular Biology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461, USA.
| | - E Richard Stanley
- Department of Developmental and Molecular Biology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461, USA.
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Kumar N, Singh A, Gulati HK, Bhagat K, Kaur K, Kaur J, Dudhal S, Duggal A, Gulati P, Singh H, Singh JV, Bedi PMS. Phytoconstituents from ten natural herbs as potent inhibitors of main protease enzyme of SARS-COV-2: In silico study. PHYTOMEDICINE PLUS : INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PHYTOTHERAPY AND PHYTOPHARMACOLOGY 2021. [PMID: 35403086 DOI: 10.1016/j.phyplu.2021.100139] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Lack of treatment of novel Coronavirus disease led to the search of specific antivirals that are capable to inhibit the replication of the virus. The plant kingdom has demonstrated to be an important source of new molecules with antiviral potential. PURPOSE The present study aims to utilize various computational tools to identify the most eligible drug candidate that have capabilities to halt the replication of SARS-COV-2 virus by inhibiting Main protease (Mpro) enzyme. METHODS We have selected plants whose extracts have inhibitory potential against previously discovered coronaviruses. Their phytoconstituents were surveyed and a library of 100 molecules was prepared. Then, computational tools such as molecular docking, ADMET and molecular dynamic simulations were utilized to screen the compounds and evaluate them against Mpro enzyme. RESULTS All the phytoconstituents showed good binding affinities towards Mpro enzyme. Among them laurolitsine possesses the highest binding affinity i.e. -294.1533 kcal/mol. On ADMET analysis of best three ligands were simulated for 1.2 ns, then the stable ligand among them was further simulated for 20 ns. Results revealed that no conformational changes were observed in the laurolitsine w.r.t. protein residues and low RMSD value suggested that the Laurolitsine-protein complex was stable for 20 ns. CONCLUSION Laurolitsine, an active constituent of roots of Lindera aggregata, was found to be having good ADMET profile and have capabilities to halt the activity of the enzyme. Therefore, this makes laurolitsine a good drug candidate for the treatment of COVID-19.
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Key Words
- ACE-2, Angiotensin converting enzyme- 2
- ADMET
- ADMET, absorption, Distribution, metabolism, excretion and toxicity
- Ala, Alanine
- Approx., approximately
- Arg, arginine
- Asn, Asparagine
- Asp, Aspartic acid
- CADD, Computer Aided Drug Design
- CHARMM, Chemistry at Harvard Macromolecular Mechanics
- COV, coronavirus
- COVID, Novel corona-virus disease
- Covid-19
- Cys, cysteine
- DSBDS, Dassault's Systems Biovia's Discovery studio
- Gln, Glutamine
- Glu, glutamate
- Gly, Glycine
- His, histidine
- Ile, isoleucine
- K, Kelvin
- Kcal/mol, kilo calories per mol
- Leu, Leucine
- Leu, leucine
- Lys, Lysine
- MD, Molecular Dynamics
- Met, Methionine
- MoISA, Molecular Surface Area
- Molecular dynamic simulations
- Mpro protein
- Mpro, Main protease enzyme
- N protein, nucleocapsid protein
- NI, N-(4-methylpyridin-3-yl) acetamide inhibitor
- NPT, amount of substance (N), pressure (P) and temperature (T)
- NVT, amount of substance (N), volume (V) and temperature (T)
- Natural Antiviral herbs
- PDB, protein data bank
- PPB, plasma protein binding
- PSA, Polar Surface Area
- Phi, Phenylalanine
- Pro, Proline
- RCSB, Research Collaboratory for Structural Bioinformatics
- RMS, Root Mean Square
- RMSD, Root Mean Square Deviation
- RMSF, root mean square fluctuations
- RNA, Ribonucleic acid
- SAR-COV-2, severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2
