A physical fitness profile of state highway patrol officers by gender and age

Relationships Between Strength and Power With the 74.84-kg (165-lb) and 90.72-kg (200-lb) Body Drags

ABSTRACT

Moreno, MR, Dawes, JJ, Orr, RM, Dulla, JM, and Lockie, RG. Relationships between strength and power with the 74.84-kg (165-lb) and 90.72-kg (200-lb) body drags. J Strength Cond Res 38(7): 1305-1313, 2024-A body drag is an essential job task in law enforcement. It is purported that strength and power should contribute to this task, but there has been limited analysis. This study examined strength (1-repetition maximum hexagonal bar deadlift [1RM HBD]) and power (vertical jump [VJ], standing broad jump [SBJ]) relationships with the 74.84-kg and 90.72-kg body drags. Forty-three civilians (24 men and 19 women) completed the SBJ, VJ, and 1RM HBD in 1 session. Peak anaerobic power measured in watts (PAPw) was derived from the VJ. Relative measures were calculated from the SBJ, PAPw, and HBD. In another 2 sessions, subjects completed 74.84-kg and 90.72-kg drags in a counterbalanced order using 2 techniques: standard and adapted (time taken to pick dummy up from ground included in time). Independent samples t-tests compared the sexes and subjects who could or could not complete all drags. Partial correlations and stepwise regression, both controlling for sex, examined relationships between strength and power and the drags. In general, men outperformed women in almost all tests (p ≤ 0.024). Thirty-five subjects completed all drags and were stronger and more powerful than subjects who could not (p ≤ 0.011). The SBJ correlated with the 74.84-kg standard (r = -0.355) and 90.72-kg adapted (r = -0.373) drags; the VJ correlated with the 74.84-kg standard drag (r = -0.356). Peak anaerobic power measured in watts and 1RM HBD correlated with all drags (r = -0.382 to -0.668); PAPw was involved in all significant predictive relationships (explained variance = 34-62%). Absolute strength and power training should be a focus for recruits to enhance their ability to perform dragging tasks, especially with heavier masses.

Determining the Changes in Law Enforcement Recruit Aerobic Fitness Using the 2.4-km Run and 20-m Multistage Fitness Test. Does the Type of Test Matter?

ABSTRACT

Campbell, P, Maupin, D, Lockie, RG, Dawes, JJ, Simas, V, Canetti, E, Schram, B, and Orr, R. Determining the changes in law enforcement recruit aerobic fitness using the 2.4-km run and 20-m multistage fitness test. Does the type of test matter? J Strength Cond Res 38(6): 1111-1117, 2024-Aerobic fitness is linked with academy graduation, employment, and the long-term health of law enforcement officers and is often used as a training outcome. However, different tests can be used, and aerobic improvements may differ according to the test used. The aim of this study was to determine whether recruits improved to a greater extent in 1 aerobic test compared with the other. Retrospective data from 5 law enforcement recruit cohorts (males = 741; females = 353) who underwent 18 weeks of academy training were analyzed. Initial 20-m multistage fitness test (20MSFT) and 2.4-km run assessments were completed during weeks 4 and 5 of training, with final testing completed during weeks 16 and 17, respectively. A repeated-measures analysis of variance ( p < 0.05) with a Bonferroni post hoc analysis determined changes in aerobic fitness in the 20MSFT and 2.4-km run between male and female recruits. A mean difference of 9.27 (95% confidence intervals [CI] 14.8-10.9; d = 0.63; p < 0.001) shuttle increase in 20MSFT performance and 20.1 (95% CI 16.0-24.2; d = 0.49; p < 0.001) second improvement in 2.4-km run time were demonstrated when averaged across sex, yielding a larger performance improvement for the 20MSFT compared with the 2.4-km run. Conversely, there was a smaller magnitude of change in aerobic fitness between male recruits and female recruits for the 20MSFT ( d = 0.47) compared with the 2.4-km run ( d = 0.50). The findings indicate that current academy training results in improvements to aerobic fitness and to a greater magnitude in the 20MSFT compared with the 2.4-km run. These results may affect policy considerations for law enforcement agencies regarding aerobic test selection.

Evaluating the Variability Between 20-m Multistage Fitness Test Estimating Equations in Law Enforcement Recruits

ABSTRACT

Campbell, P, Maupin, D, Lockie, RG, Dawes, JJ, Simas, V, Canetti, E, Schram, B, and Orr, R. Evaluating the variability between 20-m multistage fitness test estimating equations in law enforcement recruits. J Strength Cond Res 38(4): 742-748, 2024-The 20-m multistage fitness test (20MSFT) is commonly used by law enforcement agencies to measure aerobic fitness and to estimate maximal aerobic consumption (V̇ o2 max). These measures are an important occupational variable with aerobic fitness levels linked to employment status, occupational performance, and long-term health in law enforcement officers. There are a multitude of predictive equations used to provide an estimate of V̇ o2 max, with the extent of variability in the estimated V̇ o2 max currently unknown in this population. This has consequences for comparisons between, and across, differing agencies, and in capabilities of deriving normative data. The aim of this investigation was to compare the variability in estimated V̇ o2 max scores derived from different 20MSFT predictive equations. The 20-m multistage fitness test data from 1,094 law enforcement recruits (male n = 741, 25.2 ± 6.3 years; female: n = 353, 25.6 ± 5.6 years) from a single agency were retrospectively analyzed. The 20MSFT scores were transformed into estimated V̇ o2 max scores using 6 different predictive equations. Significance was set at p < 0.05. Results demonstrated significantly different V̇ o2 max scores between each predictive equation ( p < 0.001; d = 0.25-1.53) and between male and female recruits ( p < 0.001, r = 0.55). All estimated V̇ o2 max equations showed small to very strong correlations with each other ( p < 0.001; r = 0.32-0.99). The findings indicate considerable dispersion of V̇ o2 max scores when using differing equations, suggesting raw 20MSFT variables (e.g., shuttles or distance completed) should be preferred to measure and apply results from aerobic fitness tests if standardized approaches are not developed within law enforcement.

Age-Related Declines in Health and Fitness among Law Enforcement Officers Compared to Population Norms

Physical fitness is mandatory for public safety officers. Police officers experience elevated levels of cardiovascular disease and associated risks making fitness a peak concern. Officers often have more marked fitness level decreases with aging compared to the general population. This cross-sectional study investigated the cardiovascular health, muscular strength/endurance, and mobility of officers in a medium-sized police department (N = 83); (4 females, 79 males), age (36.82 ± 10 years), height (179.02 ± 7.7 cm), body mass (95.1 ± 16.29 kg) compared to American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM) guidelines. The findings revealed that police officers begin their careers with above average strength but demonstrate greater declines with age than the general population. Officers also demonstrated cardiovascular fitness below ACSM standards and significant decreases with aging compared to the general population. Body fat percentages (p = 0.003) and BMI (p = 0.028) surpassed recommendations, with higher than normal increases with age. Maximum vertical jump decreased as officers age (p = 0.004). These findings support the implementation of a targeted physical fitness regimen and the resources for a program designed to improve current health and fitness, reduce the greater than expected decreases with aging, and aim to optimize occupational performance and the safeguarding of the lifelong health and well-being of officers.

Strength Training Frequency and Athletic Performance in High School Girls Basketball Players

This study investigated the effects of a six-week strength training intervention on the physical fitness of female high school athletes, with a focus on training frequency. Twenty-three female high school basketball athletes were recruited and split into two groups: one group participated in strength training once per week (S1), while the other participated in two training sessions per week (S2). The groups were not random as training sessions were voluntary, and some participants were only able to train once per week. Participants were tested before and after the intervention, and the data included: age, body height, body mass, body fat percentage, grip strength, leg/back dynamometer (LBD) strength, a seated medicine ball throw (MBT), a vertical jump (VJ), 505 tests from each foot, 0-5, 0-10, and 0-20 sprint times, and multistage fitness test shuttles. Data were analyzed by a two (time) x two (group) repeated measures analysis of variance (ANOVA; p < 0.05). When significant F ratios were detected in any ANOVA calculations, post hoc pairwise comparisons were conducted using the Bonferroni adjustment procedure. There were significant main effects for time that indicated the following: increased body height, body mass, grip strength, LBD strength, MBT distance, and VJ height, faster 505 times, and slower 0-5 and 0-10 m sprint times (p ≤ 0.021). There were no significant time by group ANOVAs or between-group main effects. These performance changes occurred irrespective of training frequency. High school girls who participate in at least one strength training session per week can improve their strength (grip, LBD), power (MBT, VJ), and change-of-direction speed (505).

