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Tanim K, Holtzhausen A, Thapa A, Huelse JM, Graham DK, Earp HS. MERTK Inhibition as a Targeted Novel Cancer Therapy. Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25:7660. [PMID: 39062902 PMCID: PMC11277220 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25147660] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2024] [Revised: 07/06/2024] [Accepted: 07/07/2024] [Indexed: 07/28/2024] Open
Abstract
In this issue honoring the contributions of Greg Lemke, the Earp and Graham lab teams discuss several threads in the discovery, action, signaling, and translational/clinical potential of MERTK, originally called c-mer, a member of the TYRO3, AXL, and MERTK (TAM) family of receptor tyrosine kinases. The 30-year history of the TAM RTK family began slowly as all three members were orphan RTKs without known ligands and/or functions when discovered by three distinct alternate molecular cloning strategies in the pre-genome sequencing era. The pace of understanding their physiologic and pathophysiologic roles has accelerated over the last decade. The activation of ligands bridging externalized phosphatidylserine (PtdSer) has placed these RTKs in a myriad of processes including neurodevelopment, cancer, and autoimmunity. The field is ripe for further advancement and this article hopefully sets the stage for further understanding and therapeutic intervention. Our review will focus on progress made through the collaborations of the Earp and Graham labs over the past 30 years.
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Affiliation(s)
- K.M. Tanim
- Aflac Cancer and Blood Disorders Center, Children’s Healthcare of Atlanta, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA; (K.M.T.); (A.T.); (J.M.H.)
- Department of Pediatrics, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
| | - Alisha Holtzhausen
- Lineburger Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA;
| | - Aashis Thapa
- Aflac Cancer and Blood Disorders Center, Children’s Healthcare of Atlanta, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA; (K.M.T.); (A.T.); (J.M.H.)
- Department of Pediatrics, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
| | - Justus M. Huelse
- Aflac Cancer and Blood Disorders Center, Children’s Healthcare of Atlanta, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA; (K.M.T.); (A.T.); (J.M.H.)
- Department of Pediatrics, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
| | - Douglas K. Graham
- Aflac Cancer and Blood Disorders Center, Children’s Healthcare of Atlanta, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA; (K.M.T.); (A.T.); (J.M.H.)
- Department of Pediatrics, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
| | - H. Shelton Earp
- Lineburger Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA;
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
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Sha M, Li H, Guo B, Geng X. Myeloid-specific knockout of SHP2 regulates PI3K/PLCγ signaling pathway to protect against early myocardial infarction injury. Aging (Albany NY) 2023; 15:9877-9889. [PMID: 37768203 PMCID: PMC10564428 DOI: 10.18632/aging.205096] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2023] [Accepted: 08/29/2023] [Indexed: 09/29/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES To study the effects of myeloid-specific knockout of SHP2 on early myocardial infarction and explore its molecular mechanism. METHODS The model of myocardial infarction was established by using SHP2 in myeloid-specific knockout mice, and the effect of SHP2MAC-KO on myocardial function was detected by echocardiography. The effects of SHP2 on myocardial infarct size in myeloid-specific knockout mice was examined by TTC assay and Masson staining. Then, the detection of apoptosis was performed using TUNEL staining and inflammatory cell infiltration was observed using immunohistochemical staining. Moreover, macrophages in mouse hearts were selected by Flow Cytometry and treated with PI3K inhibitors respectively. Western blotting was then used to detect protein expression of p-SHP2 and PI3K/PLCγ signaling pathway. The phagocytic ability of cells was detected by endocytosis test, and the expression of inflammatory cytokines was detected by ELISA. RESULTS Specific knockout of SHP2 in mice with myocardial infarction can improve the cardiac function, decrease infarct size, and reduce apoptosis as well as inflammatory cell infiltration. It also can mediate the PI3K/PLCγ signaling pathway in macrophages, which in turn enhances the endocytosis of macrophages and reduces the expression of inflammatory cytokines in macrophages. CONCLUSIONS Myeloid-specific knockout of SHP2 regulates PI3K/PLCγ signaling pathway to protect against early myocardial infarction injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Menglin Sha
- Department of Cardiology, The Third Hospital of Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, Hebei, China
| | - Hongxing Li
- Department of Cardiology, The Second Hospital of Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, Hebei, China
| | - Bingyan Guo
- Department of Cardiology, The Second Hospital of Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, Hebei, China
| | - Xiaoyong Geng
- Department of Cardiology, The Third Hospital of Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, Hebei, China
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Romero-Molina C, Garretti F, Andrews SJ, Marcora E, Goate AM. Microglial efferocytosis: Diving into the Alzheimer's disease gene pool. Neuron 2022; 110:3513-3533. [PMID: 36327897 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuron.2022.10.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2022] [Revised: 10/04/2022] [Accepted: 10/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