- SDF, structure data format
- Ser, serine
- T, Temperature
- Thr, Threonine
- Trp, Tryptophan
- Tyr, Tyrosine
- Val, Valine
- kDa, kilo Dalton
- nCOV-19, Novel Coronavirus 2019
- ns/nsec, nano seconds
- ps, pentoseconds
- rGyr, Radius of gyration
- w.r.t., with respect to
- Å, angstrom
- α, alpha
- β, beta
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Affiliation(s)
- Nitish Kumar
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar, Punjab, India, 143005
- Drug and Pollution testing Lab, Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar, Punjab, India, 143005
| | - Atamjit Singh
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar, Punjab, India, 143005
| | - Harmandeep Kaur Gulati
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar, Punjab, India, 143005
| | - Kavita Bhagat
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar, Punjab, India, 143005
| | - Komalpreet Kaur
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar, Punjab, India, 143005
| | - Jaspreet Kaur
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar, Punjab, India, 143005
| | - Shilpa Dudhal
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar, Punjab, India, 143005
| | - Amit Duggal
- Drugs Control Wing, Sector 16, Chandigarh, India, 160015
| | - Puja Gulati
- School of Pharmacy, Desh Bhagat University, Mandi Gobindgarh, Punjab, India, 147301
| | - Harbinder Singh
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar, Punjab, India, 143005
| | - Jatinder Vir Singh
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar, Punjab, India, 143005
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Borst K, Dumas AA, Prinz M. Microglia: Immune and non-immune functions. Immunity 2021; 54:2194-2208. [PMID: 34644556 DOI: 10.1016/j.immuni.2021.09.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 235] [Impact Index Per Article: 78.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2021] [Revised: 07/20/2021] [Accepted: 09/16/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
As resident macrophages of the central nervous system (CNS), microglia are associated with diverse functions essential to the developing and adult brain during homeostasis and disease. They are aided in their tasks by intricate bidirectional communication with other brain cells under steady-state conditions as well as with infiltrating peripheral immune cells during perturbations. Harmonious cell-cell communication involving microglia are considered crucial to maintain the healthy state of the tissue environment and to overcome pathology such as neuroinflammation. Analyses of such intercellular pathways have contributed to our understanding of the heterogeneous but context-associated microglial responses to environmental cues across neuropathology, including inflammatory conditions such as infections and autoimmunity, as well as immunosuppressive states as seen in brain tumors. Here, we summarize the latest evidence demonstrating how these interactions drive microglia immune and non-immune functions, which coordinate the transition from homeostatic to disease-related cellular states.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katharina Borst
- Institute of Neuropathology, Medical Faculty, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany.
| | - Anaelle Aurelie Dumas
- Institute of Neuropathology, Medical Faculty, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany.
| | - Marco Prinz
- Institute of Neuropathology, Medical Faculty, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany; Signalling Research Centres BIOSS and CIBSS, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany; Center for Basics in NeuroModulation (NeuroModulBasics), Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany.