Effects of implementing a mandatory and consequential annual fitness assessment in a fire department over the initial 4-year period

BACKGROUND

Despite the physical nature of the occupation many firefighters have low levels of physical fitness which is associated with poor performance of occupational tasks and increased injury rates. For many fire departments an initial step in promoting health and wellness within the department is to conduct annual fitness testing.

OBJECTIVE

To examine the effects of implementing a consequential fitness assessment within a fire department.

METHODS

A retrospective repeated measures design was used to analyze annual fitness assessment data of professional firefighters (n = 1415) from 2019 to 2022 within a large urban fire department located in the mid-Atlantic region of the United States. The fitness tests included assessments of pull-ups, push-ups, sit-ups, aerobic capacity, and body composition. Repeated measure analyses of variances (ANOVAs) assessed the effect of year and a 2-way ANOVA was conducted to investigate the effects of sex and age on fitness measures on 2022 data.

RESULTS

All fitness measures were found to be maintained over the 4-year period. Significant main effects of age and sex across all fitness measures, but no significant interactions were found. Older firefighters (50 + years) exhibited lower performance (p <  0.001, d >  0.80) on muscular fitness assessments than young firefighters (20-29 years). A large effect of sex (males >  females) was found for pull-ups (d = 1.04), push-ups (d = 1.23), and aerobic capacity (d = 1.38).

CONCLUSIONS

The results suggest that implementing a consequential fitness assessment could help maintain firefighters' fitness levels over a multi-year period.

Strengthening First Responders' Coaching Proficiency through a Peer Fitness Leader Workshop: A Preliminary Efficacy Trial

First responders require physical fitness to perform dangerous tasks in unpredictable environments. To promote physical fitness among first responders, many agencies use a peer fitness leader (PFL) approach; however, resources for the fitness, wellness, and health of PFLs are often minimal. This study's purpose was to investigate the effectiveness of a training workshop to increase PFL's training knowledge and coaching comfort (CC). Thirty-six PFLs (Experience: 14.6 ± 9.1 yrs; Age: 41.0 ± 9.8 yrs; BMI: 28.9 ± 7.0 kg·m-2) attended a one-day workshop. Paired samples t-tests assessed for differences between baseline and post-assessment knowledge scores. Pearson correlations described the bivariate relationship between baseline and post-assessment knowledge scores. Wilcoxon's Signed Rank Test determined associations between baseline and post-workshop CC variables. Spearman's Rho correlations described bivariate relationships between baseline and post-assessment values for each CC category. Kendall's Rank correlations investigated relationships between knowledge scores and total perceived CC for pre- and post-workshops. Statistical significance was set at p < 0.05. Results indicated an improvement from the baseline knowledge score (6.08 ± 1.46 points) and post-workshop knowledge score (7.03 ± 0.94 points); (t (25) = 3.85; p < 0.001). Similar trends were observed for all CC measures (Z > -3.42; p < 0.001). Differences were not observed between pre-workshop total CC and knowledge scores (τ = -0.03; p = 0.81) or following workshop completion (τ = -0.04; p = 0.76). Participants demonstrated varying exercise knowledge and CC, highlighting inconsistencies in exercise standards within first responder occupations. This investigation suggests the proposed pedagogy design may be a solution for agencies with limited budgets.

Isokinetic Shoulder Strength and its Associations to Injury in Tactical Populations: A Critical Review

The aim of this review is to evaluate existing isokinetic testing protocols for the shoulder in tactical occupations, document their shoulder strength profiles, and determine any associations to shoulder injury. Four electronic databases were searched (Medline/Pubmed, Ovid/Emcare, CINAHL/Ebsco and Embase) using the keywords police OR law enforcement, firefighter, military, AND isokinetic. Articles were eligible if they had at least one cohort of a tactical population and included isokinetic testing of the glenohumeral joint. The search yielded 275 articles. After screening for duplicates and inclusion criteria, 19 articles remained for review, six of which assessed injury correlation. 17 articles evaluated military personnel and two examined firefighters. Articles were categorized by study design, population, isokinetic protocols, strength outcome measures and statistical measures. Concentric internal rotation (IR) and external rotation (ER) strength at 60 degrees/second were reported most frequently (84% of cases). There was a paucity of testing speeds, repetition ranges and contraction types evaluated when compared to existing literature in other populations with high shoulder injury occurrence such as overhead and collision athletes. Outside of military cohorts, there is limited data available to characterise the isokinetic strength profile of the shoulder in tactical occupations. Meta-analysis for injury association was unable to be performed due to independent variable and statistical heterogeneity. However, a best evidence synthesis suggested conflicting evidence to support the association of injury with isokinetic strength testing in tactical populations. Future studies should prioritise prospective designs utilising variable speeds, repetition schemes and contraction types to better capture the dynamic occupational demands in tactical groups.

A profile of occupational tasks performed by mounted police officers

BACKGROUND

Within individual policing organisations, there are a wide variety of units and job roles.

OBJECTIVE

To profile the occupational tasks performed by Australian mounted police officers, aiming to offer conditioning insight into this unique job role.

METHODS

Thirteen fully qualified and operational mounted police officers (n = 11 females), who served in the mounted police unit for ∼3.3 (±2.3) years, participated in this observational cohort study. Participants completed a survey outlining common occupational tasks and were monitored throughout four consecutive shifts. Participants' heart rate (HR), respiratory rate (RR), and skin temperature (ST) data were collected via wearable monitoring (Equivital EQ-02, Hidalgo, UK) and body position, physical activity undertaken, task effort, and load carriage were recorded by researchers. A one-way ANOVA was used to assess mean differences in physiological measures between the three most reported tasks.

RESULTS

Survey identified 130 tasks, with 38 listed as most common. The three most reported mounted police tasks were: 'horse riding' (n = 13, 34%), 'mounted patrols' (n = 10, 26%), and 'horse care' (n = 10, 26%). These were also reported as the most physically demanding. HR during 'horse care' and 'horse riding' were significantly higher than when 'mounted patrolling' (27±7bpm, p = 0.001 and 33±8bpm; p = 0.001, respectively). Mean RR was higher when 'horse riding' when compared to 'horse care' (5.3±1.6brpm) and 'mounted patrol' (8.5±1.9brpm).

CONCLUSION

Mounted police officers experience unique physiological challenges throughout their routine occupational tasks. This study highlights the significance of understanding occupation-specific tasks and stressors undertaken by mounted police to develop relevant conditioning, rehabilitation, and monitoring procedures.

Four-Year Training Course for Police Officers (CFOP) and Fitness Outcomes of Police Academy Cadets: A Cohort Study from 2004 to 2020

This study examines the effect of gender, age, and a 4-year training course for police officers (CFOP) on the physical fitness attributes of Portuguese police academy cadets. This longitudinal cohort study considered 686 police cadets (female, n = 131; male, n = 555 male), corresponding to 2578 fitness assessments (female, n = 509; male, n = 2069). The database of police cadets' physical fitness evaluations (from 2004/2005 to 2019/2020) comprises body size, speed, agility, strength, flexibility, and aerobic capacity first assessment (T0) and evaluations at the end of the first four years of the CFOP (T1, T2, T3, T4). Results showed that (i) female cadets are younger (p < 0.05), shorter, lighter, less fast, less agile, less strong, and perform worse in aerobic capacity assessments than male cadets (all, p < 0.001) but perform better in the flexibility assessment (p < 0.001); (ii) female cadets > 29 years are significantly heavier, slower, jump less, perform fewer sit-ups, and perform less on the Cooper test (but they have more handgrip strength), and male cadets > 29 years are significantly heavier, slower, jump less, perform fewer sit-ups, and have less flexibility and aerobic capacity (still, they have superior back and lumbar strength and handgrip strength); and (iii) from T0 to T4 (Δ), female cadets are significantly faster (60 m, -0.32 s; slalom, -0.78 s), jump further (+4 cm), have more abdominal strength endurance (+2.6 repetitions) and more back and lumbar strength (+89.8 kg), and male cadets are significantly heavier (+3.27 kg), faster (60 m, -0.23 s; 30 m, -0.15 s; slalom, -0.91 s), jump further (+8 cm), complete more repetitions in the sit-ups (+4.9 repetitions) and in pull-ups (+2.5 repetitions) and have more back and lumbar strength (+92.1 kg) and handgrip strength (+8.6 kg) but a lower aerobic capacity (Cooper test, -74.8 m; VO2max, -1.3 mL/kg/min) when compared to T0. The study's findings lead to widely accepted conclusions within the discipline. Nevertheless, this work provides valuable insights into the impact of various factors on the physical fitness of Portuguese police academy cadets, i.e.: (i) it is an essential study with practical implications for recruitment, training, and the ongoing development of Portuguese police academy cadets and police officers; and (ii) these results can also assist in tailoring training programs to different age groups and genders, which is crucial in police training.