Genome-wide association studies and functional genomics studies have linked specific cell types, genes, and pathways to Alzheimer's disease (AD) risk. In particular, AD risk alleles primarily affect the abundance or structure, and thus the activity, of genes expressed in macrophages, strongly implicating microglia (the brain-resident macrophages) in the etiology of AD. These genes converge on pathways (endocytosis/phagocytosis, cholesterol metabolism, and immune response) with critical roles in core macrophage functions such as efferocytosis. Here, we review these pathways, highlighting relevant genes identified in the latest AD genetics and genomics studies, and describe how they may contribute to AD pathogenesis. Investigating the functional impact of AD-associated variants and genes in microglia is essential for elucidating disease risk mechanisms and developing effective therapeutic approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carmen Romero-Molina
- Ronald M. Loeb Center for Alzheimer's Disease, 1 Gustave L. Levy Place, New York, NY 10029-6574, USA; Department of Genetics & Genomic Sciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA
| | - Francesca Garretti
- Ronald M. Loeb Center for Alzheimer's Disease, 1 Gustave L. Levy Place, New York, NY 10029-6574, USA; Department of Genetics & Genomic Sciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA
| | - Shea J Andrews
- Ronald M. Loeb Center for Alzheimer's Disease, 1 Gustave L. Levy Place, New York, NY 10029-6574, USA; Department of Genetics & Genomic Sciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA; Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Edoardo Marcora
- Ronald M. Loeb Center for Alzheimer's Disease, 1 Gustave L. Levy Place, New York, NY 10029-6574, USA; Department of Genetics & Genomic Sciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA.
| | - Alison M Goate
- Ronald M. Loeb Center for Alzheimer's Disease, 1 Gustave L. Levy Place, New York, NY 10029-6574, USA; Department of Genetics & Genomic Sciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA.
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Efferocytosis requires periphagosomal Ca 2+-signaling and TRPM7-mediated electrical activity. Nat Commun 2022; 13:3230. [PMID: 35680919 PMCID: PMC9184625 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-022-30959-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2019] [Accepted: 05/26/2022] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Efficient clearance of apoptotic cells by phagocytosis, also known as efferocytosis, is fundamental to developmental biology, organ physiology, and immunology. Macrophages use multiple mechanisms to detect and engulf apoptotic cells, but the signaling pathways that regulate the digestion of the apoptotic cell cargo, such as the dynamic Ca2+ signals, are poorly understood. Using an siRNA screen, we identify TRPM7 as a Ca2+-conducting ion channel essential for phagosome maturation during efferocytosis. Trpm7-targeted macrophages fail to fully acidify or digest their phagosomal cargo in the absence of TRPM7. Through perforated patch electrophysiology, we demonstrate that TRPM7 mediates a pH-activated cationic current necessary to sustain phagosomal acidification. Using mice expressing a genetically-encoded Ca2+ sensor, we observe that phagosome maturation requires peri-phagosomal Ca2+-signals dependent on TRPM7. Overall, we reveal TRPM7 as a central regulator of phagosome maturation during macrophage efferocytosis. Efficient removal of apoptotic cells by phagocytosis underlies tissue development, wound repair, host defense and organ homeostasis. Here, authors identify TRPM7 as a regulator of cargo acidification and Ca2+ signaling during apoptotic cell clearance.
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Shirato K, Sato S. Macrophage Meets the Circadian Clock: Implication of the Circadian Clock in the Role of Macrophages in Acute Lower Respiratory Tract Infection. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2022; 12:826738. [PMID: 35281442 PMCID: PMC8904936 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2022.826738] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2021] [Accepted: 02/01/2022] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The circadian rhythm is a biological system that creates daily variations of physiology and behavior with a 24-h cycle, which is precisely controlled by the molecular circadian clock. The circadian clock dominates temporal activity of physiological homeostasis at the molecular level, including endocrine secretion, metabolic, immune response, coupled with extrinsic environmental cues (e.g., light/dark cycles) and behavioral cues (e.g., sleep/wake cycles and feeding/fasting cycles). The other side of the clock is that the misaligned circadian rhythm contributes to the onset of a variety of diseases, such as cancer, metabolic diseases, and cardiovascular diseases, the acceleration of aging, and the development of systemic inflammation. The role played by macrophages is a key mediator between circadian disruption and systemic inflammation. At the molecular level, macrophage functions are under the direct control of the circadian clock, and thus the circadian misalignment remodels the phenotype of macrophages toward a ‘killer’ mode. Remarkably, the inflammatory macrophages induce systemic and chronic inflammation, leading to the development of inflammatory diseases and the dampened immune defensive machinery against infectious diseases such as COVID-19. Here, we discuss how the circadian clock regulates macrophage immune functions and provide the potential risk of misaligned circadian rhythms against inflammatory and infectious diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ken Shirato
- Department of Molecular Predictive Medicine and Sport Science, Kyorin University School of Medicine, Mitaka, Japan
