The biosynthesis of the cannabinoids

Rational Design, Synthesis, and Characterization of a Solid Δ9-Tetrahydrocannabinol Nanoformulation Suitable for "Microdosing" Applications

Background: This article highlights the formulation of a solid Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC)-loaded ingestible prepared from pure THC distillate. Methods: A THC-containing ethanol-assisted cannabinoid nanoemulsion (EACNE) was created using a solvent displacement technique. Subsequently, the EACNE was converted to a solid powdery material while still retaining its THC potency, a format uniquely suited for "microdosing" applications. Results: EACNE had an average lipid droplet size of ∼190 nm, with a polydispersity index of 0.15, and an average droplet ζ potential of -49±10 mV. The nanoemulsion (NE) was colloidally stable for at least 6 weeks, with no meaningful change in cannabinoid potency over the experimental period, as determined by high-performance liquid chromatography analysis. The EACNE remained stable when subjected to physical stresses such as heat, freeze/thaw cycles, carbonation, dilution to beverage concentrations, high sucrose concentrations, and a pH range between 5 and 8. The microencapsulated EACNE demonstrated limited free-flowing behavior but was freely redispersible in water without any visible phase separation. Conclusions: We report the design, creation, and characterization of a THC NE generated without the use of specialized equipment, such as a microfluidizer or a high-pressure homogenizer. This emulsion could readily be converted to a water-redispersible powder. This embodiment is particularly suited for THC "microdosing," a practice that might decouple the health benefits of THC from its psychotropic effects.

Celastrol: A century-long journey from the isolation to the biotechnological production and the development of an antiobesity drug

Celastrol, a triterpenoid found in the root of the traditional medicinal plant Tripterygium wilfordii, is a potent anti-inflammatory and antiobesity agent. However, pharmacological exploitation of celastrol has been hindered by the limited accessibility of plant material, the co-existence of other toxic compounds in the same plant tissue, and the lack of an efficient chemical synthesis method. In this review, we highlight recent progress in elucidating celastrol biosynthesis and discuss how this knowledge can facilitate its scalable bioproduction using cell factories and its further development as an antiobesity and anti-inflammatory drug.

Genotoxicity of selected cannabinoids in human lymphoblastoid TK6 cells

Natural non-psychoactive cannabinoids such as cannabigerol (CBG), cannabidiol (CBD), cannabichromene (CBC), cannabidivarin (CBDV), and cannabinol (CBN) are increasingly consumed as constituents of dietary products because of the health benefits claims. Cannabinoids may reduce certain types of pain, nausea, and anxiety. Anti-inflammatory and even anti-carcinogenic properties have been discussed. However, there are insufficient data available regarding their potential (geno-)toxic effects. Therefore, we tested CBG, CBD, CBC, CBDV, and CBN for their genotoxic potential and effects on mitosis and cell cycle in human lymphoblastoid TK6 cells. The selected cannabinoids (except CBDV) induced increased micronuclei formation, which was reduced with the addition of a metabolic activation system (S9 mix). CBDV induced micronuclei only after metabolic activation. Mitotic disturbances were observed with all tested cannabinoids, while G1 phase accumulation of cells was observed for CBG, CBD and CBDV. The genotoxic effects occurred at about 1000-fold higher concentrations than are reported as blood levels from human consumption. However, the results clearly indicate a need for further research into the genotoxic effects of cannabinoids. The mechanism of the mitotic disturbance, the shape of the dose-response curves and the possible effects of mixtures of cannabinoids are aspects which need clarification.

Genome-wide identification of cannabinoid biosynthesis genes in non-drug type Cannabis (Cannabis sativa L.) cultivar

BACKGROUND

Cannabis sativa cultivars can be classified as marijuana or hemp, depending on its amount of the psychoactive cannabinoid Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinolic acid (THCA). Hemp Cheungsam is a non-drug type Cannabis sativa that is characterized by low THCA content. However, the transcripts and expression profile of cannabinoid biosynthesis pathway genes of hemp Cheungsam have not been investigated.

METHODS

RNA-sequencing (RNA-seq) was performed on three different tissue types (flower, leaf, and stem) of hemp Cheungsam to understand their transcriptomes. The expression of cannabinoid biosynthesis pathway genes was further analyzed in each tissue type. Multiple sequence alignment and conserved domain analyses were used to investigate the homologs of cannbinoid biosynthesis genes.

RESULTS

We found that the cannabinoid biosynthesis pathway was mainly expressed in the flowers of hemp Cheungsam, similar to other Cannabis cultivars. However, expression of cannabidiolic acid (CBDA) synthase was much higher than THCA synthase and cannabichromenic acid (CBCA) synthase, suggesting that the transcription profile favors CBDA biosynthesis. Sequence analysis of cannabinoid biosynthesis pathway genes suggested the identity of orthologs in hemp Cheungsam.

CONCLUSIONS

Cannabinoid biosynthesis in hemp Cheungsam mostly occurs in the flowers, compared to other plant organs. While CBDA synthase expression is high, THCA and CBCA synthase expression is considerably low, indicating lesser THCA biosynthesis and thus low THCA content. Sequence analysis of key genes (CBDA, THCA, and CBCA synthases) of the cannabinoid biosynthetic pathway indicates that orthologs are present in hemp Cheungsam.

Cannabis sativa L. essential oil: chemical characterisation and antimicrobial activity against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus pseudintermedius

Cannabis sativa L. essential oil has attracted the interest of the scientific community thanks to its numerous biological activities. Several studies have evaluated EOs as alternative therapeutic approaches to limit the use of antibiotics; the present study aimed to evaluate the in vitro inhibitory and bactericidal activity of the essential oils obtained from the leaves and inflorescences of two hemp genotypes against twenty-one multidrug-resistant, methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus pseudintermedius strains isolated from canine clinical samples. Both EOs were mainly represented by sesquiterpene hydrocarbons, with a prevalence of β-caryophyllene and α-humulene. However, different relative amounts of phytocannabinoids were also detected. Microbiological results evidenced better outcomes for the EO characterised by the highest content of phytocannabinoids, which in turn showed no differences among the tested strains. Nevertheless, both the EOs showed better inhibitory and bactericidal activities than their main constituent, β-caryophyllene, tested individually, highlighting the presence of synergistic effects among the EO compounds.

Effect of Hemp Extraction Procedures on Cannabinoid and Terpenoid Composition

A variety of techniques have been developed to extract hemp phytochemicals for research and consumption. Some of the most common processes in the industry include supercritical CO2 extraction, hydrodistillation, and solvent-based (ethanol) extractions. Each of these processes has the potential to differentially extract various phytochemicals, which would impact their efficacy, tolerability, and safety. However, despite these differences, there has been no direct comparison of the methods and the resulting phytochemical composition. This work aimed to compare cannabinoid and terpene profiles using the three primary commercial procedures, using hemp inflorescence from a CBD/CBG dominant Cannabis sativa L. cultivar. Extracts were then evaluated for their terpene and cannabinoid content using GC-MS and LC-MS/MS, respectively. Hydrodistilled extracts contained the most variety and abundance of terpenes with β-caryophyllene to be the most concentrated terpene (25-42 mg/g). Supercritical CO2 extracts displayed a minimal variety of terpenes, but the most variety and abundance of cannabinoids with CBD ranging from 12.8-20.6 mg/g. Ethanol extracts contained the most acidic cannabinoids with 3.2-4.1 mg/g of CBDA along with minor terpene levels. The resulting extracts demonstrated substantially different chemical profiles and highlight how the process used to extract hemp can play a large role in product composition and potential biological effects.

Rapid In Situ Near-Infrared Assessment of Tetrahydrocannabinolic Acid in Cannabis Inflorescences before Harvest Using Machine Learning

Cannabis is cultivated for therapeutic and recreational purposes where delta-9 tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) is a main target for its therapeutic effects. As the global cannabis industry and research into cannabinoids expands, more efficient and cost-effective analysis methods for determining cannabinoid concentrations will be beneficial to increase efficiencies and maximize productivity. The utilization of machine learning tools to develop near-infrared (NIR) spectroscopy-based prediction models, which have been validated from accurate and sensitive chemical analysis, such as gas chromatography (GC) or liquid chromatography mass spectroscopy (LCMS), is essential. Previous research on cannabinoid prediction models targeted decarboxylated cannabinoids, such as THC, rather than the naturally occurring precursor, tetrahydrocannabinolic acid (THCA), and utilize finely ground cannabis inflorescence. The current study focuses on building prediction models for THCA concentrations in whole cannabis inflorescences prior to harvest, by employing non-destructive screening techniques so cultivators may rapidly characterize high-performing cultivars for chemotype in real time, thus facilitating targeted optimization of crossbreeding efforts. Using NIR spectroscopy and LCMS to create prediction models we can differentiate between high-THCA and even ratio classes with 100% prediction accuracy. We have also developed prediction models for THCA concentration with a R2 = 0.78 with a prediction error average of 13%. This study demonstrates the viability of a portable handheld NIR device to predict THCA concentrations on whole cannabis samples before harvest, allowing the evaluation of cannabinoid profiles to be made earlier, therefore increasing high-throughput and rapid capabilities.