A Research Note on Relationships Between Age, Body Size, Strength, and Power With Throwing Velocity in High School Water Polo Players

ABSTRACT

Lockie, RG, Wakely, AM, Viramontes, E, and Dawes, JJ. A research note on relationships between age, body size, strength, and power with throwing velocity in high school water polo players. J Strength Cond Res 37(8): e466-e469, 2023-A successful high school strength and conditioning program should aim to improve fitness and develop motor skills in athletes. This research note investigated the relationships between throwing velocity with age, height, body mass, strength, and power in male high school water polo athletes. Fifteen (n = 15) water polo athletes (age: 15.67 ± 0.98; height: 177.63 ± 6.53 cm; body mass: 78.07 ± 16.08 kg) from one high school program were recruited. Strength was measured using combined grip strength from both hands and a leg/back dynamometer. Power was measured by a vertical jump and 2-kg seated medicine ball throw (MBT). Subjects also threw a water polo ball with maximum effort to measure throwing velocity. Pearson's correlation and stepwise regression were used to calculate relationships between throwing velocity with age, body size, strength, and power (p < 0.05). Age (r = 0.530), grip strength (r = 0.674), leg/back strength (r = 0.699), and the MBT (r = 0.670) all showed significant positive relationships with throwing velocity. Leg/back strength predicted throwing velocity with 49% explained variance (r2 = 0.490, p < 0.004). With age, explained variance increased to 66% (r2 = 0.664, p < 0.001). Throwing velocity related to age, which could be expected with maturation. However, stronger relationships were seen for upper-body (grip) and lower-body (leg/back) strength, and upper-body power (MBT). Strength and conditioning programs for high school athletes who develop upper- and lower-body strength and upper-body power could enhance throwing velocity among water polo (and potentially other overhead throwing) athletes.

Establishing Reference Data for Fitness Assessment of Law Enforcement Officers Using a Qualitative Systematic Review

Physical fitness tests are a standard means of evaluating the competence of police officers. This qualitative review aims (i) to document, compare, and examine the reference values available in the current literature regarding fitness tests for Law Enforcement Officers (LEOs), and (ii) to define reference values for the most used fitness tests to assess and predict police officer performance. A total of 1879 records were collected for review from two major literature databases, PubMed and ScienceDirect. After applying our exclusion criteria, a total of 19 studies were considered. All studies demonstrated acceptable methodological quality in fitness assessment, and the most used components were muscle strength, muscular endurance, muscle power, aerobic and anaerobic capacity, flexibility, and agility. This review provides (i) a methodological definition for the physical fitness assessment that helps select the most used fitness tests, (ii) a standardised methodology for establishing reference data for fitness tests appropriate for LEOs; and (iii) aggregate reference values for selected fitness tests. This may improve selection and retention procedures, considering that this group performs its duties in an environment and under conditions that differ from those of other occupational groups. Complementarily, this qualitative review also provides a foundation for developing effective interventions to improve each aspect of fitness testing for police officers.

Longitudinal Changes in Health and Fitness Measures Among State Patrol Officers by Sex

ABSTRACT

Dawes, JJ, Lopes dos Santos, M, Kornhauser, C, Holmes, RJ, Alvar, BA, Lockie, RG, and Orr, RM. Longitudinal changes in health and fitness measures among state patrol officers by sex. J Strength Cond Res 37(4): 881-886, 2023-Research suggests that police officers lose fitness as a result of their policing vocation with occupational factors like stress, shift work, poor sleep, and poor diet all contributors to this loss The purpose of this research was to measure changes in fitness test scores of qualified police officers over a 5-year period. Archived fitness data for 523 state patrol officers ( n = 494 men; 29 women) from one agency were used for this analysis. These tests included 60-second sit-up [SU] and push-up [PU] scores (muscular endurance), vertical jump height [VJ] (lower-body power), and 20-m multistage fitness test (aerobic capacity). A series of paired-samples t-tests and effect size calculations were used to investigate mean differences in fitness tests score at the beginning and end of a 5-year period. The paired-samples t test showed significant tests score decreases among male officers over the 5-year period in VJ, PU, and V̇ o2 max , , with no differences observed in SU performance. Small effect sizes were observed in both VJ ( g = -0.20) and PU ( g = -0.27) with a trivial effect size observed in changes to V̇ o2 max ( g = -0.14). In contrast, significant improvements in performance were observed in SU performance among female officers, with a small effect size ( g = 0.38). No other significant differences were found in female measures. Whether at an organizational or individual level, annual fitness assessments for police officers can serve to educate and motivate officers regarding their personal fitness and potentially slow the negative impact of aging on health, fitness, and performance in these populations.

Relationships Between Physical Fitness Assessment Measures and a Workplace Task-Specific Physical Assessment Among Police Officers: A Retrospective Cohort Study

ABSTRACT

Lockie, R, Dawes, JJ, Sakura, T, Schram, B, and Orr, RM. Relationships between physical fitness assessment measures and a workplace task-specific physical assessment among police officers: a retrospective cohort study. J Strength Cond Res 37(3): 678-683, 2023-Police officers are required to perform physically demanding occupational tasks and, as such, require an adequate level of fitness. The aim of this study was to investigate relationships between a physical fitness assessment test (PAT) and a task-specific physical competency test (PCT). Retrospective data for 307 police trainees who completed the PAT and the PCT were provided. The PAT comprised a 2.4-km run, vertical jump, push-ups, and grip strength measures. The PCT, a single timed event, consisted of 10 occupational specific tasks (e.g., trailer push, wall climb, window climb through), which were completed within a 400-m obstacle course. Pearson's correlations were used to investigate relationships between the PAT and the PCT. Linear regression analyses were conducted to determine whether PAT predicted PCT performance. All PAT measures significantly correlated with PCT performance with the strength of the correlations ranging from moderate (vertical jump; r = -0.420, p < 0.01) to strong (2.4 km run; r = 0.639, p < 0.01). The highest predictive relationship was observed with 2.4-km run ( r2 = 0.409), and the lowest predictive relationship was observed with the vertical jump ( r2 = 0.177). The results of this study highlight the importance of aerobic capacity (2.4 km run), muscular endurance (push-ups), strength (grip strength), and power (vertical jump) for successful performance during the PCT. These physical attributes should be developed in new police trainees before attending recruit training if viable and form part of any return-to-work reconditioning frameworks for both police trainees and officers.

Test-Retest Reliability and Minimum Difference Values of a Novel and Portable Upright Row Strength Assessment in Probation Officers

Upper body (UB) strength is important for occupational tasks and injury prevention in law enforcement officers (LEOs). Portable, reliable, and cost-effective assessments are needed to examine UB strength among LEOs in field settings. The purpose of this study was to examine the test-retest reliability and minimum difference (MD) values of a novel and portable isometric upright row assessment in probation officers. Thirty certified probation officers (18 women; age = 38.9 ± 9.0 years, body mass = 98.8 ± 27.1 kg, stature = 171.4 ± 14.0 cm) volunteered for this investigation. Testing occurred on-site across two sessions (2-5 days apart). Participants stood upon an aluminum plate with a chain attached to a handle and dynamometer. They grasped the handle with a pronated grip, two cm below the umbilicus, and performed three isometric maximal voluntary contractions. Intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC2,1), standard error of the measurement (SEM), and MD values were calculated. Results indicated no significant systematic error (p = 0.080) across sessions. The ICC2,1, SEM, and MD values for UB strength were 0.984, 27.20 N (4.1% of the mean), and 75.38 N (11.3% of the mean), respectively. These data suggest this isometric upright row assessment is a reliable, portable, and cost-effective measure of UB strength to assess and monitor LEOs in field settings.