| | - Shogo Sato
- Center for Biological Clocks Research, Department of Biology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, United States
- *Correspondence: Shogo Sato,
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Apoptotic Cells Trigger Calcium Entry in Phagocytes by Inducing the Orai1-STIM1 Association. Cells 2021; 10:cells10102702. [PMID: 34685684 PMCID: PMC8534458 DOI: 10.3390/cells10102702] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2021] [Revised: 09/30/2021] [Accepted: 10/08/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Swift and continuous phagocytosis of apoptotic cells can be achieved by modulation of calcium flux in phagocytes. However, the molecular mechanism by which apoptotic cells modulate calcium flux in phagocytes is incompletely understood. Here, using biophysical, biochemical, pharmaceutical, and genetic approaches, we show that apoptotic cells induced the Orai1-STIM1 interaction, leading to store-operated calcium entry (SOCE) in phagocytes through the Mertk-phospholipase C (PLC) γ1-inositol 1,4,5-triphosphate receptor (IP3R) axis. Apoptotic cells induced calcium release from the endoplasmic reticulum, which led to the Orai1-STIM1 association and, consequently, SOCE in phagocytes. This association was attenuated by masking phosphatidylserine. In addition, the depletion of Mertk, which indirectly senses phosphatidylserine on apoptotic cells, reduced the phosphorylation levels of PLCγ1 and IP3R, resulting in attenuation of the Orai1-STIM1 interaction and inefficient SOCE upon apoptotic cell stimulation. Taken together, our observations uncover the mechanism of how phagocytes engulfing apoptotic cells elevate the calcium level.
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Kinsella S, Evandy CA, Cooper K, Iovino L, deRoos PC, Hopwo KS, Granadier DW, Smith CW, Rafii S, Dudakov JA. Attenuation of apoptotic cell detection triggers thymic regeneration after damage. Cell Rep 2021; 37:109789. [PMID: 34610317 PMCID: PMC8627669 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2021.109789] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2020] [Revised: 07/02/2021] [Accepted: 09/10/2021] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
The thymus, which is the primary site of T cell development, is particularly sensitive to insult but also has a remarkable capacity for repair. However, the mechanisms orchestrating regeneration are poorly understood, and delayed repair is common after cytoreductive therapies. Here, we demonstrate a trigger of thymic regeneration, centered on detecting the loss of dying thymocytes that are abundant during steady-state T cell development. Specifically, apoptotic thymocytes suppressed production of the regenerative factors IL-23 and BMP4 via TAM receptor signaling and activation of the Rho-GTPase Rac1, the intracellular pattern recognition receptor NOD2, and micro-RNA-29c. However, after damage, when profound thymocyte depletion occurs, this TAM-Rac1-NOD2-miR29c pathway is attenuated, increasing production of IL-23 and BMP4. Notably, pharmacological inhibition of Rac1-GTPase enhanced thymic function after acute damage. These findings identify a complex trigger of tissue regeneration and offer a regenerative strategy for restoring immune competence in patients whose thymic function has been compromised.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sinéad Kinsella
- Program in Immunology, Clinical Research Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, WA 98109, USA; Immunotherapy Integrated Research Center, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, WA 98109, USA.
| | - Cindy A Evandy
- Program in Immunology, Clinical Research Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, WA 98109, USA; Immunotherapy Integrated Research Center, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, WA 98109, USA
| | - Kirsten Cooper
- Program in Immunology, Clinical Research Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, WA 98109, USA; Immunotherapy Integrated Research Center, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, WA 98109, USA
| | - Lorenzo Iovino
- Program in Immunology, Clinical Research Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, WA 98109, USA; Immunotherapy Integrated Research Center, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, WA 98109, USA
| | - Paul C deRoos
- Program in Immunology, Clinical Research Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, WA 98109, USA; Immunotherapy Integrated Research Center, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, WA 98109, USA
| | - Kayla S Hopwo
- Program in Immunology, Clinical Research Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, WA 98109, USA; Immunotherapy Integrated Research Center, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, WA 98109, USA
| | - David W Granadier
- Program in Immunology, Clinical Research Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, WA 98109, USA; Immunotherapy Integrated Research Center, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, WA 98109, USA
| | - Colton W Smith
- Program in Immunology, Clinical Research Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, WA 98109, USA; Immunotherapy Integrated Research Center, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, WA 98109, USA
| | - Shahin Rafii
- Department of Genetic Medicine and Ansary Stem Cell Institute, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, NY 10021, USA
| | - Jarrod A Dudakov
- Program in Immunology, Clinical Research Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, WA 98109, USA; Immunotherapy Integrated Research Center, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, WA 98109, USA; Department of Immunology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98109, USA.