Thermally induced changes in the profiles of phytocannabinoids and other bioactive compounds in Cannabis sativa L. inflorescences

Phytocannabinoids occurring in Cannabis Sativa L. are unique secondary metabolites possessing interesting pharmacological activities. In this study, the dynamics of thermally induced (60 and 120 °C) phytocannabinoid reactions in four cannabis varieties were investigated. Using UHPLC-HRMS/MS, 40 phytocannabinoids were involved in target analysis, and an additional 281 compounds with cannabinoid-like structures and 258 non-cannabinoid bioactive compounds were subjected to suspect screening. As expected, the key reaction was the decarboxylation of acidic phytocannabinoids. Nevertheless, the rate constants differed among cannabis varieties, documenting the matrix-dependence of this process. Besides neutral counterparts of acidic species, ́neẃ bioactive compounds such as hydroxyquinones were found in heated samples. In addition, changes in other bioactive compounds with both cannabinoid-like and non-cannabinoid structures were documented during cannabis heating at 120 °C. The data document the complexity of heat-induced processes and provide a further understanding of changes in bioactivities occurring under such conditions.

Advancement of Research Progress on Synthesis Mechanism of Cannabidiol (CBD)

Cannabis sativa L. is a multipurpose crop with high value for food, textiles, and other industries. Its secondary metabolites, including cannabidiol (CBD), have potential for broad application in medicine. With the CBD market expanding, traditional production may not be sufficient. Here we review the potential for the production of CBD using biotechnology. We describe the chemical and biological synthesis of cannabinoids, the associated enzymes, and the application of metabolic engineering, synthetic biology, and heterologous expression to increasing production of CBD.

Comparison of decarboxylation rates of acidic cannabinoids between secretory cavity contents and air-dried inflorescence extracts in Cannabis sativa cv. 'Cherry Wine'

Studies with secretory cavity contents and air-dried inflorescence extracts of the CBD-rich hemp strain, Cannabis sativa cv. 'Cherry Wine', were conducted to compare the decarboxylation rates of acidic cannabinoids between two groups. The secretory cavity contents acquired from the capitate-stalked glandular trichomes by glass microcapillaries, and inflorescence samples air-dried for 15 days of storage in darkness at room temperature were analysed by high-pressure liquid chromatography. The ratio of acidic cannabinoids to the total cannabinoids was ranging from 0.5% to 2.4% lower in the air-dried inflorescence samples compared to the secretory cavity samples as follows. In the secretory cavity content, the percentage of acidic cannabinoids to the total cannabinoids was measured as 86.4% cannabidiolic acid (CBDA), 6.5% tetrahydrocannabinolic acid (THCA), 4.3% cannabichromenic acid (CBCA), 1.4% cannabigerolic acid (CBGA), and 0.6% cannabidivarinic acid (CBDVA), respectively. In the air-dried inflorescence, however, the acidic cannabinoids were detected with 84% CBDA, 4.8% THCA, 3.3% CBCA, 0.8% CBGA, and 0.3% Δ9-tetrahydrocannabivarinic acid (Δ9-THCVA), respectively. The ratio of cannabidiol (CBD) to cannabidiolic acid (CBDA) was close to 1:99 (w/w) in secretory cavity contents, however, it was roughly 1:20 (w/w) in the air-dried inflorescence. In addition, Δ9-tetrahydrocannabivarin (Δ9-THCV) and Δ9-tetrahydrocannabivarinic acid (Δ9-THCVA) were only detected in the air-dried inflorescence sample, and the ratio of Δ9-THCV to Δ9-THCVA was about 1:20 (w/w). Besides, cannabidivarinic acid (CBDVA) was only observed in the secretory cavity content.

Innovative orthogonal two-dimensional reversed-phase liquid chromatography × supercritical fluid chromatography with a phenyl/tetrazole stationary phase for the preparative isolation of diarylheptanoids

In this investigation, we successfully isolated and purified natural diarylheptanoids using an orthogonal offline two-dimensional RPLC × SFC approach, employing only the phenyl/tetrazole stationary phase. First, a styrene-divinylbenzene matrix medium pretreatment liquid chromatography system effectively processed chlorophyll-containing plant extract solution with a recovery rate of 33.8 %, obviating the need for concentration steps. Subsequently, an offline two-dimensional RPLC × SFC employing only the phenyl/tetrazole stationary phase achieved a remarkable 96.38 % orthogonality and was established and utilized in the preparative separation and purification of natural products. Finally, the constructed single stationary phase highly orthogonal RPLC × SFC system was successfully applied in the preparative separation and purification of natural diarylheptanoids from the Saxifraga tangutica target fraction and yielded four diarylheptanoids with purities exceeding 95 %.

Cannabinol Regulates the Expression of Cell Cycle-Associated Genes in Motor Neuron-like NSC-34: A Transcriptomic Analysis

Cannabinoids are reported to have neuroprotective properties and play a role in neurogenesis and neuroplasticity in in vitro and in vivo models. Cannabinol (CBN) is a minor cannabinoid produced by the degradation of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol in Cannabis sativa L. and exhibits anti-oxidant, analgesic, anti-bacterial, and anti-inflammatory effects. In this study, we explored the biological effects of 20 µM CBN (6.20 µg/mL) on differentiated NSC-34 cells by MTT assay and next-generation sequencing analysis on the transcriptome. KEGG and Gene Ontology enrichment analyses have been performed to evaluate potential CBN-associated processes. Our results highlighted the absence of any cytotoxic effect of CBN. The comparative transcriptomic analysis pointed out the downregulation of Cdkn2a, Cdkn2c and Cdkn2d genes, which are known to suppress the cell cycle. Ccne2, Cdk2, Cdk7, Anapc11, Anapc10, Cdc23, Cdc16, Anapc4, Cdc27, Stag1, Smc3, Smc1a, Nipbl, Pds5a, Pds5b, and Wapl genes, renowned for their role as cell cycle progression activators, were instead upregulated. Our work suggests that CBN regulates the expression of many genes related to the cell cycle, which are required for axonal maturation, migration, and synaptic plasticity, while not affecting the expression of genes involved in cell death or tumorigenesis.

Opportunities, Challenges, and Scientific Progress in Hemp Crops

The resurgence of cannabis (Cannabis sativa L.) has been propelled by changes in the legal framework governing its cultivation and use, increased demand for hemp-derived products, and studies recognizing the industrial and health benefits of hemp. This has led to the creation of novel high-cannabidiol, low-Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol varieties, enabling hemp crop expansion worldwide. This review elucidates the recent implications for hemp cultivation in Europe, with a focus on the legislative impacts on the cultivation practices, prospective breeding efforts, and dynamic scientific landscape surrounding this crop. We also review the current cultivars' cannabinoid composition of the European hemp market and its major differences with that of the United States.

The development of a next-generation sequencing panel targeting cannabinoid synthase genes to distinguish between marijuana and hemp

Hemp and marijuana, both derived from Cannabis sativa L. (C. sativa), are subject to divergent legal regulations due to their different Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC) contents. Cannabinoid synthase genes are considered the key enzymes that determine the chemical composition or chemotype of a particular cultivar. However, existing methods for crop type differentiation based on previous synthase gene theories have limitations in terms of precision and specificity, and a wider range of cannabis varieties must be considered when examining cannabis-based genetic markers. A custom next-generation sequencing (NGS) panel was developed targeting all synthase genes, including Δ9-THC acid synthase, cannabidiolic acid synthase, and cannabichromenic acid synthase, as well as the pseudogenes across diverse C. sativa samples, spanning reference hemp and marijuana, commercial hemp derivatives, and seized marijuana extracts. Interpretation of NGS data revealed a relationship between genotypes and underlying chemotypes, with the principal component analysis indicating a clear distinction between hemp and marijuana clusters. This differentiation was attributed to variations in both synthase genes and pseudogene variants. Finally, this study proposes a genetic cannabis classification method using a differentiation flow chart with novel synthase markers. The flow chart successfully differentiated hemp from marijuana with a 1.3% error rate (n = 147).