Characterization of Injuries Suffered by Mounted and Non-Mounted Police Officers

Mounted police officers are subject to unique occupational tasks which may lead to unique injuries. This study's aim was to describe policing injuries suffered by mounted police officers contextualized through comparison to non-mounted officers. Injury data from 01 July 2014 to 30 June 2020 were provided from a state policing agency's incident reporting database. The data reported the numbers and rates of injuries and classified the injuries by gender, cause, mechanism, nature, and hours worked. Of the 35,406 reported injuries, 35,255 (99.6%) injuries were reported by non-mounted police officers. An annual incidence rate of 338-364 and 626-952 injuries per 1000 personnel were reported in non-mounted and mounted police, respectively. For mounted police, the leading causes of injuries were slips, trips, and falls (23.8%), followed by repetitive tasks and movements (9.9%). Physical assault was the leading cause of injury for non-mounted police officers (21.3%), followed by slips, trips, and falls (16.0%). In mounted police, falls from heights (15.9%) and repetitive tasks and movements (10.6%) comprised the most frequently specified mechanisms of injury, as compared to physical assault (21.0%) and physical exercise (5.2%) in non-mounted police. The most common activities being performed at the time of injury for mounted police were animal handling (64.9%) as opposed to arresting an offender (31.2%) for non-mounted police. Sprains and strains and bruises and swelling were the leading natures of injuries among both mounted (44.4% and 29.1%, respectively) and non-mounted (36.6% and 21.2%, respectively) officers. The leading body sites of injury in mounted officers were the lower back (13.9%) and neck and shoulders (7.3% each), and for non-mounted police, the knee (13.9%), lower back (10.0%), and hand (8.2%) were the most common. Mounted police officers sustained injuries through different activities, causes, and mechanisms and to different body sites at 2-3 times higher incidence rates. Mounted police officers warrant specifically tailored injury mitigation and return-to-work strategies.

Physical Performance of Brazilian Military Policemen: A Longitudinal Analysis by Occupational Specialties

Maintenance of good levels of physical fitness is essential during occupational tasks for the general health of the military police. However, no studies have evaluated longitudinal changes in the physical fitness of Brazilian military police officers according to their specialties. Thus, the objective of the current study was to analyze the changes in the physical fitness of military police officers according to their specialty, over a period of five years. Retrospective data (2015-2019) from 290 police officers were analyzed, including age and physical fitness tests (12-min run test, sit-ups, push-ups, and pull-ups on the bar). The sample was divided into four groups (Specialized; Border; Urban; and Environmental). ANCOVA was used to describe differences in physical fitness components between groups of police officers after adjusting for age. Initial fitness was higher among police officers in the Specialized group (i.e., those with greater physical demands). During the five-year follow-up period, there was an age-related decrease in physical capacity for all groups, regardless of specialty. However, Urban police showed improvement in running and sit-up tests (p < 0.05) over time. Changes in physical capacity during follow-up differed depending on the physical component analyzed and the occupational specialty.

The Effects of Traditional versus Ability-Based Physical Training on the Health and Fitness of Custody Assistant Recruits

This study investigated traditional training (TT) versus ability-based training (ABT) in custody assistant recruits. Retrospective analysis was conducted on two recruit classes who completed an 8-week academy. The TT group (18 males, 13 females) followed a physical training model where recruits completed the same exercises with the same intensity; the ABT group (17 males, 12 females) had exercises tailored towards their ability. Pre- and post-academy, recruits were assessed in: body mass; body fat percentage (BF%); resting heart rate (RHR); blood pressure (BP); waist circumference (WC); waist-to-hip ratio (WHR); grip strength; push-ups; sit-ups; YMCA step test recovery HR; 201-m run; and 2.4-km run. Independent samples t-tests evaluated between-class pre-test differences, with significance set at p ≤ 0.05. Paired samples t-tests (p ≤ 0.05) detected within-group training changes. Change scores were calculated for each variable; independent samples t-tests (p ≤ 0.05) compared change scores between groups. The TT group had lower BF%, BP, and WC; and were superior in sit-ups and the 2.4-km run before training. After academy, the TT recruits improved WHR, grip strength, recovery HR, 201-m run, and 2.4-km run, but increased diastolic BP. The ABT recruits decreased BF%, RHR, and WC, and improved push-ups, sit-ups, recovery HR, 201-m run, and the 2.4-km run. ABT recruits had greater positive changes in BF%, RHR, diastolic BP, and sit-ups. TT and ABT recruits generally experienced favorable fitness changes; the degree of positive change tended to be greater for ABT recruits for select tests. Coupled with the diastolic BP increase for TT recruits, this may provide evidence for ABT.

A Preliminary Comparison of Firefighter Candidates' Biddle Physical Ability Test Performance and Success Based on Training Class Participation

The Biddle Physical Ability Test (BPAT) was developed to identify candidates who possess the physical ability to become structural firefighters. The test must be completed in ≤ 9:34 min:s before a candidate is admitted to an academy. Some community colleges offer semester-long training classes for candidates. This study analyzed whether candidates who completed a training class could perform the BPAT more effectively. Retrospective analysis of 30 males and 2 females who attempted the BPAT was conducted. BPAT tasks were: dry and charged hose drag; halyard raise, roof walk, and attic crawl; roof ventilation and victim removal; ladder removal and carry; stair climb with hose bundle; crawling search and tower exit; stair climb with air bottles; hose hoist; and return to ground floor with air bottles. Independent samples t-tests or Mann-Whitney U tests (p < 0.05) and effect sizes calculated BPAT time differences between candidates who completed a training class or not. Twenty-nine candidates passed the BPAT; 6 completed a training class. The 3 candidates (2 males, 1 female) who failed did not complete a class. There were no significant between-group differences in BPAT times (p = 0.054-0.829). There were moderate effects for faster roof ventilation and victim removal, ladder removal and carry, and hose hoist times for candidates who attended a class (d = 0.74-0.95). While training classes may not be necessary for all candidates, physically demanding BPAT tasks were finished faster by candidates who completed a class. For candidates who find the BPAT physicality difficult, participation in a task-specific fitness and skills class may prove beneficial.

Profiling the Typical Training Load of a Law Enforcement Recruit Class

Law enforcement academies, designed to prepare recruits for their prospective career, represent periods of high physical and mental stress, potentially contributing to recruits' injuries. Managing stress via monitoring training loads may mitigate injuries while ensuring adequate preparation. However, it is vital to first understand an academy's typical training load. The aim of this study was to profile the typical training load of law enforcement recruits over the course of 22 weeks. Data were prospectively collected using global positioning system (GPS) units placed on recruits during a portion of the academy training, while a desktop analysis was retrospectively applied to six other classes. A Bland-Altman plot was conducted to assess the agreement between the two methods. A linear mixed model was conducted to analyse the difference in distances covered per week, while other variables were presented graphically. Adequate agreement between the desktop analysis and GPS units was observed. Significant differences (p-value < 0.01) in distance covered (9.64 to 11.65 km) exist between weeks during early academy stages, which coincide with increases (~6 h) in physical training. Significant decreases in distances were experienced during the last five weeks of academy training. Most acute:chronic workload ratios stayed between the proposed 0.8 to 1.3 optimal range. Results from this study indicate that large increases in training occur early in the academy, potentially influencing injuries. Utilizing a desktop analysis is a pragmatic and reliable approach for instructors to measure load.

Health and fitness data for police officers within a health and wellness program: Implications for occupational performance and career longevity

BACKGROUND: Health and wellness programs can be implemented at police departments. Little research has detailed the characteristics of officers within these programs. OBJECTIVE: To analyse the health and fitness data of officers involved in a health and wellness program from 2018–2020, and to profile the officers involved relative to population norms. METHODS: Analysis was conducted on archival data from 633 officers (523 males, 110 females) who participated in a health and wellness program from a large city police department. Data included: body mass; body fat percentage; blood pressure (BP); estimated maximal aerobic capacity; sit-and-reach; push-ups; vertical jump; grip strength; sit-ups; bench press ratio. Data were grouped by year (2018, 2019, 2020), and a univariate ANCOVA with Bonferroni post hoc adjustment determined any significant between-group differences. Individual officer data were also compared to population norms. RESULTS: The 2020 group had higher systolic BP compared to both other groups, and superior sit-and-reach and grip strength compared to the 2018 group (p <  0.05). Compared to population norms across the 3 years, 74–86% of officers had BP elevated above normal levels. Depending on the fitness component measured most officers (69–98%) were categorised as average or better. CONCLUSIONS: There were few differences between the year groups, although the 2020 officers did have superior sit-and-reach and grip strength. The higher systolic BP from the 2020 group may be indicative of the challenges of the year (pandemic, civil unrest). Officers generally had good profiles relative to population norms. The wellness program appeared to benefit the well-being of officers.