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8
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Acute RhoA/Rho Kinase Inhibition Is Sufficient to Restore Phagocytic Capacity to Retinal Pigment Epithelium Lacking the Engulfment Receptor MerTK. Cells 2021; 10:cells10081927. [PMID: 34440696 PMCID: PMC8394172 DOI: 10.3390/cells10081927] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2021] [Revised: 07/26/2021] [Accepted: 07/26/2021] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
The diurnal phagocytosis of spent photoreceptor outer segment fragments (POS) by retinal pigment epithelial (RPE) cells is essential for visual function. POS internalization by RPE cells requires the assembly of F-actin phagocytic cups beneath surface-tethered POS and Mer tyrosine kinase (MerTK) signaling. The activation of the Rho family GTPase Rac1 is necessary for phagocytic cup formation, and Rac1 is activated normally in MerTK-deficient RPE. We show here that mutant RPE lacking MerTK and wild-type RPE deprived of MerTK ligand both fail to form phagocytic cups regardless of Rac1 activation. However, in wild-type RPE in vivo, a decrease in RhoA activity coincides with the daily phagocytosis burst, while RhoA activity in MerTK-deficient RPE is constant. Elevating RhoA activity blocks phagocytic cup formation and phagocytosis by wild-type RPE. Conversely, inhibiting RhoA effector Rho kinases (ROCKs) rescues both F-actin assembly and POS internalization of primary RPE if MerTK or its ligand are lacking. Most strikingly, acute ROCK inhibition is sufficient to induce the formation and acidification of endogenous POS phagosomes by MerTK-deficient RPE ex vivo. Altogether, RhoA pathway inactivation is a necessary and sufficient downstream effect of MerTK phagocytic signaling such that the acute manipulation of cytosolic ROCK activity suffices to restore phagocytic capacity to MerTK-deficient RPE.
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Zhou L, Matsushima GK. Tyro3, Axl, Mertk receptor-mediated efferocytosis and immune regulation in the tumor environment. INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2021; 361:165-210. [PMID: 34074493 DOI: 10.1016/bs.ircmb.2021.02.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Three structurally related tyrosine receptor cell surface kinases, Tyro3, Axl, and Mertk (TAM) have been recognized to modulate immune function, tissue homeostasis, cardiovasculature, and cancer. The TAM receptor family appears to operate in adult mammals across multiple cell types, suggesting both widespread and specific regulation of cell functions and immune niches. TAM family members regulate tissue homeostasis by monitoring the presence of phosphatidylserine expressed on stressed or apoptotic cells. The detection of phosphatidylserine on apoptotic cells requires intermediary molecules that opsonize the dying cells and tether them to TAM receptors on phagocytes. This complex promotes the engulfment of apoptotic cells, also known as efferocytosis, that leads to the resolution of inflammation and tissue healing. The immune mechanisms dictating these processes appear to fall upon specific family members or may involve a complex of different receptors acting cooperatively to resolve and repair damaged tissues. Here, we focus on the role of TAM receptors in triggering efferocytosis and its consequences in the regulation of immune responses in the context of inflammation and cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liwen Zhou
- UNC Neuroscience Center, University of North Carolina-CH, Chapel Hill, NC, United States
| | - Glenn K Matsushima
- UNC Neuroscience Center, University of North Carolina-CH, Chapel Hill, NC, United States; UNC Department of Microbiology & Immunology, University of North Carolina-CH, Chapel Hill, NC, United States; UNC Integrative Program for Biological & Genome Sciences, University of North Carolina-CH, Chapel Hill, NC, United States.
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10
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Paroha R, Chourasia R, Rai R, Kumar A, Vyas AK, Chaurasiya SK, Singh AK. Host phospholipase C‐γ1 impairs phagocytosis and killing of mycobacteria by J774A.1 murine macrophages. Microbiol Immunol 2020; 64:694-702. [DOI: 10.1111/1348-0421.12839] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2020] [Revised: 08/13/2020] [Accepted: 08/18/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Ruchi Paroha
- Department of Microbiology, School of Biological Sciences Dr Hari Singh Gour University Sagar Madhya Pradesh India
| | - Rashmi Chourasia
- Department of Chemistry Dr Hari Singh Gour University Sagar Madhya Pradesh India
| | - Rupal Rai
- Department of Biological Science and Engineering Maulana Azad National Institute of Technology Bhopal Madhya Pradesh India
| | - Awanish Kumar
- Department of Biotechnology National Institute of Technology Raipur Chhattisgarh India
| | - Ashish K. Vyas
- Department of Microbiology All India Institute of Medical Sciences Bhopal Madhya Pradesh India
| | - Shivendra K. Chaurasiya
- Department of Biological Science and Engineering Maulana Azad National Institute of Technology Bhopal Madhya Pradesh India