Quantification of sixteen cannabinoids in hemp seed edible oils and the influence of thermal processing on cannabinoid contents and profiles

To investigate cannabinoid content and profiles, 16 cannabinoids were quantified in 30 commercial hemp seed edible oils. In addition, one hemp seed oil was subjected to thermal processing up to 200 °C for up to 60 min. UHPLC-MS/MS was used for analysis. The content of cannabinoids in the samples ranged from 9 to 279 mg kg-1 (sum) and for Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC) from 0.2 to 6.7 mg kg-1. Three samples exceeded the EU Δ9-THC equivalent maximum levels of 7.5 mg kg-1 for hemp seed oils. Cannabinoid profiles can provide indications of different product characteristics (e.g. degree of processing, variety of plant material). Furthermore, intense thermal processing (200 °C, 60 min) led to 38% decrease in sum cannabinoid content (sum of all analysed cannabinoids in this study), 99% decrease in cannabinoid acids, and 22% increase in Δ9-THC.

Deep learning-based quantification and transcriptomic profiling reveal a methyl jasmonate-mediated glandular trichome formation pathway in Cannabis sativa

Cannabis glandular trichomes (GTs) are economically and biotechnologically important structures that have a remarkable morphology and capacity to produce, store, and secrete diverse classes of secondary metabolites. However, our understanding of the developmental changes and the underlying molecular processes involved in cannabis GT development is limited. In this study, we developed Cannabis Glandular Trichome Detection Model (CGTDM), a deep learning-based model capable of differentiating and quantifying three types of cannabis GTs with a high degree of efficiency and accuracy. By profiling at eight different time points, we captured dynamic changes in gene expression, phenotypes, and metabolic processes associated with GT development. By integrating weighted gene co-expression network analysis with CGTDM measurements, we established correlations between phenotypic variations in GT traits and the global transcriptome profiles across the developmental gradient. Notably, we identified a module containing methyl jasmonate (MeJA)-responsive genes that significantly correlated with stalked GT density and cannabinoid content during development, suggesting the existence of a MeJA-mediated GT formation pathway. Our findings were further supported by the successful promotion of GT development in cannabis through exogenous MeJA treatment. Importantly, we have identified CsMYC4 as a key transcription factor that positively regulates GT formation via MeJA signaling in cannabis. These findings provide novel tools for GT detection and counting, as well as valuable information for understanding the molecular regulatory mechanism of GT formation, which has the potential to facilitate the molecular breeding, targeted engineering, informed harvest timing, and manipulation of cannabinoid production.

Low UV radiation influenced DNA methylation, gene regulation, cell proliferation, viability, and biochemical differentiation in the cell suspension cultures of Cannabis indica

The effect of low artificial Ultraviolet (UV) on the DNA methylation remains controversial. This study addresses how differential photoperiods of UV radiation affect the biochemical and molecular behaviors of Cannabis indica cell suspension cultures. The cell suspensions were illuminated with the compact fluorescent lamps (CFL), emitting a combination of 10% UVB, 30% UVA, and the rest visible wavelengths for 0, 4, 8, and 16 h. The applied photoperiods influenced cell morphological characteristics. The 4 h photoperiod was the most effective treatment for improving biomass, growth index and cell viability percentage while these indices remained non-significant in the 16 h treatment. The methylation-sensitive amplified polymorphism (MASP) assay revealed that the UV radiation was epigenetically accompanied by DNA hypermethylation. The light-treated cells significantly displayed higher relative expression of the cannabidiolic‌ acid synthase (CBDAS) and delta9-tetrahydrocannabinolic acid synthase (THCAS) genes about 4-fold. The expression of the olivetolic acid cyclase (OAC) and olivetol synthase (OLS) genes exhibited an upward trend in response to the UV radiation. The light treatments also enhanced the proline content and protein concentration. The 4 h illumination was significantly capable of improving the cannabidiol (CBD) and delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) concentrations, in contrast with 16 h. By increasing the illumination exposure time, the activity of the phenylalanine ammonia-lyase (PAL) enzyme linearly upregulated. The highest amounts of the phenylpropanoid derivatives were observed in the cells cultured under the radiation for 4 h. Taken collective, artificial UV radiation can induce DNA methylation modifications and impact biochemical and molecular differentiation in the cell suspensions in a photoperiod-dependent manner.

Non-destructive assessment of cannabis quality during drying process using hyperspectral imaging and machine learning

Cannabis sativa L. is an industrially valuable plant known for its cannabinoids, such as cannabidiol (CBD) and Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), renowned for its therapeutic and psychoactive properties. Despite its significance, the cannabis industry has encountered difficulties in guaranteeing consistent product quality throughout the drying process. Hyperspectral imaging (HSI), combined with advanced machine learning technology, has been used to predict phytochemicals that presents a promising solution for maintaining cannabis quality control. We examined the dynamic changes in cannabinoid compositions under diverse drying conditions and developed a non-destructive method to appraise the quality of cannabis flowers using HSI and machine learning. Even when the relative weight and water content remained constant throughout the drying process, drying conditions significantly influenced the levels of CBD, THC, and their precursors. These results emphasize the importance of determining the exact drying endpoint. To develop HSI-based models for predicting cannabis quality indicators, including dryness, precursor conversion of CBD and THC, and CBD : THC ratio, we employed various spectral preprocessing methods and machine learning algorithms, including logistic regression (LR), support vector machine (SVM), k-nearest neighbor (KNN), random forest (RF), and Gaussian naïve Bayes (GNB). The LR model demonstrated the highest accuracy at 94.7-99.7% when used in conjunction with spectral pre-processing techniques such as multiplicative scatter correction (MSC) or Savitzky-Golay filter. We propose that the HSI-based model holds the potential to serve as a valuable tool for monitoring cannabinoid composition and determining optimal drying endpoint. This tool offers the means to achieve uniform cannabis quality and optimize the drying process in the industry.

Cannabinoids and Sleep: Exploring Biological Mechanisms and Therapeutic Potentials

The endogenous cannabinoid system (ECS) plays a critical role in the regulation of various physiological functions, including sleep, mood, and neuroinflammation. Phytocannabinoids such as Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), cannabidiol (CBD), cannabinomimimetics, and some N-acylethanolamides, particularly palmitoyethanolamide, have emerged as potential therapeutic agents for the management of sleep disorders. THC, the psychoactive component of cannabis, may initially promote sleep, but, in the long term, alters sleep architecture, while CBD shows promise in improving sleep quality without psychoactive effects. Clinical studies suggest that CBD modulates endocannabinoid signaling through several receptor sites, offering a multifaceted approach to sleep regulation. Similarly, palmitoylethanolamide (PEA), in addition to interacting with the endocannabinoid system, acts as an agonist on peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs). The favorable safety profile of CBD and PEA and the potential for long-term use make them an attractive alternative to conventional pharmacotherapy. The integration of the latter two compounds into comprehensive treatment strategies, together with cognitive-behavioral therapy for insomnia (CBT-I), represents a holistic approach to address the multifactorial nature of sleep disorders. Further research is needed to establish the optimal dosage, safety, and efficacy in different patient populations, but the therapeutic potential of CBD and PEA offers hope for improved sleep quality and general well-being.

Chemistry and pharmacological aspects of furanoid cannabinoids and related compounds: Is furanoid cannabinoids open a new dimension towards the non-psychoactive cannabinoids?

Cannabinoids have emerged as compelling candidates for medicinal applications, notably following the recent approval of non-psychoactive cannabidiol (CBD) as a medicine. This endorsement has stimulated a growing interest in this class of compounds for drug discovery. Within the cannabis plant, a rich reservoir of over 125 compounds exists. Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), a member of the dibenzopyran class, is widely recognized for its psychoactive effects. Conversely, the furanoid class, represented by cannabielsoin-type (CBE) and cannabifuran-type (CBF) compounds, has not been reported with psychoactivity and demonstrates a spectrum of pharmacological potential. The transition from the pyran structure of THC to the furan structure of CBE seems to mark a shift from psychoactive to non-psychoactive properties, but a comprehensive examination of other members in this class is essential for a complete understanding. Building on these observations, our thorough review delves into the subject, offering a comprehensive exploration of furanoid cannabinoids, covering aspects such as their biosynthesis, classification, synthesis, and medicinal potential. The aim of this review is to encourage and catalyze increased research focus in this promising area of cannabinoid exploration.