Profiling the injuries of law enforcement recruits during academy training: a retrospective cohort study

Background

Injuries within law enforcement are a significant issue as they increase organisational costs and workforce strain. As one of the biggest risk factors of future injury is previous injury, minimising injuries suffered during academy has multiple beneficial and long-term effects, including a healthier and fitter police force. The purpose of this study was to profile the injuries sustained at a law enforcement academy to inform future injury mitigation strategies.

Methods

Injury data were provided retrospectively (from May 2012 to September 2019) from the official insurance records of a law enforcement academy and included nature, location, and activity performed at time of injury. A total of 4340 (3288 males, 938 females, 114 sex not stated) recruits participated in academy training during this period. Inclusion criteria for the data were (a) injury record related to a recruit, and (b) the recruit was injured during academy training., with injury defined as tissue damage caused by acute or repetitive trauma, inclusive of musculoskeletal, neural, and/or integumentary systems but excluding general medical conditions such as cardiac (e.g. heart attacks) or respiratory (asthma) that was subsequently reported for worker’s compensation. Injury incidence rates and proportions were calculated and a Spearman’s correlation analysis was conducted between injury rates over successive classes.

Results

An injury incidence rate of 368.63 injuries per 1000 recruits per year was calculated in this population, with a moderate correlation coefficient (r_s = 0.60) of increasing injury rates over chronologically occurring classes. Females also had higher injury rates than male recruits, even across various fitness levels. Trauma to joints and ligaments (49.30%) was the most common injury, and the knee the most common location (23.17%) of injury. Physical training (56.10%) was the most common activity being performed at the time of injury.

Conclusions

This research demonstrates a large number of lower limb, musculoskeletal injuries that often occur during physical training. Further research is needed to assess suitable injury mitigation programs.

Identifying the Physical Fitness and Health Evaluations for Police Officers: Brief Systematic Review with an Emphasis on the Portuguese Research

Simple Summary

Police health and physical fitness are essential for improving quality of life and police skills. This review aims to identify and analyze international and Portuguese studies that have investigated the relationships between various aspects of physical fitness as specified by job descriptions and to understand the health-related requirements of police officers. This will help to select the most used fitness measures and health-related parameters for police officers and improve training curricula for these occupational groups.

Abstract

This review aims (i) to identify and analyze the most used physical fitness tests for police officers (from international and Portuguese studies) and (ii) to understand the health-related physical fitness requirements according to the job descriptions of police officers. A total of 29 studies were included. Eighteen were from around the world and eleven were related to Portuguese police officers. All studies showed acceptable methodological quality in the assessment of physical fitness, and the most used fitness components were muscular strength, endurance, power, aerobic and anaerobic capacity, flexibility, and agility. For the analysis of health parameters, they are insufficient at the international level, while at the Portuguese level we have an acceptable sample. We try to analyze the relationship between physical fitness and health, but the studies conducted so far are insufficient. This review provides summary information (i) to help select the most used fitness measures and health-related parameters for police officers, and (ii) that will serve as a starting point for evaluating the relationship between the health and physical fitness of police officers.

Profiling the absolute and relative strength of a special operations police unit

Background

Specialist police perform high-risk tasks and are required to have, and maintain, a high level of fitness. The aims of this study were to profile the strength of a specialist police unit and to investigate whether this profile remained constant over an 18-month period.

Methods

Retrospective data for 47 special operations police officers (mean initial weight = 88.84 ± 8.25 kg) were provided. Officers were tested five times over 18 months for 1 repetition maximum: bench press, squat, deadlift, and pull-up. All officers continued to participate in their typical physical conditioning programs. Repeated-measures ANOVAs with Bonferroni post-hoc adjustments or Friedman tests with Wilcoxon signed-rank tests were used to compare strength values across all five time points (TPs). Alpha levels were set at 0.05.

Results

All strength values increased significantly over the 18-month period. Over the five TPs, absolute squat increased the most (+ 9%: initial mean = 125.79 ± 24.53 kg), followed by absolute bench press (+ 8%: initial mean = 109.67 ± 19.80 kg), absolute deadlift (+ 7%: initial mean = 151.64 ± 26.31 kg) and absolute pull-up (+ 4%: initial mean = 121.43 ± 14.91 kg). Relatively, the highest increase was found with the squat (+ 8%: initial mean = 1.42 ± 0.25%), followed by the bench press (+ 7%: initial mean = 1.24 ± 0.20%), deadlift (+ 6%: initial mean = 1.71 ± 0.25%) then pull-up (+ 4%: initial mean = 1.37 ± 0.15%). The period between TP3 and TP4 yielded the fewest significant increases compared with other TP differences with only absolute bench press (+ 1.7%), absolute squat (+ 1.1%) and relative bench press (+ 1.6%) changing significantly (p < 0.05).

Conclusions

Specialist police can maintain, even increase strength, while serving in specialist units if provided with a Strength and Conditioning coach and time to train. Given changes over time, constant monitoring is required and a single timepoint may not be optimal to establish normative data.

Differences in Fitness between Firefighter Trainee Academy Classes and Normative Percentile Rankings

Fire academy training classes may have trainees with a range of different fitness capabilities. Documentation of trainee fitness could indicate the need for flexibility in physical training emphases. Therefore, data from six academy classes (males = 274; females = 31) were analyzed, including: Illinois agility test (IAT), push-ups, pull-ups, leg tucks, multistage fitness test, backwards overhead 4.54 kg medicine ball throw (BOMBT), 10-repetition maximum deadlift, and 18 kg kettlebell farmers carry. A one-way ANOVA, with the Bonferroni post hoc test, calculated between-class fitness differences. Normative fitness test data were produced via percentile ranks. Classes 5 and 6 had the most females (n = 15). Class 1 completed the IAT faster than all classes (p ≤ 0.009). Classes 1 and 4 had a further BOMBT distance than Classes 5 and 6, and Class 3 outperformed Class 6 (p ≤ 0.044). Class 4 completed more leg tucks than Class 5 (p = 0.047). Class 1 had a greater deadlift than Classes 3, 4, and 6, and Class 2 outperformed Classes 3–6 (p ≤ 0.036). Class 3 was slower in the farmers carry compared to all classes (p ≤ 0.002). Percentile rankings showed that most females (48–100%) were in the 0–29% rank. Staff should implement individualized programs where appropriate for trainees as cohort fitness differences exist. Female trainees may need targeted maximal strength and power development.

Do baseline physical fitness measures predict law enforcement academy graduation?

BACKGROUND: Law enforcement officers experience high stress levels and perform various physical tasks. Thus, law enforcement academies emphasize physical fitness training and assessment. OBJECTIVE: To examine fitness test-performances and determine which entry-level fitness components best predict likelihood of successful law enforcement academy graduation. METHODS: Recruits (151 males, 42 females) completed initial academy fitness testing: one-repetition maximum bench press, push-ups, sit-ups, pull-ups, sit-and-reach, 1.5-mile run, and work performance test. Chi-square and t-tests were used to examine gender differences. Correlation coefficients assessed relationships, while logistical regression determined the best fitness components for predicting graduation (p < 0.05). RESULTS: Males had greater fitness performances except pull-ups, sit-ups and sit and reach (p < 0.05). Distributions of below average fitness performances were similar between genders with majority of recruits performing below average on all tests. Gender, age, push-ups, and pull-ups explained 18% of the variance in graduation rates (p < 0.05). Males were 4.68 (p < 0.05) times more likely to graduate, but other predictors were not significant. CONCLUSIONS: No single fitness test predicted the likelihood of graduation and majority of performances were below average, suggesting the importance for proficiency across multiple fitness components. Considering lower fitness performances and graduation rates, females may further benefit from training programs prior to academy entrance.