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Klemm F, Möckl A, Salamero-Boix A, Alekseeva T, Schäffer A, Schulz M, Niesel K, Maas RR, Groth M, Elie BT, Bowman RL, Hegi ME, Daniel RT, Zeiner PS, Zinke J, Harter PN, Plate KH, Joyce JA, Sevenich L. Compensatory CSF2-driven macrophage activation promotes adaptive resistance to CSF1R inhibition in breast-to-brain metastasis. NATURE CANCER 2021; 2:1086-1101. [PMID: 35121879 DOI: 10.1038/s43018-021-00254-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2020] [Accepted: 08/09/2021] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Tumor microenvironment-targeted therapies are emerging as promising treatment options for different cancer types. Tumor-associated macrophages and microglia (TAMs) represent an abundant nonmalignant cell type in brain metastases and have been proposed to modulate metastatic colonization and outgrowth. Here we demonstrate that targeting TAMs at distinct stages of the metastatic cascade using an inhibitor of colony-stimulating factor 1 receptor (CSF1R), BLZ945, in murine breast-to-brain metastasis models leads to antitumor responses in prevention and intervention preclinical trials. However, in established brain metastases, compensatory CSF2Rb-STAT5-mediated pro-inflammatory TAM activation blunted the ultimate efficacy of CSF1R inhibition by inducing neuroinflammation gene signatures in association with wound repair responses that fostered tumor recurrence. Consequently, blockade of CSF1R combined with inhibition of STAT5 signaling via AC4-130 led to sustained tumor control, a normalization of microglial activation states and amelioration of neuronal damage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Florian Klemm
- Department of Oncology, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
- Ludwig Institute for Cancer Research, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Aylin Möckl
- Georg-Speyer-Haus, Institute for Tumor Biology and Experimental Therapy, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Anna Salamero-Boix
- Georg-Speyer-Haus, Institute for Tumor Biology and Experimental Therapy, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
- Biological Sciences, Faculty 15, Goethe University Frankfurt, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Tijna Alekseeva
- Georg-Speyer-Haus, Institute for Tumor Biology and Experimental Therapy, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Alexander Schäffer
- Georg-Speyer-Haus, Institute for Tumor Biology and Experimental Therapy, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Michael Schulz
- Georg-Speyer-Haus, Institute for Tumor Biology and Experimental Therapy, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
- Biological Sciences, Faculty 15, Goethe University Frankfurt, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Katja Niesel
- Georg-Speyer-Haus, Institute for Tumor Biology and Experimental Therapy, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Roeltje R Maas
- Department of Oncology, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
- Ludwig Institute for Cancer Research, Lausanne, Switzerland
- Neuroscience Research Center, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois, Lausanne, Switzerland
- Department of Neurosurgery, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Marie Groth
- Cancer Biology and Genetics Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, USA
| | - Benelita T Elie
- Cancer Biology and Genetics Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, USA
| | - Robert L Bowman
- Cancer Biology and Genetics Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, USA
| | - Monika E Hegi
- Neuroscience Research Center, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois, Lausanne, Switzerland
- Department of Neurosurgery, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Roy T Daniel
- Department of Neurosurgery, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Pia S Zeiner
- Institute of Neurology (Edinger Institute), Goethe University Hospital Frankfurt, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
- Dr. Senckenberg Institute of Neurooncology, Goethe University Frankfurt, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Jenny Zinke
- Institute of Neurology (Edinger Institute), Goethe University Hospital Frankfurt, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Patrick N Harter
- Institute of Neurology (Edinger Institute), Goethe University Hospital Frankfurt, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
- German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany
- German Cancer Consortium (DKTK), Partner Site Frankfurt/Mainz, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
- Frankfurt Cancer Institute (FCI), Goethe University Frankfurt, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Karl H Plate
- Institute of Neurology (Edinger Institute), Goethe University Hospital Frankfurt, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
- German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany
- German Cancer Consortium (DKTK), Partner Site Frankfurt/Mainz, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
- Frankfurt Cancer Institute (FCI), Goethe University Frankfurt, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Johanna A Joyce
- Department of Oncology, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland.
- Ludwig Institute for Cancer Research, Lausanne, Switzerland.
| | - Lisa Sevenich
- Georg-Speyer-Haus, Institute for Tumor Biology and Experimental Therapy, Frankfurt am Main, Germany.
- German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany.
- German Cancer Consortium (DKTK), Partner Site Frankfurt/Mainz, Frankfurt am Main, Germany.
- Frankfurt Cancer Institute (FCI), Goethe University Frankfurt, Frankfurt am Main, Germany.