The two synthetic cannabinoid compounds 4'-F-CBD and HU-910 efficiently restrain inflammatory responses of brain microglia and astrocytes

To study the anti-inflammatory potential of the two synthetic cannabinoids 4'-F-CBD and HU-910, we used post-natal brain cultures of mouse microglial cells and astrocytes activated by reference inflammogens. We found that 4'-F-CBD and HU-910 efficiently curtailed the release of TNF-α, IL-6, and IL-1β in microglia and astrocytes activated by the bacterial Toll-Like Receptor (TLR)4 ligand LPS. Upon LPS challenge, 4'-F-CBD and HU-910 also prevented the activation of phenotypic activation markers specific to microglia and astrocytes, that is, Iba-1 and GFAP, respectively. In microglial cells, the two test compounds also efficiently restrained LPS-stimulated release of glutamate, a non-cytokine inflammation marker for these cells. The immunosuppressive effects of the two cannabinoid compounds were concentration-dependent and observable between 1 and 10 μM. These effects were not dependent on cannabinoid or cannabinoid-like receptors. Both 4'-F-CBD and HU-910 were also capable of restraining the inflammogenic activity of Pam3CSK4, a lipopeptide that activates TLR2, and of BzATP, a prototypic agonist of P2X7 purinergic receptors, suggesting that these two cannabinoids could exert immunosuppressive effects against a variety of inflammatory stimuli. Using LPS-stimulated microglia and astrocytes, we established that the immunosuppressive action of 4'-F-CBD and HU-910 resulted from the inhibition of ROS produced by NADPH oxidase and subsequent repression of NF-κB-dependent signaling events. Our results suggest that 4'-F-CBD and HU-910 may have therapeutic utility in pathological conditions where neuroinflammatory processes are prominent.

The Neurotherapeutic Arsenal in Cannabis sativa: Insights into Anti-Neuroinflammatory and Neuroprotective Activity and Potential Entourage Effects

Cannabis, renowned for its historical medicinal use, harbours various bioactive compounds-cannabinoids, terpenes, and flavonoids. While major cannabinoids like delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and cannabidiol (CBD) have received extensive scrutiny for their pharmacological properties, emerging evidence underscores the collaborative interactions among these constituents, suggesting a collective therapeutic potential. This comprehensive review explores the intricate relationships and synergies between cannabinoids, terpenes, and flavonoids in cannabis. Cannabinoids, pivotal in cannabis's bioactivity, exhibit well-documented analgesic, anti-inflammatory, and neuroprotective effects. Terpenes, aromatic compounds imbuing distinct flavours, not only contribute to cannabis's sensory profile but also modulate cannabinoid effects through diverse molecular mechanisms. Flavonoids, another cannabis component, demonstrate anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and neuroprotective properties, particularly relevant to neuroinflammation. The entourage hypothesis posits that combined cannabinoid, terpene, and flavonoid action yields synergistic or additive effects, surpassing individual compound efficacy. Recognizing the nuanced interactions is crucial for unravelling cannabis's complete therapeutic potential. Tailoring treatments based on the holistic composition of cannabis strains allows optimization of therapeutic outcomes while minimizing potential side effects. This review underscores the imperative to delve into the intricate roles of cannabinoids, terpenes, and flavonoids, offering promising prospects for innovative therapeutic interventions and advocating continued research to unlock cannabis's full therapeutic potential within the realm of natural plant-based medicine.

11-Nor-9-Carboxy-Δ8-Tetrahydrocannabinol, 7-Carboxy Cannabidiol, and 11-Nor-9-Carboxy-Δ9-Tetrahydrocannabinol in Urine by LC-MS/MS

Δ8-Tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ8-THC) and cannabidiol (CBD) are increasingly popular cannabinoids. Measuring metabolites in urine is an important tool for detecting use and/or exposure as well as for monitoring elimination of these two drugs. Distinguishing between the metabolite 11-nor-9-carboxy-Δ8-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ8-THC-COOH) and the analogous metabolite of the more common and naturally abundant Δ9-THC: 11-nor-9-carboxy-Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC-COOH) is analytically challenging due to structural similarities between the two compounds. Here, we present a method for separating the positional isomers Δ8-THC-COOH and Δ9-THC-COOH as well as 7-carboxy cannabidiol (CBD-COOH) in urine that includes reverse-phase solid-phase extraction (SPE), followed by liquid chromatographic separation with a perfluorophenyl column, and detection by tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS).

Cannabinoids, Endocannabinoids, and Synthetic Cannabimimetic Molecules in Neuromuscular Disorders

Neuromuscular disorders (NMDs) encompass a large heterogeneous group of hereditary and acquired diseases primarily affecting motor neurons, peripheral nerves, and the skeletal muscle system. The symptoms of NMDs may vary depending on the specific condition, but some of the most common ones include muscle weakness, pain, paresthesias, and hyporeflexia, as well as difficulties with swallowing and breathing. NMDs are currently untreatable. Therapeutic options include symptomatic and experimental medications aimed at delaying and alleviating symptoms, in some cases supplemented by surgical and physical interventions. To address this unmet medical need, ongoing research is being conducted on new treatments, including studies on medical cannabis, endocannabinoids, and related molecules with cannabimimetic properties. In this context, a significant amount of knowledge about the safety and effectiveness of cannabinoids in NMDs has been obtained from studies involving patients with multiple sclerosis experiencing pain and spasticity. In recent decades, numerous other preclinical and clinical studies have been conducted to determine the potential benefits of cannabinoids in NMDs. This review article aims to summarize and provide an unbiased point of view on the current knowledge about the use of cannabinoids, endocannabinoids, and synthetic analogs in NMDs, drawing from an array of compelling studies.

Hemp-Derived CBD Used in Food and Food Supplements

Cannabis sativa L., a plant historically utilized for textile fibers, oil, and animal feed, is progressively being recognized as a potential food source. This review elucidates the nutritional and functional attributes of hemp and cannabidiol (CBD) within the context of food science. Hemp is characterized by the presence of approximately 545 secondary metabolites, among which around 144 are bioactive cannabinoids of primary importance. The study looks in detail at the nutritional components of cannabis and the potential health benefits of CBD, encompassing anti-inflammatory, anxiolytic, and antipsychotic effects. The review deals with the legislation and potential applications of hemp in the food industry and with the future directions of cannabis applications as well. The paper emphasizes the need for more scientific investigation to validate the safety and efficacy of hemp components in food products, as current research suggests that CBD may have great benefits for a wide range of consumers.

Untargeted cannabinomics reveals the chemical differentiation of industrial hemp based on the cultivar and the geographical field location

Cannabis sativa has long been harvested for industrial applications related to its fibers. Industrial hemp cultivars, a botanical class of Cannabis sativa with a low expression of intoxicating Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC) have been selected for these purposes and scarcely investigated in terms of their content in bioactive compounds. Following the global relaxation in the market of industrial hemp-derived products, research in industrial hemp for pharmaceutical and nutraceutical purposes has surged. In this context, metabolomics-based approaches have proven to fulfill the aim of obtaining comprehensive information on the phytocompound profile of cannabis samples, going beyond the targeted evaluation of the major phytocannabinoids. In the present paper, an HRMS-based metabolomics study was addressed to seven distinct industrial hemp cultivars grown in four experimental fields in Northern, Southern, and Insular Italy. Since the role of minor phytocannabinoids as well as other phytocompounds was found to be critical in discriminating cannabis chemovars and in determining its biological activities, a comprehensive characterization of phytocannabinoids, flavonoids, and phenolic acids was carried out by LC-HRMS and a dedicated data processing workflow following the guidelines of the metabolomics Quality Assurance and Quality Control Consortium. A total of 54 phytocannabinoids, 134 flavonoids, and 77 phenolic acids were annotated, and their role in distinguishing hemp samples based on the geographical field location and cultivar was evaluated by ANOVA-simultaneous component analysis. Finally, a low-level fused model demonstrated the key role of untargeted cannabinomics extended to lesser-studied phytocompound classes for the discrimination of hemp samples.