Fit (and Healthy) for Duty: Blood Lipid Profiles and Physical Fitness Test Relationships from Police Officers in a Health and Wellness Program

This research analyzed archival health and wellness program data (2018: 169 males, 39 females; 2019: 194 males, 43 females) to document police officer lipid profiles, and correlate lipids with fitness. Bloodwork included total cholesterol (TC), low-density lipoproteins (LDL-C), high-density lipoproteins (HDL-C), and triglycerides (TG). Fitness data included maximal aerobic capacity (V·O2max); sit-and-reach; push-ups; vertical jump; grip strength; sit-ups; and relative bench press (RBP). Lipid profiles were compared to national standards. Spearman’s correlations derived relationships between lipids and fitness (p < 0.05). Over 2018−2019, 68−76% of officers had desirable TC (<200 mg/dL) and HDL-C (≥60 mg/dL); 67−72% had desirable TG (<150 mg/dL). 54−62% of officers had LDL-C above desirable (≥100 mg/dL); 13−14% had mildly high TG (150−199 mg/dL); 16−18% had high TG (200−499 mg/dL). In 2018, HDL-C correlated with V·O2max, push-ups, grip strength, and RBP in males, and sit-ups in females. TG correlated with V·O2max (both sexes), sit-ups (males), and grip strength (females). In 2019, TG related to V·O2max, push-ups, vertical jump, sit-ups, and RBP in males. TG and LDL-C related to push-ups, and HDL-C to sit-ups and RBP in females. Relationship strengths were trivial-to-small (ρ = ±0.157 − 0.389). Most officers had good lipid profiles relative to cardiovascular disease risk. Nonetheless, the data highlighted the need for comprehensive approaches to decreasing risk.

Profiling the New Zealand Police Trainee Physical Competency Test

Police officers require a certain amount of occupational fitness to successfully perform physically demanding tasks. As such, trainees are required to undergo training to develop their ability to perform such tasks. The physical competency test (PCT) is a 400 m obstacle course consisting of key police occupational physical tasks used to evaluate a trainee's ability to complete tasks that a police officer is expected to perform whilst on duty. The purpose of this study was to profile the PCT in a police recruit population to provide an indication of the current level of occupational fitness within a policing population to inform conditioning requirements. Retrospective data for 813 male (age = 27.41 ± 5.92 years, body mass = 83.98 ± 14.03 kg, height = 179.23 ± 10.50 cm, BMI = 25.85 ± 3.92 kg/m2) and 372 female (mean age = 27.01 ± 6.45 years, mean weight = 67.14 ± 8.60 kg, mean height = 168.14 ± 6.46 cm and mean BMI = 23.61 ± 2.52 kg/m2) police trainees from the New Zealand Police Constabulary Recruitment database were provided for analysis. Anthropometric data, including height, body mass, and BMI were provided, in addition to trainee PCT time. Data were split by sex and age. Significant differences were observed between sexes for all anthropometric measures and PCT time (p < 0.001). Generally, in both the male and female groups, younger recruits tended to perform better than the older recruits with results between the “under 20” and the 20–24-year-old-age groups performing significantly better than the 35–39-year-old-age group in both sexes, and the 25–29-year-old-age group performing significantly better than the 35–39-year-old-age group in female officers. The data provided in this study provides a profile for performance of male and female recruits of various ages on the PCT in preparation for entry, or re-entry following injury, into the NZ Police. However, given that the PCT is considered a measure of occupational task performance, consideration should be given to the use of sex and age neutral requirements as the occupational tasks performed by police officers exhibit the same traits regardless of sex or age. Older trainees may therefore need conditioning to improve PCT times and subsequently occupational performance.

An Analysis of the Body Drag Test in Law Enforcement Recruits with Consideration to Current Population Demographics

An essential job task for law enforcement officers is a body drag, where they must drag a person from a hazardous environment. In California, a 9.75-m body drag with a 74.84-kg dummy must be completed within 28 s to graduate academy. This mass is less than the average US adult, which may suggest it should be increased. This has not happened due to concerns regarding a potential increase in recruit injuries and failure rates. However, if recruits can complete the drag without formal training, this could leave scope for increasing the mass. This study analyzed the body drag in incoming recruits, compared their results to graduated recruits, and detailed how many achieved current standards without training. A retrospective analysis of two incoming (n = 191) and nine graduated (n = 643) recruit classes from one agency was conducted. Incoming recruits completed the drag in the week prior to their 22-week academy; the graduated recruits in their final weeks. The drag required the recruit to lift the dummy and drag them 9.75 m. Independent samples t-tests compared the groups, and recruits were compared to the 28-s standard. Graduated recruits performed the drag faster than incoming recruits (~5.11 vs. ~7.28 s; p < 0.01). All but one incoming recruit completed the drag within 28 s. Incoming recruits had sufficient strength and technical ability to drag a 74.84-kg dummy fast enough to achieve state standards before training. Further analysis should determine whether the current California body drag is appropriate for policing job demands.

The Health and Fitness Characteristics of Civilian Jailer Recruits Prior to Academy Training

Civilian jailer (CJ) recruits may not complete fitness testing within their hiring process. As certain job tasks in custody/jail facilities can be physically demanding (e.g., inmate restraint), better health and fitness should help a recruit graduate from a CJ academy and be prepared for the occupation. This study investigated the health and fitness characteristics of CJ recruits entering academy training, detailed between-sex differences, and categorized recruits relative to population norms. Retrospective analysis was conducted on data from 89 CJ recruits (48 males, 41 females) across three academy classes from one law enforcement agency. The following were measured before academy: resting heart rate (RHR); blood pressure (BP); height, body mass, and body mass index (BMI); waist circumference; sit-and-reach; grip strength; 60-s pushups; and YMCA step test recovery heart rate (HR). Independent samples t-tests derived any between-sex differences. Recruit data were compared to categorical population norms. The results indicated that male recruits were taller, heavier, had greater grip strength, and completed more push-ups than female recruits (p < 0.001). Approximately 53% of recruits were overweight or obese according to BMI, ~63% had an RHR below average-to-very poor, and ~75% had elevated BP or hypertension. Most recruits had good-to-excellent flexibility (sit-and-reach; ~66%) and muscular endurance (push-ups; ~85%). However, ~70% of recruits had fair-to-poor grip strength, and ~79% had poor-to-very poor aerobic fitness measured by step test recovery HR. Aerobic conditioning and strength training should be a focus of CJ recruits during academy. Furthermore, better aerobic fitness should benefit job performance and lessen cardiovascular disease risk.

How Fit Are Special Operations Police Officers? A Comparison With Elite Athletes From Olympic Disciplines

The diverse tasks of special operations police (SOP) units place high physical demands on every officer. Being fit for duty requires a wide range of motor abilities which must be trained regularly and in a structured manner. But SOP operators have to plan and manage large proportions of their training alone, which makes it difficult to control. Therefore, this study aimed to highlight strengths and deficits of the SOP operators' fitness by comparing them to elite athletes, and to define future training goals. Retrospective data of 189 male SOP operators were used, who completed several isometric strength tests, a graded exercise test to determine maximal oxygen uptake, and countermovement jumps to determine leg muscle power. On the basis of a literature search, performance data were then compared to a total of 3,028 elite male athletes from 36 Summer Olympic disciplines. Pooled means and standard deviations were calculated for each discipline and effect sizes were used to analyze their similarities and differences to the SOP unit. On average, SOP operators were taller, heavier, and stronger than elite athletes. But both the ability to convert this strength into explosive movement and aerobic power was significantly less developed. From this point of view, SOP operators should consider polarized endurance training to work efficiently on improving aerobic performance. In addition, regular plyometric training seems necessary to improve leg muscle power and agility.

Moving Past the One-Size-Fits-All Education-Training Model of Police Academies to the Self-Prescribed Individualized Exercise Prescription Model

Law enforcement agencies generally employ the "one-size-fits-all" education-training model. Its effectiveness compared to alternative training models has been under scrutiny. Physical fitness scores of Serbian male (n = 98) and female (n = 79) police cadets during their yearly evaluation were compared. Cadets trained for the first 3 years with the "one-size-fits-all" model. In the fourth year, they self-prescribed an individualized exercise program based on the obtained curriculum knowledge. A two-way MANOVA revealed a significant effect of academic years on combined variables (p < 0.001) and significant differences between academic years for deadlift, half squat, standing long jump, sit-ups and 12-min Cooper test time (p < 0.001). Sex also had a significant main effect on combined variables (p < 0.001) with males outscoring females on all of the fitness assessments. For pull-ups, there was a significant year * sex interaction (p = 0.01) with the third year to be pivotal for female and male performance, respectively. In conclusion, the use of a "one-size-fits-all" model, presented differences in physical fitness scores between the years one to three, pointing to its questionable effectiveness. On the contrary, the self-prescribed individualized exercise program of the fourth year elicited greater fitness scores, indicating the need to evaluate the applicability of such a training model more.

Examining the impact of grip strength and officer gender on shooting performance

BACKGROUND

Effective shooting performance relies heavily on sufficient grip strength. However, some standard issue pistols used by police services may have a trigger weight that causes problems for officers with insufficient grip strength, including female officers. The current study aimed to replicate previous findings, which show that grip strength is positively related to shooting performance. We also sought to determine what grip strength is required to achieve proficient scores on a standard police pistol qualification (PPQ) when a heavy trigger weight (i.e., 8lbs-12lbs) is used. Finally, we explored the relationship between officer gender and PPQ scores to determine if grip strength plays a mediating role in this relationship.