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Muzio L, Viotti A, Martino G. Microglia in Neuroinflammation and Neurodegeneration: From Understanding to Therapy. Front Neurosci 2021; 15:742065. [PMID: 34630027 PMCID: PMC8497816 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2021.742065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 196] [Impact Index Per Article: 65.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2021] [Accepted: 08/25/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Microglia are the resident macrophages of the central nervous system (CNS) acting as the first line of defense in the brain by phagocytosing harmful pathogens and cellular debris. Microglia emerge from early erythromyeloid progenitors of the yolk sac and enter the developing brain before the establishment of a fully mature blood-brain barrier. In physiological conditions, during brain development, microglia contribute to CNS homeostasis by supporting cell proliferation of neural precursors. In post-natal life, such cells contribute to preserving the integrity of neuronal circuits by sculpting synapses. After a CNS injury, microglia change their morphology and down-regulate those genes supporting homeostatic functions. However, it is still unclear whether such changes are accompanied by molecular and functional modifications that might contribute to the pathological process. While comprehensive transcriptome analyses at the single-cell level have identified specific gene perturbations occurring in the "pathological" microglia, still the precise protective/detrimental role of microglia in neurological disorders is far from being fully elucidated. In this review, the results so far obtained regarding the role of microglia in neurodegenerative disorders will be discussed. There is solid and sound evidence suggesting that regulating microglia functions during disease pathology might represent a strategy to develop future therapies aimed at counteracting brain degeneration in multiple sclerosis, Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luca Muzio
- Neuroimmunology Unit, Division of Neuroscience, IRCCS San Raffaele Hospital, Vita-Salute San Raffaele University, Milan, Italy
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Poulen G, Aloy E, Bringuier CM, Mestre-Francés N, Artus EV, Cardoso M, Perez JC, Goze-Bac C, Boukhaddaoui H, Lonjon N, Gerber YN, Perrin FE. Inhibiting microglia proliferation after spinal cord injury improves recovery in mice and nonhuman primates. Am J Cancer Res 2021; 11:8640-8659. [PMID: 34522204 PMCID: PMC8419033 DOI: 10.7150/thno.61833] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2021] [Accepted: 06/27/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
No curative treatment is available for any deficits induced by spinal cord injury (SCI). Following injury, microglia undergo highly diverse activation processes, including proliferation, and play a critical role on functional recovery. In a translational objective, we investigated whether a transient pharmacological reduction of microglia proliferation after injury is beneficial for functional recovery after SCI in mice and nonhuman primates. Methods: The colony stimulating factor-1 receptor (CSF1R) regulates proliferation, differentiation, and survival of microglia. We orally administrated GW2580, a CSF1R inhibitor that inhibits microglia proliferation. In mice and nonhuman primates, we then analyzed treatment outcomes on locomotor function and spinal cord pathology. Finally, we used cell-specific transcriptomic analysis to uncover GW2580-induced molecular changes in microglia. Results: First, transient post-injury GW2580 administration in mice improves motor function recovery, promotes tissue preservation and/or reorganization (identified by coherent anti-stokes Raman scattering microscopy), and modulates glial reactivity. Second, post-injury GW2580-treatment in nonhuman primates reduces microglia proliferation, improves motor function recovery, and promotes tissue protection. Finally, GW2580-treatment in mice induced down-regulation of proliferation-associated transcripts and inflammatory associated genes in microglia that may account for reduced neuroinflammation and improved functional recovery following SCI. Conclusion: Thus, a transient oral GW2580 treatment post-injury may provide a promising therapeutic strategy for SCI patients and may also be extended to other central nervous system disorders displaying microglia activation.