Computational assessment of the primary and secondary antioxidant potential of alkylresorcinols in physiological media

Alkylresorcinols are a group of natural phenolic compounds found in various foods such as whole grain cereals, bread, and certain fruits. They are known for their beneficial health effects, such as anti-inflammatory and anti-cancer properties. This study aimed to evaluate the antioxidant activity of two typical alkylresorcinols namely olivetol and olivetolic acid (Oli and OliA) under physiological conditions. The free radical scavenging capacity of Oli and OliA toward oxygenated free radicals (HO˙ and HOO˙ radicals) was investigated using thermodynamic and kinetic calculations. The results revealed that Oli and OliA are potent scavengers of HO˙ radical in both polar and lipid media, acting exclusively via the FHT (formal hydrogen transfer) mechanism. Moreover, they demonstrated excellent scavenging activity toward HOO˙ radical in water via the SET (single electron transfer) mechanism, outperforming the common antioxidant BHT. In lipid media, Oli and OliA showed moderate scavenging activity toward HOO˙ radical via the FHT mechanism. Significant prooxidant potential of OliA- was also demonstrated through the formation of complexes with copper ions. Additionally, docking studies indicate that the compounds exhibited a good affinity for ROS-producing enzymes, including myeloperoxidase (MP), cytochrome P450 (CP450), lipoxygenase (LOX), and xanthine oxidase (XO), highlighting their potential as natural antioxidants with promising therapeutic applications.

Phytocannabinoids biosynthesis during early stages of development of young Cannabis sativa L. seedlings: Integrating biochemical and transcription data

Cannabis sativa (L.) is characterized by great genetic and phenotypic diversity, also expressed in the array of bioactive compounds synthesized. Despite its great potential economic interest, knowledge of the biology and genetics of this crop is incomplete, and still many efforts are needed for a complete understanding of the molecular mechanisms regulating its key traits. To better understand the synthesis of these compounds, we analysed the transcription levels of cannabinoid pathway genes during early phases of plant development, then comparing the transcriptional results with a chemical characterization of the same samples. The work was conducted on both industrial and medicinal C. sativa plants, using samples belonging to three different chemotypes. Genes coding for the cannabinoid synthases, involved in the last step of the cannabinoid biosynthetic pathway, were found to be already expressed in the seed, providing a measure of the importance of this metabolism for the plant. Cannabichromenic acid is known as the first cannabinoid accumulating in the seedlings, shortly after emergence, and it was found that there is a good correspondence between transcript accumulation of the cannabichromenic acid synthase gene and accumulation of the corresponding metabolite.

The Leu/Val6.51 Side Chain of Cannabinoid Receptors Regulates the Binding Mode of the Alkyl Chain of Δ9-Tetrahydrocannabinol

(-)-Δ9-trans-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), which is the principal psychoactive constituent of Cannabis, mediates its action by binding to two members of the G-protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) family: the cannabinoid CB1 (CB1R) and CB2 (CB2R) receptors. Molecular dynamics simulations showed that the pentyl chain of THC could adopts an I-shape conformation, filling an intracellular cavity between Phe3.36 and Trp6.48 for initial agonist-induced receptor activation, in CB1R but not in CB2R. This cavity opens to the five-carbon chain of THC by the conformational change of the γ-branched, flexible, Leu6.51 side chain of CB1R, which is not feasible by the β-branched, mode rigid, Val6.51 side chain of CB2R. In agreement with our computational results, THC could not decrease the forskolin-induced cAMP levels in cells expressing mutant CB1RL6.51V receptor but could activate the mutant CB2RV6.51L receptor as efficiently as wild-type CB1R. Additionally, JWH-133, a full CB2R agonist, contains a branched dimethyl moiety in the ligand chain that bridges Phe3.36 and Val6.51 for receptor activation. In this case, the substitution of Val6.51 to Leu in CB2R makes JWH-133 unable to activate CB2RV6.51L. In conclusion, our combined computational and experimental results have shown that the amino acid at position 6.51 is a key additional player in the initial mechanism of activation of GPCRs that recognize signaling molecules derived from lipid species.

Alkylresorcinols as New Modulators of the Metabolic Activity of the Gut Microbiota

Alkylresorcinols (ARs) are polyphenolic compounds with a wide spectrum of biological activities and are potentially involved in the regulation of host metabolism. The present study aims to establish whether ARs can be produced by the human gut microbiota and to evaluate alterations in content in stool samples as well as metabolic activity of the gut microbiota of C57BL, db/db, and LDLR (-/-) mice according to diet specifications and olivetol (5-n-pentylresorcinol) supplementation to estimate the regulatory potential of ARs. Gas chromatography with mass spectrometric detection was used to quantitatively analyse AR levels in mouse stool samples; faecal microbiota transplantation (FMT) from human donors to germ-free mice was performed to determine whether the intestinal microbiota could produce AR molecules; metagenome sequencing analysis of the mouse gut microbiota followed by reconstruction of its metabolic activity was performed to investigate olivetol's regulatory potential. A significant increase in the amounts of individual members of AR homologues in stool samples was revealed 14 days after FMT. Supplementation of 5-n-Pentylresorcinol to a regular diet influences the amounts of several ARs in the stool of C57BL/6 and LDLR (-/-) but not db/db mice, and caused a significant change in the predicted metabolic activity of the intestinal microbiota of C57BL/6 and LDLR (-/-) but not db/db mice. For the first time, we have shown that several ARs can be produced by the intestinal microbiota. Taking into account the dependence of AR levels in the gut on olivetol supplementation and microbiota metabolic activity, AR can be assumed to be potential quorum-sensing molecules, which also influence gut microbiota composition and host metabolism.

Biosynthesis and biotechnological production of the anti-obesity agent celastrol

Obesity is a major health risk still lacking effective pharmacological treatment. A potent anti-obesity agent, celastrol, has been identified in the roots of Tripterygium wilfordii. However, an efficient synthetic method is required to better explore its biological utility. Here we elucidate the 11 missing steps for the celastrol biosynthetic route to enable its de novo biosynthesis in yeast. First, we reveal the cytochrome P450 enzymes that catalyse the four oxidation steps that produce the key intermediate celastrogenic acid. Subsequently, we show that non-enzymatic decarboxylation-triggered activation of celastrogenic acid leads to a cascade of tandem catechol oxidation-driven double-bond extension events that generate the characteristic quinone methide moiety of celastrol. Using this acquired knowledge, we have developed a method for producing celastrol starting from table sugar. This work highlights the effectiveness of combining plant biochemistry with metabolic engineering and chemistry for the scalable synthesis of complex specialized metabolites.

Determination of phytocannabinoids in cannabis samples by ultrasound-assisted solid-liquid extraction and high-performance liquid chromatography with diode array detector analysis

The characterisation of cannabis plants, especially the determination of specific phytocannabinoids, has gained enormous importance in the last decade, mainly due to the recent changes in cannabis control in several countries or states. This is particularly relevant for the forensic, medical or recreative industry to have a rapid, inexpensive, and reliable methodology to identify and quantify phytocannabinoids. Furthermore, spiking cannabis products with Δ8-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) is a contemporary trend that demands improving or replacing current methods to include this cannabinoid. The current study presents an ultrasound-assisted solid-liquid extraction followed by high-performance liquid chromatography with diode array detection (HPLC-DAD) methodology to identify and quantify Δ9-THC, Δ8-THC, cannabidiol, cannabinol, Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinolic acid and cannabidiolic acid in cannabis products. The herbal samples were extracted with ethanol:acetonitrile (50:50, v:v) by ultrasonication using only 50 mg of sample. The plant oils were diluted in ethanol. The optimised procedure allowed ≈100% extraction efficiency of the target cannabinoids. The validation assays showed that the method is linear (R2 > 0.997), selective, sensitive, precise and accurate, with suitable limits of detection (0.125-0.250 µg mL-1) and quantification (0.500 µg mL-1). The method was successfully applied to cannabis samples, demonstrating its suitability for routine analyses. This contribution follows the current demand for fast and straightforward analysis services of this plant and its derivatives, using small amounts of sample. The present study compares very favourably against other works, particularly in regards to the extraction efficiency, speed of the overall procedure, method sensitivity, and ability to monitor Δ8-THC spiked samples using a novel solvent mixture.