| | - Anirudh K. Singh
- Department of Microbiology All India Institute of Medical Sciences Bhopal Madhya Pradesh India
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11
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Wakida NM, Gomez-Godinez V, Li H, Nguyen J, Kim EK, Dynes JL, Othy S, Lau AL, Ding P, Shi L, Carmona C, Thompson LM, Cahalan MD, Berns MW. Calcium Dynamics in Astrocytes During Cell Injury. Front Bioeng Biotechnol 2020; 8:912. [PMID: 32984268 PMCID: PMC7481337 DOI: 10.3389/fbioe.2020.00912] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2020] [Accepted: 07/15/2020] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
The changes in intracellular calcium concentration ([Ca2+]) following laser-induced cell injury in nearby cells were studied in primary mouse astrocytes selectively expressing the Ca2+ sensitive GFAP-Cre Salsa6f fluorescent tandem protein, in an Ast1 astrocyte cell line, and in primary mouse astrocytes loaded with Fluo4. Astrocytes in these three systems exhibit distinct changes in [Ca2+] following induced death of nearby cells. Changes in [Ca2+] appear to result from release of Ca2+ from intracellular organelles, as opposed to influx from the external medium. Salsa6f expressing astrocytes displayed dynamic Ca2+ changes throughout the phagocytic response, including lamellae protrusion, cytosolic signaling during vesicle formation, vesicle maturation, and vesicle tract formation. Our results demonstrate local changes in [Ca2+] are involved in the process of phagocytosis in astrocytes responding to cell corpses and/or debris.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicole M Wakida
- Beckman Laser Institute & Medical Clinic, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, United States
| | - Veronica Gomez-Godinez
- Institute of Engineering in Medicine, University of California, San Diego, San Diego, CA, United States
| | - Huayan Li
- Institute of Engineering in Medicine, University of California, San Diego, San Diego, CA, United States
| | - Jessica Nguyen
- Beckman Laser Institute & Medical Clinic, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, United States
| | - Edward K Kim
- Beckman Laser Institute & Medical Clinic, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, United States
| | - Joseph L Dynes
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, School of Medicine, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, United States
| | - Shivashankar Othy
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, School of Medicine, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, United States
| | - Alice L Lau
- Department of Psychiatry and Human Behavior, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, United States
| | - Peng Ding
- Institute of Engineering in Medicine, University of California, San Diego, San Diego, CA, United States
| | - Linda Shi
- Institute of Engineering in Medicine, University of California, San Diego, San Diego, CA, United States
| | - Christopher Carmona
- Institute of Engineering in Medicine, University of California, San Diego, San Diego, CA, United States
| | - Leslie M Thompson
- Department of Psychiatry and Human Behavior, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, United States.,Institute for Memory Impairments and Neurological Disorders, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, United States.,Department of Neurobiology and Behavior, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, United States.,Sue and Bill Gross Stem Cell Research Center, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, United States
| | - Michael D Cahalan
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, School of Medicine, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, United States.,Institute for Immunology, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, United States
| | - Michael W Berns
- Beckman Laser Institute & Medical Clinic, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, United States.,Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, United States.,Department of Developmental and Cell Biology, School of Biological Sciences, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, United States
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Abstract
Phospholipase C (PLC) family members constitute a family of diverse enzymes. Thirteen different family members have been cloned. These family members have unique structures that mediate various functions. Although PLC family members all appear to signal through the bi-products of cleaving phospholipids, it is clear that each family member, and at times each isoform, contributes to unique cellular functions. This chapter provides a review of the current literature on PLC. In addition, references have been provided for more in-depth information regarding areas that are not discussed including tyrosine kinase activation of PLC. Understanding the roles of the individual PLC enzymes, and their distinct cellular functions, will lead to a better understanding of the physiological roles of these enzymes in the development of diseases and the maintenance of homeostasis.