METHOD

The dominant hand grip strength (in lbs) of 86 male and 32 female officers were recorded prior to their participation in their agency mandated annual PPQ. Officer gender, grip strength, and PPQ scores were analyzed to explore how they related to one another.

RESULTS

Grip strength significantly impacted officers' ability to pass the PPQ, with female officers possessing lower grip strength compared to male officers, as well as achieving poorer scores on the PPQ. We determined that grip strengths in the range of 80lbs and 125lbs were needed to score approximately 85 % and 90 % on the PPQ, respectively; exceeding that of the average grip strength for the female officers in the study (M = 77.5lbs). Mediation analysis suggested that grip strength may mediate the relationship between officer gender and shooting performance, but studies with more power are needed to confirm that.

CONCLUSION

To improve shooting performance as well as public and police safety, law enforcement agencies may need to consider including grip strength training in their conditioning regime or examine the adoption pistols with a lighter trigger pull weight (e.g., 6lbs).

Relationship Between the 20-m Multistage Fitness Test and 2.4-km Run in Law Enforcement Recruits

ABSTRACT

Lockie, RG, Dawes, JJ, Moreno, MR, Cesario, KA, Balfany, K, Stierli, M, Dulla, JM, and Orr, RM. Relationship between the 20-m multistage fitness test and 2.4-km run in law enforcement recruits. J Strength Cond Res 35(10): 2756-2761, 2021-In the United States, the 2.4-km run is arguably the most common law enforcement aerobic assessment. Potential limitations are that recruits use an internal pacing strategy, the test requires fewer direction changes, and less-fit recruits run for longer. The 20-m multistage fitness test (20MSFT) is commonly used internationally to assess aerobic fitness in law enforcement recruits and provides an external pacing strategy. This study documented sex differences between the 2.4-km run and 20MSFT in law enforcement recruits, and between-test relationships. Retrospective analysis on 8 academy classes (463 men and 87 women) from 1 agency was conducted. The 20MSFT was completed before academy and the 2.4-km run in the first week. Between-sex comparisons in the 2.4-km run and 20MSFT were conducted with independent-samples t-tests and effect sizes. Estimated V̇o2max from the tests was compared with paired-samples t-tests. Correlations and linear regression calculated 2.4-km run and 20MSFT relationships. There were significant between-sex differences for the 2.4-km run and 20MSFT (p < 0.01), with moderate (d = 0.9) and small (d = 0.4) effects, respectively. Estimated 2.4-km run V̇o2max was greater than that from the 20MSFT (p < 0.01). The 2.4-km run had significant relationships with the 20MSFT (r = -0.6), although the regression equations were low (r2 = 0.30-0.37). Between-sex differences in the 20MSFT seemed less than for those in the 2.4-km run. Nonetheless, even with significant relationships between the tests, the 20MSFT induces a higher running intensity and direction changes. This may limit transferability with the 2.4-km run in law enforcement recruits.

How Does Time Spent Working in Custody Influence Health and Fitness Characteristics of Law Enforcement Officers?

This study investigated the influence of time spent working in custody on the health and fitness of law enforcement officers (LEOs). Retrospective analysis was conducted on data from 48 male and 12 female LEOs, divided into groups based upon time spent working custody: LEO ≤ 24 (≤24 months; n = 15); LEO 2547 (25-47 months; n = 24); and LEO 48+ (≥48 months; n = 21). The following were measured: body mass index (BMI); fat mass percentage; waist-to-hip ratio (WHR); resting heart rate (RHR); blood pressure; grip strength; sit-and-reach; push-ups; sit-ups; and YMCA step test recovery heart rate (HR). A univariate ANCOVA (controlling for sex and age) with Bonferroni post hoc determined significant between-group differences. Select assessments were compared to normative data. The LEO 48+ group completed fewer sit-ups than the LEO 2547 group (p = 0.006); there were no other significant between-group differences. Forty-nine LEOs were overweight or obese according to BMI; 52 were fatter than average or above; 27 had a WHR that increased cardiovascular disease risk. Forty-three LEOs had very poor RHR; 52 had elevated blood pressure. Forty-eight LEOs had average-to-very poor step test recovery HR. Irrespective of time spent working in custody, personnel should be physically active to maintain health and fitness and, where possible, engage in formal strength training and conditioning.

Effects of Sex and Age on Physical Testing Performance for Law Enforcement Agency Candidates: Implications for Academy Training

ABSTRACT

Bloodgood, AM, Dawes, JJ, Orr, RM, Stierli, M, Cesario, KA, Moreno, MR, Dulla, JM, and Lockie, RG. Effects of sex and age on physical testing performance for law enforcement agency candidates: implications for academy training. J Strength Cond Res 35(9): 2629-2635, 2021-Law enforcement candidates are often required to complete fitness tests to assess their preparedness for training. This study investigated the influence of sex and age on candidate performance before academy training. Retrospective analysis of 516 candidates was performed. Data were stratified into men (n = 432) and women (n = 84), and the pooled (men and women combined) data were stratified into age groups (20-24; 24-29; 30-34; 35-39; and 40+ years). The tests included the following: maximal push-ups and sit-ups in 60 seconds; a 75-yard pursuit run (75PR); arm ergometer revolutions completed in 60 seconds; and a 2.4-km run. To compare the sex and age groups, a 2 × 5 analysis of variance (with Bonferroni post hoc for multiple between-age group comparisons) was used. Men performed significantly (p < 0.001) more push-ups, sit-ups, and arm ergometer revolutions and were faster in the 75PR and 2.4-km run. The 20-24, 25-29, and 35-39 year groups were faster in the 75PR compared with the 40+ year group; the 20-24 and 25-29 year groups were faster than the 35-39 year group; and the 20-24 year group was faster than the 30-34 year group (p ≤ 0.023). The 20-24 year group was faster than the 40+ year group in the 2.4-km run (p = 0.005). Women and older candidates may have a lower physical capacity than men and younger candidates, respectively, in certain physical assessments. Women and older candidates, in particular, may benefit from dedicated training before academy to better prepare for the demands of this period.

Battery Fitness Testing in Law Enforcement: A Critical Review of the Literature

Police trainees undergoing training to prepare them for the occupational demands of policing are often subjected to fitness testing. The aim of this review was to critically appraise research studies employing police fitness tests.

METHOD

A comprehensive search of four databases (PubMed, EMBASE, and Ebscohost [CINAHL and SportDiscus]) was conducted by two authors independently. After duplicate articles were removed, articles that did not meet the pre-determined inclusion criteria and met the exclusion criteria were removed. The remaining studies were critically appraised by two authors independently using a Downs and Black Checklist. Cohen's Kappa coefficient was used to measure the level of agreement between appraisers and calculated by a third author. The grading system proposed by Kennelly was used to grade the methodological quality of the studies.

RESULTS

From an initial 7384 identified studies, including four from additional sources, 11 studies met the criteria for review. The mean critical appraisal score for the articles was 74.36 (± 1.48%) being considered 'good' quality and a 'substantial' level of agreement was found between the two appraisers (k = 0.75). The most common measures assessed were muscle endurance (push-ups and sit-ups) and aerobic capacity (running), with the least common measure being agility. Assessments of push-ups and the 2.4-km (1.5-mile) run had the strongest correlations to law enforcement academy graduation across the studies. Grip strength may predict occupational performance (marksmanship) as well as longevity.

CONCLUSION

The push-up and 2.4 km (1.5-mile) run fitness tests were the most popular fitness assessments and had the strongest positive correlation to law enforcement academy graduation.

Optimization of the Critical Speed Concept for Tactical Professionals: A Brief Review

Tactical professionals often depend on their physical ability and fitness to perform and complete occupational tasks to successfully provide public services or survive on the battlefield. Critical speed (CS), or maximal aerobic steady-state, is a purported measure that predicts performance, prescribes exercise, and detects training adaptions with application to tactical professionals. The CS concept has the versatility to adapt to training with load carriage as an integrated bioenergetic system approach for assessment. The aims of this review are to: (1) provide an overview of tactical populations and the CS concept; (2) describe the different methods and equipment used in CS testing; (3) review the literature on CS associated with tactical occupational tasks; and (4) demonstrate the use of CS-derived exercise prescriptions for tactical populations.