Synthetic Pathways to Non-Psychotropic Phytocannabinoids as Promising Molecules to Develop Novel Antibiotics: A Review

Due to the rapid emergence of multi drug resistant (MDR) pathogens against which current antibiotics are no longer functioning, severe infections are becoming practically untreatable. Consequently, the discovery of new classes of effective antimicrobial agents with novel mechanism of action is becoming increasingly urgent. The bioactivity of Cannabis sativa, an herbaceous plant used for millennia for medicinal and recreational purposes, is mainly due to its content in phytocannabinoids (PCs). Among the 180 PCs detected, cannabidiol (CBD), Δ⁸ and Δ⁹-tetrahydrocannabinols (Δ⁸-THC and Δ⁹-THC), cannabichromene (CBC), cannabigerol (CBG), cannabinol (CBN) and some of their acidic precursors have demonstrated from moderate to potent antibacterial effects against Gram-positive bacteria (MICs 0.5-8 µg/mL), including methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), epidemic MRSA (EMRSA), as well as fluoroquinolone and tetracycline-resistant strains. Particularly, the non-psychotropic CBG was also capable to inhibit MRSA biofilm formation, to eradicate even mature biofilms, and to rapidly eliminate MRSA persiter cells. In this scenario, CBG, as well as other minor non-psychotropic PCs, such as CBD, and CBC could represent promising compounds for developing novel antibiotics with high therapeutic potential. Anyway, further studies are necessary, needing abundant quantities of such PCs, scarcely provided naturally by Cannabis plants. Here, after an extensive overture on cannabinoids including their reported antimicrobial effects, aiming at easing the synthetic production of the necessary amounts of CBG, CBC and CBD for further studies, we have, for the first time, systematically reviewed the synthetic pathways utilized for their synthesis, reporting both reaction schemes and experimental details.

Cannabidiol for Oral Health: A New Promising Therapeutical Tool in Dentistry

The medical use of cannabis has a very long history. Although many substances called cannabinoids are present in cannabis, Δ9tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC), cannabidiol (CBD) and cannabinol (CBN) are the three main cannabinoids that are most present and described. CBD itself is not responsible for the psychotropic effects of cannabis, since it does not produce the typical behavioral effects associated with the consumption of this drug. CBD has recently gained growing attention in modern society and seems to be increasingly explored in dentistry. Several subjective findings suggest some therapeutic effects of CBD that are strongly supported by research evidence. However, there is a plethora of data regarding CBD's mechanism of action and therapeutic potential, which are in many cases contradictory. We will first provide an overview of the scientific evidence on the molecular mechanism of CBD's action. Furthermore, we will map the recent developments regarding the possible oral benefits of CBD. In summary, we will highlight CBD's promising biological features for its application in dentistry, despite exiting patents that suggest the current compositions for oral care as the main interest of the industry.

An optimized reverse β-oxidation pathway to produce selected medium-chain fatty acids in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

BACKGROUND

Medium-chain fatty acids are molecules with applications in different industries and with growing demand. However, the current methods for their extraction are not environmentally sustainable. The reverse β-oxidation pathway is an energy-efficient pathway that produces medium-chain fatty acids in microorganisms, and its use in Saccharomyces cerevisiae, a broadly used industrial microorganism, is desired. However, the application of this pathway in this organism has so far either led to low titers or to the predominant production of short-chain fatty acids.

RESULTS

We genetically engineered Saccharomyces cerevisiae to produce the medium-chain fatty acids hexanoic and octanoic acid using novel variants of the reverse β-oxidation pathway. We first knocked out glycerolphosphate dehydrogenase GPD2 in an alcohol dehydrogenases knock-out strain (△adh1-5) to increase the NADH availability for the pathway, which significantly increased the production of butyric acid (78 mg/L) and hexanoic acid (2 mg/L) when the pathway was expressed from a plasmid with BktB as thiolase. Then, we tested different enzymes for the subsequent pathway reactions: the 3-hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydrogenase PaaH1 increased hexanoic acid production to 33 mg/L, and the expression of enoyl-CoA hydratases Crt2 or Ech was critical to producing octanoic acid, reaching titers of 40 mg/L in both cases. In all cases, Ter from Treponema denticola was the preferred trans-enoyl-CoA reductase. The titers of hexanoic acid and octanoic acid were further increased to almost 75 mg/L and 60 mg/L, respectively, when the pathway expression cassette was integrated into the genome and the fermentation was performed in a highly buffered YPD medium. We also co-expressed a butyryl-CoA pathway variant to increase the butyryl-CoA pool and support the chain extension. However, this mainly increased the titers of butyric acid and only slightly increased that of hexanoic acid. Finally, we also tested the deletion of two potential medium-chain acyl-CoA depleting reactions catalyzed by the thioesterase Tes1 and the medium-chain fatty acyl CoA synthase Faa2. However, their deletion did not affect the production titers.

CONCLUSIONS

By engineering the NADH metabolism and testing different reverse β-oxidation pathway variants, we extended the product spectrum and obtained the highest titers of octanoic acid and hexanoic acid reported in S. cerevisiae. Product toxicity and enzyme specificity must be addressed for the industrial application of the pathway in this organism.

Investigation of the Effect of the Auxin Antagonist PEO-IAA on Cannabinoid Gene Expression and Content in Cannabis sativa L. Plants under In Vitro Conditions

The in vitro shoot propagation of Cannabis sativa L. is an emerging research area for large-scale plant material production. However, how in vitro conditions influence the genetic stability of maintained material, as well as whether changes in the concentration and composition of secondary metabolites can be expected are aspects that need to be better understood. These features are essential for the standardised production of medicinal cannabis. This work aimed to find out whether the presence of the auxin antagonist α-(2-oxo-2-phenylethyl)-1H-indole-3-acetic acid (PEO-IAA) in the culture media influenced the relative gene expression (RGE) of the genes of interest (OAC, CBCA, CBDA, THCA) and the concentrations of studied cannabinoids (CBCA, CBDA, CBC, ∆⁹-THCA, and ∆⁹-THC). Two C. sativa cultivars, 'USO-31' and 'Tatanka Pure CBD', were cultivated by in vitro conditions with PEO-IAA presence and then analysed. The RT-qPCR results indicated that even though some changes in the RGE profiles could be observed, no differences were statistically significant compared with the control variant. The results of the phytochemical analyses demonstrate that although there were some differences from the control variant, only the cultivar 'Tatanka Pure CBD' showed a statistically significant increase (at a statistical significance level α = 0.05) in the concentration of the cannabinoid CBDA. In conclusion, it would appear that using PEO-IAA in the culture medium is a suitable approach to improve in vitro cannabis multiplication.

The Dark Side of Cannabidiol: The Unanticipated Social and Clinical Implications of Synthetic Δ8-THC

Introduction: The explosive growth of the cannabis industry in the United States over the past decade has spurred a multitude of products derived from phytocannabinoids produced by Cannabis sativa L. Decades of cannabis prohibition coupled with the more recent 2018 Farm Bill have lead to several unanticipated consequences and the widespread availability of synthetic cannabinoids derived from hemp CBD, including Δ8-THC, Δ10-THC and HHC. Methods: Herein, we review the available literature of the complexity of the chemistry of its current manufacture, namely, the acid-catalyzed ring closure of cannabidiol (ACRCC), the myriad of issues involving the unsolved technical problems with quality control of ACRCC-Δ8-THC and the multitude of isomerized byproducts, and the lack of consistent regulation regarding consumer safety and labeling. Results: We provide what we believe is the first comprehensive listing of all the documented ACRCC-Δ8-THC byproducts. Perhaps, most importantly, we highlight the growing concern that, other than Δ8-THC itself, the compounds in ACRCC-Δ8-THC product mixtures have not been subjected to any human toxicological evaluation. This is especially troubling as ACRCC-Δ8-THC products relate to vaping, and their contribution to a growing and lethal epidemic of electronic cigarette, or vaping, product use-associated lung injury (EVALI). Conclusions: Quality control is totally inadequate in the newly emerging Δ8-THC industry. American consumers are ingesting products that are mislabeled with many compounds that have never received any toxicological testing. EVALI cases continue to be reported with a fatality rate approaching 2% (in California).