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Microglia as the Critical Regulators of Neuroprotection and Functional Recovery in Cerebral Ischemia. Cell Mol Neurobiol 2021; 42:2505-2525. [PMID: 34460037 DOI: 10.1007/s10571-021-01145-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2021] [Accepted: 08/25/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Microglial activation is considered as the critical pathogenic event in diverse central nervous system disorders including cerebral ischemia. Proinflammatory responses of activated microglia have been well reported in the ischemic brain and neuroinflammatory responses of activated microglia have been believed to be the potential therapeutic strategy. However, despite having proinflammatory roles, microglia can have significant anti-inflammatory roles and they are associated with the production of growth factors which are responsible for neuroprotection and recovery after ischemic injury. Microglia can directly promote neuroprotection by preventing ischemic infarct expansion and promoting functional outcomes. Indirectly, microglia are involved in promoting anti-inflammatory responses, neurogenesis, and angiogenesis in the ischemic brain which are crucial pathophysiological events for ischemic recovery. In fact, anti-inflammatory cytokines and growth factors produced by microglia can promote neuroprotection and attenuate neurobehavioral deficits. In addition, microglia regulate phagocytosis, axonal regeneration, blood-brain barrier protection, white matter integrity, and synaptic remodeling, which are essential for ischemic recovery. Microglia can also regulate crosstalk with neurons and other cell types to promote neuroprotection and ischemic recovery. This review mainly focuses on the roles of microglia in neuroprotection and recovery following ischemic injury. Furthermore, this review also sheds the light on the therapeutic potential of microglia in stroke patients.
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50
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da Silva MCM, Gomes GF, de Barros Fernandes H, da Silva AM, Teixeira AL, Moreira FA, de Miranda AS, de Oliveira ACP. Inhibition of CSF1R, a receptor involved in microglia viability, alters behavioral and molecular changes induced by cocaine. Sci Rep 2021; 11:15989. [PMID: 34362959 PMCID: PMC8346567 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-95059-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2021] [Accepted: 07/13/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Different data suggest that microglia may participate in the drug addiction process as these cells respond to neurochemical changes induced by the administration of these substances. In order to study the role of microglia in drug abuse, Swiss mice aged 8-9 weeks were treated with the CSF1R inhibitor PLX3397 (40 mg/kg, p.o.) and submitted to behavioral sensitization or conditioned place preference (CPP) induced by cocaine (15 mg/kg, i.p.). Thereafter, brains were used to evaluate the effects of CSF1R inhibition and cocaine administration on morphological, biochemical and molecular changes. CSF1R inhibition attenuated behavioral sensitization, reduced the number of Iba-1+ cells and increased ramification and lengths of the branches in the remaining microglia. Additionally, both cocaine and PLX3397 increased the cell body to total cell size ratio of Iba-1+ cells, as well as CD68+ and GFAP+ stained areas, suggesting an activated pattern of the glial cells. Besides, CSF1R inhibition increased CX3CL1 levels in the striatum, prefrontal cortex and hippocampus, as well as reduced CX3CR1 expression in the hippocampus. In this region, cocaine also reduced BDNF levels, an effect that was enhanced by CSF1R inhibition. In summary, our results suggest that microglia participate in the behavioral and molecular changes induced by cocaine. This study contributes to the understanding of the role of microglia in cocaine addiction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Carolina Machado da Silva
- Neuropharmacology Laboratory, Department of Pharmacology, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Av. Antonio Carlos 6627, Belo Horizonte, MG, 31270-901, Brazil
| | - Giovanni Freitas Gomes
- Neuropharmacology Laboratory, Department of Pharmacology, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Av. Antonio Carlos 6627, Belo Horizonte, MG, 31270-901, Brazil
| | - Heliana de Barros Fernandes
- Neurobiology Laboratory Conceição Machado, Department of Morphology, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
- Laboratory of Inflammatory Genes, Department of Morphology, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - Aristóbolo Mendes da Silva
- Laboratory of Inflammatory Genes, Department of Morphology, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - Antônio Lúcio Teixeira
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Science McGovern School, The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, USA
| | - Fabrício A Moreira
- Neuropsychopharmacology Laboratory, Department of Pharmacology, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - Aline Silva de Miranda
- Neurobiology Laboratory Conceição Machado, Department of Morphology, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - Antônio Carlos Pinheiro de Oliveira
- Neuropharmacology Laboratory, Department of Pharmacology, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Av. Antonio Carlos 6627, Belo Horizonte, MG, 31270-901, Brazil.
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