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13
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Nishi C, Yanagihashi Y, Segawa K, Nagata S. MERTK tyrosine kinase receptor together with TIM4 phosphatidylserine receptor mediates distinct signal transduction pathways for efferocytosis and cell proliferation. J Biol Chem 2019; 294:7221-7230. [PMID: 30846565 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.ra118.006628] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2018] [Revised: 02/26/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Apoptotic cells expose phosphatidylserine (PtdSer) on their surface, leading to efferocytosis, i.e. their engulfment by resident macrophages that express the PtdSer receptor T cell immunoglobulin mucin receptor 4 (TIM4) and TAM family receptor tyrosine kinase receptors (MERTK, AXL, and TYRO3). TAM family receptors stimulate cell proliferation, and the many aspects of the growth signaling pathway downstream of TAM family receptors have been elucidated previously. However, the signaling cascade for TAM receptor-mediated efferocytosis has been elusive. Here we observed that efferocytosis by mouse-resident peritoneal macrophages was blocked by inhibitors against the MERTK, mitogen-activated protein kinase/extracellular signal-regulated kinase kinase (MEK), AKT Ser/Thr kinase (AKT), focal adhesion kinase (FAK), or STAT6 pathway. Accordingly, apoptotic cells stimulated the phosphorylation of MERTK, ERK, AKT, FAK, and STAT6, but not of IκB or STAT5. A reconstituted efferocytosis system using MERTK- and TIM4-expressing NIH3T3-derived cells revealed that the juxtamembrane and C-terminal regions of MERTK have redundant roles in efferocytosis. The transformation of murine IL-3-dependent Ba/F3 cells (a pro-B cell line) with MERTK and TIM4 enabled them to proliferate in response to apoptotic cells in a PtdSer-dependent manner. This apoptotic cell-induced MERTK-mediated proliferation required both MERTK's juxtamembrane and C-terminal regions and was blocked by inhibitors of not only ERK, AKT, FAK, and STAT6 but also of NF-κB and STAT5 signaling. These results suggest that apoptotic cells stimulate distinct sets of signal transduction pathways via MERTK to induce either efferocytosis or proliferation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chihiro Nishi
- From the Laboratory of Biochemistry and Immunology, World Premier International Immunology Frontier Research Center, Osaka University, Suita, Osaka 565-0871, Japan
| | - Yuichi Yanagihashi
- From the Laboratory of Biochemistry and Immunology, World Premier International Immunology Frontier Research Center, Osaka University, Suita, Osaka 565-0871, Japan
| | - Katsumori Segawa
- From the Laboratory of Biochemistry and Immunology, World Premier International Immunology Frontier Research Center, Osaka University, Suita, Osaka 565-0871, Japan
| | - Shigekazu Nagata
- From the Laboratory of Biochemistry and Immunology, World Premier International Immunology Frontier Research Center, Osaka University, Suita, Osaka 565-0871, Japan
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14
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Abstract
IMPACT STATEMENT Cancer is among the leading causes of death worldwide. In 2016, 8.9 million people are estimated to have died from various forms of cancer. The current treatments, including surgery with chemotherapy and/or radiation therapy, are not effective enough to provide full protection from cancer, which highlights the need for developing novel therapy strategies. In this review, we summarize the molecular biology of a unique member of a subfamily of receptor tyrosine kinase, TYRO3 and discuss the new insights in TYRO3-targeted treatment for cancer therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pei-Ling Hsu
- 1 Department of Physiology, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan 70101, Taiwan
| | - Jonathan Jou
- 2 College of Medicine, University of Illinois, IL 60612, USA
| | - Shaw-Jenq Tsai
- 1 Department of Physiology, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan 70101, Taiwan
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15
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Lee CH, Chun T. Anti-Inflammatory Role of TAM Family of Receptor Tyrosine Kinases Via Modulating Macrophage Function. Mol Cells 2019; 42:1-7. [PMID: 30699285 PMCID: PMC6354059 DOI: 10.14348/molcells.2018.0419] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2018] [Revised: 12/04/2018] [Accepted: 12/07/2018] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Macrophage is an important innate immune cell that not only initiates inflammatory responses, but also functions in tissue repair and anti-inflammatory responses. Regulating macrophage activity is thus critical to maintain immune homeostasis. Tyro3, Axl, and Mer are integral membrane proteins that constitute TAM family of receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs). Growing evidence indicates that TAM family receptors play an important role in anti-inflammatory responses through modulating the function of macrophages. First, macrophages can recognize apoptotic bodies through interaction between TAM family receptors expressed on macrophages and their ligands attached to apoptotic bodies. Without TAM signaling, macrophages cannot clear up apoptotic cells, leading to broad inflammation due to over-activation of immune cells. Second, TAM signaling can prevent chronic activation of macrophages by attenuating inflammatory pathways through particular pattern recognition receptors and cytokine receptors. Third, TAM signaling can induce autophagy which is an important mechanism to inhibit NLRP3 inflammasome activation in macrophages. Fourth, TAM signaling can inhibit polarization of M1 macrophages. In this review, we will focus on mechanisms involved in how TAM family of RTKs can modulate function of macrophage associated with anti-inflammatory responses described above. We will also discuss several human diseases related to TAM signaling and potential therapeutic strategies of targeting TAM signaling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chang-Hee Lee
- Department of Biotechnology, College of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Korea University, Seoul 02841,
Korea
| | - Taehoon Chun
- Department of Biotechnology, College of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Korea University, Seoul 02841,
Korea
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16
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The Dual Role of TAM Receptors in Autoimmune Diseases and Cancer: An Overview. Cells 2018; 7:cells7100166. [PMID: 30322068 PMCID: PMC6210017 DOI: 10.3390/cells7100166] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2018] [Revised: 10/05/2018] [Accepted: 10/09/2018] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs) regulate cellular processes by converting signals from the extracellular environment to the cytoplasm and nucleus. Tyro3, Axl, and Mer (TAM) receptors form an RTK family that plays an intricate role in tissue maintenance, phagocytosis, and inflammation as well as cell proliferation, survival, migration, and development. Defects in TAM signaling are associated with numerous autoimmune diseases and different types of cancers. Here, we review the structure of TAM receptors, their ligands, and their biological functions. We discuss the role of TAM receptors and soluble circulating TAM receptors in the autoimmune diseases systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) and multiple sclerosis (MS). Lastly, we discuss the effect of TAM receptor deregulation in cancer and explore the therapeutic potential of TAM receptors in the treatment of diseases.