Enantioseparation of chiral phytocannabinoids in medicinal cannabis

The evaluation of the chiral composition of phytocannabinoids in the cannabis plant is particularly important as the pharmacological effects of the (+) and (-) enantiomers of these compounds are completely different. Chromatographic attempts to assess the presence of the minor (+) enantiomers of the main phytocannabinoids, cannabidiolic acid (CBDA) and trans-Δ⁹-tetrahydrocannabinolic acid (trans-Δ⁹-THCA), were carried out on heated plant extracts for the determination of the corresponding decarboxylated species, cannabidiol (CBD) and trans-Δ⁹-tetrahydrocannabinol (trans-Δ⁹-THC), respectively. This process produces an altered phytocannabinoid composition with several new and unknown decomposition products. The present work reports for the first time the stereoselective synthesis of the pure (+) enantiomers of the main phytocannabinoids, trans-CBDA, trans-Δ⁹-THCA, trans-CBD and trans-Δ⁹-THC, and the development and optimization of an achiral-chiral liquid chromatography method coupled to UV and high-resolution mass spectrometry detection in reversed phase conditions (RP-HPLC-UV-HRMS) for the isolation of the single compounds and evaluation of their actual enantiomeric composition in plant. The isolation of the peaks with the achiral stationary phase ensured the absence of interferences that could potentially co-elute with the analytes of interest in the chiral analysis. The method applied to the Italian medicinal cannabis variety FM2 revealed no trace of the (+) enantiomers for all phytocannabinoids under investigation before and after decarboxylation, thus suggesting that the extraction procedure does not lead to an inversion of configuration.

Relationship between Total Antioxidant Capacity, Cannabinoids and Terpenoids in Hops and Cannabis

Efficient determination of antioxidant activity in medicinal plants may provide added value to extracts. The effects of postharvest pre-freezing and drying [microwave-assisted hot air (MAHD) and freeze drying] on hops and cannabis were evaluated to determine the relationship between antioxidant activity and secondary metabolites. The 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazine (DPPH) reduction and ferric reducing ability of power (FRAP) assays were assessed for suitability in estimating the antioxidant activity of extracted hops and cannabis inflorescences and correlation with cannabinoid and terpene content. Antioxidant activity in extracts obtained from fresh, undried samples amounted to 3.6 Trolox equivalent antioxidant activity (TEAC) (M) dry matter^-1 and 2.32 FRAP (M) dry matter^-1 for hops, in addition to 2.29 TEAC (M) dry matter^-1 and 0.25 FRAP (M) dry matter^-1 for cannabis. Pre-freezing significantly increased antioxidant values by 13% (DPPH) and 29.9% (FRAP) for hops, and by 7.7% (DPPH) and 19.4% (FRAP) for cannabis. ANOVA analyses showed a significant (p < 0.05) increase in total THC (24.2) and THCA (27.2) concentrations (g 100 g dry matter^-1) in pre-frozen, undried samples compared to fresh, undried samples. Freeze-drying and MAHD significantly (p < 0.05) reduced antioxidant activity in hops by 79% and 80.2% [DPPH], respectively and 70.1% and 70.4% [FRAP], respectively, when compared to antioxidant activity in extracts obtained from pre-frozen, undried hops. DPPH assay showed that both freeze-drying and MAHD significantly (p < 0.05) reduced the antioxidant activity of cannabis by 60.5% compared to the pre-frozen samples although, there was no significant (p < 0.05) reduction in the antioxidant activity using the FRAP method. Greater THC content was measured in MAHD-samples when compared to fresh, undried (64.7%) and pre-frozen, undried (57%), likely because of decarboxylation. Both drying systems showed a significant loss in total terpene concentration, yet freeze-drying has a higher metabolite retention compared to MAHD. These results may prove useful for future experiments investigating antioxidant activity and added value to cannabis and hops.

"Breaking bud": the effect of direct chemical modifications of phytocannabinoids on their bioavailability, physiological effects, and therapeutic potential

Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and cannabidiol (CBD) are the two "major cannabinoids". However, their incorporation into clinical and nutraceutical preparations is challenging, owing to their limited bioavailability, low water solubility, and variable pharmacokinetic profiles. Understanding the organic chemistry of the major cannabinoids provides us with potential avenues to overcome these issues through derivatization. The resulting labile pro-drugs offer ready cannabinoid release in vivo, have augmented bioavailability, or demonstrate interesting pharmacological properties in their own right. This review identifies and discusses a subset of these advanced derivatization strategies for the major cannabinoids, where the starting material is the pure phytocannabinoid itself, and the final product either a cannabinoid pro-drug, or a novel pharmacoactive material.

Efficacy of the FDA-approved cannabidiol on the development and persistence of temporal lobe epilepsy and complex focal onset seizures

Presently there is no drug therapy for curing epilepsy. Despite many advancements in epilepsy research, nearly 30% of people with epilepsy remain refractory to current antiseizure medications (ASM). Cannabidiol (CBD) has recently been approved as an ASM for pediatric refractory seizures, but it has not been widely tested for adult epileptogenesis and focal onset seizures. In this study, we investigated the efficacy of the FDA-approved CBD in controlling epileptogenesis and complex focal onset seizures using the mouse kindling model of human temporal lobe epilepsy. We also tested combination regimens of CBD with other ASMs. The two primary outcome measures were disease modification and suppression of generalized seizures. In the epileptogenesis study, CBD had a striking effect in attenuating kindling development, with a dose-dependent decrease in behavioral and electrographic seizure activity. In the retention study, mice previously treated with CBD had significantly reduced overall seizure burden, suggesting disease modification. In a fully-kindled seizure study, CBD produced rapid and atypical U-shaped dose-dependent protection against generalized seizures (ED₅₀, 52 mg/kg, i.p.). In a time-course study, CBD showed a maximal protective effect within 1 h of injection, and it declined within 4 h with a biphasic response. In the combination study, CBD produced synergistic/ additive protection when given with midazolam and ganaxolone but not with tiagabine, indicating its strong potential as an adjunct ASM. Finally, the protective effects of CBD were not associated with motor and functional impairments. These preclinical findings demonstrate the potential of adjunct CBD for controlling adult complex focal onset seizure conditions.

Microwave- and Ultrasound-Assisted Extraction of Cannabinoids and Terpenes from Cannabis Using Response Surface Methodology

Limited studies have explored different extraction techniques that improve cannabis extraction with scale-up potential. Ultrasound-assisted and microwave-assisted extraction were evaluated to maximize the yield and concentration of cannabinoids and terpenes. A central composite rotatable design was used to optimize independent factors (sample-to-solvent ratio, extraction time, extraction temperature, and duty cycle). The optimal conditions for ultrasound- and microwave-assisted extraction were the sample-to-solvent ratios of 1:15 and 1:14.4, respectively, for 30 min at 60 °C. Ultrasound-assisted extraction yielded 14.4% and 14.2% more oil and terpenes, respectively, compared with microwave-assisted extracts. Ultrasound-assisted extraction increased cannabinoid concentration from 13.2−39.2%. Considering reference ground samples, tetrahydrocannabinolic acid increased from 17.9 (g 100 g dry matter−1) to 28.5 and 20 with extraction efficiencies of 159.2% and 111.4% for ultrasound-assisted and microwave-assisted extraction, respectively. Principal component analyses indicate that the first two principal components accounted for 96.6% of the total variance (PC1 = 93.2% and PC2 = 3.4%) for ultrasound-assisted extraction and 92.4% of the total variance (PC1 = 85.4% and PC2 = 7%) for microwave-assisted extraction. Sample-to-solvent ratios significantly (p < 0.05) influenced the secondary metabolite profiles and yields for ultrasound-assisted extracts, but not microwave-assisted extracts.

Cold Ethanol Extraction of Cannabinoids and Terpenes from Cannabis Using Response Surface Methodology: Optimization and Comparative Study

Efficient cannabis biomass extraction can increase yield while reducing costs and minimizing waste. Cold ethanol extraction was evaluated to maximize yield and concentrations of cannabinoids and terpenes at different temperatures. Central composite rotatable design was used to optimize two independent factors: sample-to-solvent ratio (1:2.9 to 1:17.1) and extraction time (5.7 min-34.1 min). With response surface methodology, predicted optimal conditions at different extraction temperatures were a cannabis-to-ethanol ratio of 1:15 and a 10 min extraction time. With these conditions, yields (g 100 g dry matter^-1) were 18.2, 19.7, and 18.5 for -20 °C, -40 °C and room temperature, respectively. Compared to the reference ground sample, tetrahydrocannabinolic acid changed from 17.9 (g 100 g dry matter^-1) to 15, 17.5, and 18.3 with an extraction efficiency of 83.6%, 97.7%, 102.1% for -20 °C, -40 °C, and room temperature, respectively. Terpene content decreased by 54.1% and 32.2% for extraction at -20 °C and room temperature, respectively, compared to extraction at -40 °C. Principal component analysis showed that principal component 1 and principal component 2 account for 88% and 7.31% of total variance, respectively, although no significant differences in cold ethanol extraction at different temperatures were observed.