A Preliminary Investigation: Evaluating the Effectiveness of an Occupational Specific Training Program to Improve Lower Body Strength and Speed for Law Enforcement Officers

Based on current law enforcement officer (LEO) duties, musculoskeletal injury risk is elevated due to the unpredictable nature of physically demanding tasks. The purpose of this 4-week study was to determine the effectiveness of a 15-min post-shift standardized occupational specific training program. The standardized program was designed to improve lower-body strength and speed to aid physically demanding task performance. Seven male LEOs completed the program after their 12-h shift. Subjects were required to use the department fitness center to perform the 15-min standardized program consisting of a dynamic warm-up, 4 sets of 3 repetitions on hex-bar deadlift and four 20-m sprints. Two minutes of rest was required between each set of 3 repetitions on hex-bar deadlift and 1 min of rest between each 20-m sprint. A dependent T-test was used between pre-test and post-test scores for hex-bar deadlift (HBD) and sprint. Data revealed significant improvements in relative lower-body strength with HBD (p ≤ 0.001). However, insignificant results were demonstrated with the 20-m sprint (p ≤ 0.262). In conclusion, a 15-min post-shift workout can improve lower-body strength as measured by the hex-bar deadlift. However, data indicated running speed may require a different training approach to improve the 20-m sprint.

Profiling the Injuries Sustained by Police Trainees Undergoing Initial Training: A Retrospective Cohort Study

The tasks performed by police officers are unique, varied and can be performed in unexpected situations. Initial police college training is used to prepare new police officers to conduct these tasks and is known to be a time when police trainees are at an elevated risk of injury. The aim of this study was to profile injuries occurring within a national Police Force during initial training to inform injury prevention strategies. Using a retrospective cohort design, point-of-care injury data including injury body site, nature, mechanism, and the activity being performed at the time of injury were provided. A total of 564 injuries were recorded over the 22-month period, with the mean age of recruits reporting an injury being 28.83 years ± 6.9 years. The incidence of injuries ranged across training periods, from 456.25 to 3079 injuries per 1000 person-years with an overall incidence rate of 1550.15 injuries per 1000 person-years. The shoulder was the most injured site (n = 113, 20% of injuries), with sprains and strains being the most common nature of injury (n = 287, 50.9% of injuries). Muscular stress with physical exercise was the most common mechanism of injury (n = 175, 31.0% of injuries) with the activity responsible for the largest proportion of injuries being “unknown” (n = 256, 45.4% of injuries), followed by police training (n = 215, 38.1%). Injuries appear to be typically joint related—commonly the shoulder—with police training being a primary known activity at the time of injury. Prescreening protocols may be of benefit, and efforts should be made to recruit and train physically resilient trainees. Injuries, whether they occurred pre-enlistment or during training, should be fully rehabilitated prior to the individual’s commencement as a qualified officer.

Physical fitness: Differences between initial hiring to academy in law enforcement recruits who graduate or separate from academy

BACKGROUND

Law enforcement agencies often include fitness testing as part of the hiring process. However, it can be months from this testing to when a recruit starts academy.

OBJECTIVE

To determine fitness changes from hiring to academy in recruits who graduate (GRAD) or separate (SEP; do not complete) from academy.

METHODS

Analysis on recruits from one agency, split into GRAD (n = 436) and SEP (n = 78) groups, was conducted. These tests were conducted during initial hiring and academy: push-ups, sit-ups, and arm ergometer revolutions in 60 s; 75-yard pursuit run (75PR); and 2.4 km run. Data were analyzed via a two-way repeated measures ANOVA. Change scores were derived between hiring and academy data for both groups, and analyzed via independent samples t-tests.

RESULTS

Push-ups, 75PR, arm ergometer, and 2.4 km run generally improved (p≤0.001). There were no significant between-group interactions or differences in performance changes for GRAD and SEP recruits. SEP recruits tended to have lesser fitness test performance compared to GRAD recruits.

CONCLUSIONS

GRAD and SEP recruits showed some fitness improvements between initial hiring through to academy. However, SEP recruits with lesser muscular endurance, running speed, and aerobic capacity during hiring did not substantially improve by academy, which likely impacted their academy survivability.

With great power comes great ability: Extending research on fitness characteristics that influence work sample test battery performance in law enforcement recruits

BACKGROUND

Fitness could influence task performance in police officers. Limited research details relationships between different fitness characteristics and police-specific tasks.

OBJECTIVE

Determine relationships between anaerobic and aerobic capacity with police-specific task performance.

METHODS

Data for 308 recruits was analysed. Fitness tests included: push-ups, sit-ups, and mountain climbers (muscular endurance); pull-ups (strength); vertical jump (VJ) and 2 kg medicine ball throw (MBT; power); 75-yard pursuit run (75PR; change-of-direction speed); 201 m run (anaerobic capacity); 2.4 km run and multistage fitness test (aerobic capacity). Police tasks included: 99-yard obstacle course (99OC); 74.84 kg body drag (BD); chain link fence (CLF) and solid wall (SW) climbs; and 500-yard run (500R). Partial correlations controlling for sex and linear regression calculated relationships between fitness and job tasks.

RESULTS

99OC correlated with all assessments; BD only with 75PR. CLF related to the power and aerobic capacity tests, pull-ups, and 201 m run. SW related to VJ, 75PR, pull-ups, sit-ups, 201 m run, and aerobic capacity. 500R related to all except the MBT and 2.4 km run. 75PR and VJ predicted 4/5 tasks.

CONCLUSIONS

Police research has shown the importance of muscular endurance and aerobic capacity. Specific to this studies' correlations, the value of power and change-of-direction speed development for task performance was indicated.

Profiles of US Law Enforcement Officers' Diagnosed Health Conditions: Results From a Probability-Based Sample of Officers

OBJECTIVE

To assess comorbidity across five common health conditions.

METHODS

Surveys were collected from a probability-based sample of US law enforcement officers, and latent class models estimated for hypertension (HTN), high blood cholesterol (LDL), diabetes (DM), a gastrointestinal disorder (GI), and sleep apnea (SA).

RESULTS

The majority of officers (69.4%) were classified in a Healthy profile. One in four officers (23.7%) were classified in a LDL-HTN-DM profile. About 7% of officers were classified in a GI-SA-HTN profile. Age, sex, body mass index (BMI), exercise, and working a rotating shift assignment distinguished class membership.

CONCLUSION

Most officers reported good health. Law enforcement administrative or clinical assessments using readily accessible measures might be informative in identifying risk categories of need for more targeted prevention and treatment support.

Skeletal Muscle Mass and Fat Mass Relationships With Physical Fitness Test Performance in Law Enforcement Recruits Before Academy

ABSTRACT

Lockie, RG, Carlock, BN, Ruvalcaba, TJ, Dulla, JM, Orr, RM, Dawes, JJ, and McGuire, MB. Skeletal muscle mass and fat mass relationships with physical fitness test performance in law enforcement recruits before academy. J Strength Cond Res 35(5): 1287-1295, 2021-The purpose of this study was to analyze relationships between skeletal muscle mass percentage (SMM%) and fat mass percentage (FM%) relative to fitness test performance in law enforcement recruits. Retrospective analysis was conducted on 338 recruits (271 men and 67 women) from 4 academy classes. Skeletal muscle mass percentage and FM% were measured using cost-effective and practical bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) equipment that used hand and foot placement. The fitness tests included grip strength; vertical jump; 75-yard pursuit run; 2-kg medicine ball throw (MBT); push-ups and sit-ups completed in 60 seconds; and the 20-m multistage fitness test. Partial correlations controlling for sex-derived relationships between SMM%, FM%, and the tests. Recruits were split into quartile groups for SMM% and FM% (group 1 had the lowest SMM% or highest FM% and group 4 the highest SMM% or lowest FM%). A 1-way multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA), with sex as a covariate and Bonferroni post-hoc, compared between-group results. Skeletal muscle mass percentage correlated with all fitness tests expect for MBT; FM% with all but grip strength and MBT (r = ±0.107-0.293). Greater SMM% or lesser FM% tended to relate to better fitness test performance. The MANOVA data indicated groups 3 and 4 (better SMM% or FM% profiles) exhibited superior fitness than group 1 (poorest SMM% or FM% profile) (p ≤ 0.048). Recruits should ideally increase SMM% and decrease FM% before academy to optimize fitness training and testing performance, although specific guidelines should be agency specific. Staff could use BIA to monitor body composition during academy to indicate how recruits are tolerating training.