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17
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Hughes LD, Bosurgi L, Ghosh S, Rothlin CV. Chronicles of Cell Death Foretold: Specificities in the Mechanism of Disposal. Front Immunol 2017; 8:1743. [PMID: 29312294 PMCID: PMC5732325 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2017.01743] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2017] [Accepted: 11/23/2017] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Massive turnover of cells occurs through apoptosis during the constant remodeling of our tissues at homeostasis, from the shedding of cells at exposed barrier surfaces to the elimination of autoreactive lymphocytes. However, a surge of apoptotic cells also accompanies tissue damage, infection, and inflammation. A salient feature of apoptosis in either scenario is the exposure of phosphatidylserine (PtdSer) on the outer leaflet of the plasma membrane. In response to this cue, a range of phagocytes are charged with the sizeable task of engulfing apoptotic bodies and disposing of the billions of cells that perish each day. The presence of apoptotic cells in the remarkably distinct immunological settings described above, therefore, raises the question of how phagocytes are able to coordinate appropriate responses to apoptotic cells—from their silent removal to the production of growth factors or tissue repair molecules—following such a ubiquitous signal as PtdSer exposure. Here, we consider several emergent properties of phagocytes and apoptotic cell clearance that may facilitate specification among this suite of potential responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lindsey D Hughes
- Department of Immunobiology, School of Medicine, Yale University, New Haven, CT, United States
| | - Lidia Bosurgi
- I. Medizinische Klinik und Poliklinik, Universitätsklinikum Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany.,Bernard-Nocht-Institut für Tropenmedizin, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Sourav Ghosh
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Yale University, New Haven, CT, United States.,Department of Neurology, School of Medicine, Yale University, New Haven, CT, United States
| | - Carla V Rothlin
- Department of Immunobiology, School of Medicine, Yale University, New Haven, CT, United States.,Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Yale University, New Haven, CT, United States
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18
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Wu G, Ma Z, Hu W, Wang D, Gong B, Fan C, Jiang S, Li T, Gao J, Yang Y. Molecular insights of Gas6/TAM in cancer development and therapy. Cell Death Dis 2017; 8:e2700. [PMID: 28333143 PMCID: PMC5386520 DOI: 10.1038/cddis.2017.113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2016] [Revised: 01/09/2017] [Accepted: 01/30/2017] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Since growth arrest-specific gene 6 (Gas6) was discovered in 1988, numerous studies have highlighted the role of the Gas6 protein and its receptors Tyro3, Axl and Mer (collectively referred to as TAM), in proliferation, apoptosis, efferocytosis, leukocyte migration, sequestration and platelet aggregation. Gas6 has a critical role in the development of multiple types of cancers, including pancreatic, prostate, oral, ovarian and renal cancers. Acute myelocytic leukaemia (AML) is a Gas6-dependent cancer, and Gas6 expression predicts poor prognosis in AML. Interestingly, Gas6 also has a role in establishing tumour dormancy in the bone marrow microenvironment and in suppressing intestinal tumorigenesis. Numerous studies regarding cancer therapy have targeted Gas6 and TAM receptors with good results. However, some findings have suggested that Gas6 is associated with the development of resistance to cancer therapies. Concerning these significant effects of Gas6 in numerous cancers, we discuss the roles of Gas6 in cancer development in this review. First, we introduce basic knowledge on Gas6 and TAM receptors. Next, we describe and discuss the involvement of Gas6 and TAM receptors in cancers from different organ systems. Finally, we highlight the progress in therapies targeting Gas6 and TAM receptors. This review presents the significant roles of Gas6 in cancers from different systems and may contribute to the continued promotion of Gas6 as a therapeutic target.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guiling Wu
- Department of Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery, Affiliated Drum Tower Hospital of Nanjing University Medical School, 321 Zhongshan Road, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210008, China.,Department of Geriatrics, Xijing Hospital, The Fourth Military Medical University, 127 Changle West Road, Xi'an 710032, China.,Department of Biomedical Engineering, The Fourth Military Medical University, 169 Changle West Road, Xi'an 710032, China
| | - Zhiqiang Ma
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, Tangdu Hospital, The Fourth Military Medical University, 1 Xinsi Road, Xi'an 710038, China
| | - Wei Hu
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, The Fourth Military Medical University, 169 Changle West Road, Xi'an 710032, China
| | - Dongjin Wang
- Department of Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery, Affiliated Drum Tower Hospital of Nanjing University Medical School, 321 Zhongshan Road, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210008, China
| | - Bing Gong
- Department of Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery, Affiliated Drum Tower Hospital of Nanjing University Medical School, 321 Zhongshan Road, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210008, China