Metabolic Engineering of Nicotiana benthamiana to Produce Cannabinoid Precursors and Their Analogues

In recent years, the perspective towards the use of cannabis has slowly shifted from being an illicit drug to a medicinal plant. The pathway and enzymes involved in the production of cannabinoids are known; however, studies evaluating the production of cannabinoids in heterologous plants and cell cultures are still limited. In this study, we assessed the potential use of N. benthamiana (Nicotiana benthamiana) plants as a heterologous host for producing natural and novel cannabinoids. Transgenic N. benthamiana plants expressing genes encoding cannabis acyl-activating enzyme and olivetol synthase were generated, which were then used for transiently expressing other downstream pathway genes. Production of olivetolic acid and divarinic acid, the universal precursors for major and minor cannabinoids, respectively, was observed in transgenic N. benthamiana plants. To produce novel cannabinoid precursors with different side chains, various fatty acids were infiltrated into the transgenic N. benthamiana plants and the production of novel derivatives was observed. Although we were not able to derive the core intermediate, cannabigerolic acid, from our transgenic plants, possibly due to the low production levels of the precursors, our transgenics plants still serve as a high-potential platform for further development and exploring the N. benthamiana chemical space for generating novel cannabinoids.

Cannabinol: History, Syntheses, and Biological Profile of the Greatest "Minor" Cannabinoid

Cannabis (Cannabis sativa L.) is an outstanding source of bioactive natural products, with more than 150 different phytocannabinoids isolated throughout the decades; however, studies of their bioactivity have historically concentrated on the so-called "big four" [∆⁹-THC (1a), CBD (2a), CBG (3a) and CBC (4a)]. Among the remaining products, which have traditionally been referred to as "minor cannabinoids", cannabinol (CBN, 5a) stands out for its important repercussions and implications on the global scientific landscape. Throughout this review, we will describe why CBN (5a) deserves a prominent place within the so-called "cannabinome", providing an overview on its history, the syntheses developed, and its bioactivity, highlighting its promising pharmacological potential and the significant impact that the study of its chemistry had on the development of new synthetic methodologies.

Anti-Cancer Activity of Cannabis sativa Phytocannabinoids: Molecular Mechanisms and Potential in the Fight against Ovarian Cancer and Stem Cells

Ovarian cancer (OC) is the most lethal gynecological malignancy, with about 70% of cases diagnosed only at an advanced stage. Cannabis sativa, which produces more than 150 phytocannabinoids, is used worldwide to alleviate numerous symptoms associated with various medical conditions. Recently, studies across a range of cancer types have demonstrated that the phytocannabinoids Δ9-trans-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and cannabidiol (CBD) have anti-cancer activity in vitro and in vivo, but also the potential to increase other drugs’ adverse effects. THC and CBD act via several different biological and signaling pathways, including receptor-dependent and receptor-independent pathways. However, very few studies have examined the effectiveness of cannabis compounds against OC. Moreover, little is known about the effectiveness of cannabis compounds against cancer stem cells (CSCs) in general and OC stem cells (OCSCs) in particular. CSCs have been implicated in tumor initiation, progression, and invasion, as well as tumor recurrence, metastasis, and drug resistance. Several hallmarks and concepts describe CSCs. OCSCs, too, are characterized by several markers and specific drug-resistance mechanisms. While there is no peer-reviewed information regarding the effect of cannabis and cannabis compounds on OCSC viability or development, cannabis compounds have been shown to affect genetic pathways and biological processes related to CSCs and OCSCs. Based on evidence from other cancer-type studies, the use of phytocannabinoid-based treatments to disrupt CSC homeostasis is suggested as a potential intervention to prevent chemotherapy resistance. The potential benefits of the combination of chemotherapy with phytocannabinoid treatment should be examined in ovarian cancer patients.

Multi-Omics Approaches to Study Molecular Mechanisms in Cannabis sativa

Cannabis (Cannabis sativa L.), also known as hemp, is one of the oldest cultivated crops, grown for both its use in textile and cordage production, and its unique chemical properties. However, due to the legislation regulating cannabis cultivation, it is not a well characterized crop, especially regarding molecular and genetic pathways. Only recently have regulations begun to ease enough to allow more widespread cannabis research, which, coupled with the availability of cannabis genome sequences, is fuelling the interest of the scientific community. In this review, we provide a summary of cannabis molecular resources focusing on the most recent and relevant genomics, transcriptomics and metabolomics approaches and investigations. Multi-omics methods are discussed, with this combined approach being a powerful tool to identify correlations between biological processes and metabolic pathways across diverse omics layers, and to better elucidate the relationships between cannabis sub-species. The correlations between genotypes and phenotypes, as well as novel metabolites with therapeutic potential are also explored in the context of cannabis breeding programs. However, further studies are needed to fully elucidate the complex metabolomic matrix of this crop. For this reason, some key points for future research activities are discussed, relying on multi-omics approaches.

Cannabidiol: Influence on B Cells, Peripheral Blood Mononuclear Cells, and Peripheral Blood Mononuclear Cell/Rheumatoid Arthritis Synovial Fibroblast Cocultures

Background: Cannabidiol (CBD), one major nonintoxicating phytocannabinoid from Cannabis sativa demonstrated anti-inflammatory effects in animal models of several inflammatory conditions, including arthritis. However, it is still unknown which cell types mediate these anti-inflammatory effects of CBD, and, since CBD binds to a plethora of receptors and enzymes, it is complicated to pinpoint its mechanism of action. In this study, we elucidate the effects of CBD on B cells and peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) in respect to survival, calcium mobilization, drug uptake, and cytokine (IL-6, IL-10, and TNF) and immunoglobulin production. Methods: Modulation of intracellular calcium and drug uptake in B cells was determined by using the fluorescent dyes Cal-520 and PoPo3, respectively. Cytokine and immunoglobulin production was evaluated by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. PBMC composition and B cell survival after CBD treatment was assessed by flow cytometry. Results: B cells express two major target receptors for CBD, TRPV2 (transient receptor potential vanilloid 2) and TRPA1 (transient receptor potential ankyrin 1), which are not regulated by B cell activation. CBD increased intracellular calcium levels in mouse and human B cells, which was accompanied by enhanced uptake of PoPo3. These effects were not dependent on transient receptor potential channel activation. CBD increased the number of early apoptotic B cells at the expense of viable cells and diminished interleukin (IL)-10 and tumor necrosis factor (TNF) production when activated T cell independently. In PBMCs, CBD increased IL-10 production when B cells were activated T cell dependent, while decreasing TNF levels when activated T cell independently. In PBMC/rheumatoid synovial fibroblast cocultures, CBD reduced IL-10 production when B cells were activated T cell independently. Immunoglobulin M production was augmented by CBD when B cells were activated with CpG. Conclusion: CBD is able to provide pro- and anti-inflammatory effects in isolated B cells and PBMCs. This is dependent on the activating stimulus (T cell dependent or independent) and concentration of CBD. Therefore, CBD might be used to dampen B cell activity in autoimmune conditions such as rheumatoid arthritis, in which B cells are activated by specific autoantigens.

Chemical and genetic variation in feral Cannabis sativa populations across the Nebraska climate gradient

Cannabis sativa is a versatile crop that can be cultivated for fiber, seed, or phytochemicals. To take advantage of this versatility and the potential of Cannabis as a feedstock for the bioeconomy, genomics-enabled breeding programs must be strengthened and expanded. This work contributes to the foundation for such by investigating the phytochemistry and genomics of feral Cannabis populations collected from seventeen counties across the climate gradient of Nebraska. Flower tissue from male and female plants (28 total) was studied using (i) gas chromatography-mass spectrometry to assess cannabinoid profiles and (ii) RNA sequencing to determine transcript abundances. Both male and female flower tissues produced cannabinoids, and, though the compounds were more abundant in female flower tissue, the primary cannabinoid in both was usually cannabidiol. The expression of genes that mediate early steps on the cannabinoid biosynthetic pathway were upregulated in female relative to male flowers, suggesting that female versus male flower tissue cannabinoid abundance may be controlled at least in part at the transcriptional level. DNA sequencing was used to place feral Cannabis plants from Nebraska into a previously described genomic context, revealing that all the plants studied here are much more similar to previously characterized hemp-type Cannabis plants than to drug-type Cannabis plants, at least at the genetic level. This work provides foundational phytochemical knowledge and a large set of high-quality single nucleotide polymorphism markers for future studies of feral Nebraska Cannabis.