| | - Chongxi Fan
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, The Fourth Military Medical University, 169 Changle West Road, Xi'an 710032, China
| | - Shuai Jiang
- Department of Aerospace Medicine, The Fourth Military Medical University, 169 Changle West Road, Xi'an 710032, China
| | - Tian Li
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, The Fourth Military Medical University, 169 Changle West Road, Xi'an 710032, China
| | - Jianyuan Gao
- Department of Geriatrics, Xijing Hospital, The Fourth Military Medical University, 127 Changle West Road, Xi'an 710032, China
| | - Yang Yang
- Department of Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery, Affiliated Drum Tower Hospital of Nanjing University Medical School, 321 Zhongshan Road, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210008, China.,Department of Biomedical Engineering, The Fourth Military Medical University, 169 Changle West Road, Xi'an 710032, China
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19
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Lee JM, Yeo CD, Lee HY, Rhee CK, Kim IK, Lee DG, Lee SH, Kim JW. Inhibition of neutrophil elastase contributes to attenuation of lipopolysaccharide-induced acute lung injury during neutropenia recovery in mice. J Anesth 2017; 31:397-404. [PMID: 28144780 DOI: 10.1007/s00540-017-2311-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2016] [Accepted: 01/17/2017] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE Patients in whom neutropenia recovery is complicated by pneumonia have an increased risk of acute lung injury (ALI) and detrimental outcomes. The aim of the present study was to investigate whether inhibition of neutrophil elastase (NE) is effective in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced ALI during neutropenia recovery in a murine model, and whether it upregulates the activation of the MerTK signaling pathway. METHODS Cyclophosphamide was given to mice to induce neutropenia. Seven days later, they were administered LPS by intratracheal instillation. Sivelestat, a neutrophil elastase inhibitor, was given by intraperitoneal injection once daily starting on day 0 and continuing until mice were sacrificed on day 5 (preventive group). Alternatively, sivelestat was given after, instead of before, LPS administration on day 2 (therapeutic group). RESULTS Sivelestat attenuated the lung edema and histopathological changes associated with LPS-induced lung injury. The accumulation of neutrophils and the concentrations of TNF-α, IL-6, and MPO in bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) fluids were inhibited effectively by sivelestat. The expression of ICAM-1 and NF-κB p65 was also reduced after sivelestat administration. The protein and gene expression of MerTK tended to increase with sivelestat treatment. CONCLUSIONS Sivelestat significantly attenuated LPS-induced ALI during recovery from neutropenia, and this effect was associated with MerTK induction. These findings suggest that NE inhibition could be a promising means of alleviating lung inflammation without increasing susceptibility to infection in ALI/ARDS during neutropenia recovery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jong Min Lee
- Division of Pulmonology and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, School of Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea, Uijeongbu St. Mary's Hospital, 65-1 Geumo-dong, Uijeongbu, Seoul, Gyunggi-do, Republic of Korea
| | - Chang Dong Yeo
- Division of Pulmonology and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, School of Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea, Uijeongbu St. Mary's Hospital, 65-1 Geumo-dong, Uijeongbu, Seoul, Gyunggi-do, Republic of Korea
| | - Hwa Young Lee
- Division of Pulmonology and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, School of Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea, Uijeongbu St. Mary's Hospital, 65-1 Geumo-dong, Uijeongbu, Seoul, Gyunggi-do, Republic of Korea
| | - Chin Kook Rhee
- Division of Pulmonology and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, School of Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea, Uijeongbu St. Mary's Hospital, 65-1 Geumo-dong, Uijeongbu, Seoul, Gyunggi-do, Republic of Korea
| | - In Kyoung Kim
- Division of Pulmonology and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, School of Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea, Uijeongbu St. Mary's Hospital, 65-1 Geumo-dong, Uijeongbu, Seoul, Gyunggi-do, Republic of Korea
| | - Dong Gun Lee
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Internal Medicine, School of Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea, Seoul, Korea
| | - Sang Haak Lee
- Division of Pulmonology and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, School of Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea, Uijeongbu St. Mary's Hospital, 65-1 Geumo-dong, Uijeongbu, Seoul, Gyunggi-do, Republic of Korea
| | - Jin Woo Kim
- Division of Pulmonology and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, School of Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea, Uijeongbu St. Mary's Hospital, 65-1 Geumo-dong, Uijeongbu, Seoul, Gyunggi-do, Republic of Korea.
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20
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Bae YS, Lee HY, Jung YS, Lee M, Suh PG. Phospholipase Cγ in Toll-like receptor-mediated inflammation and innate immunity. Adv Biol Regul 2017; 63:92-97. [PMID: 27707630 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbior.2016.09.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2016] [Revised: 09/23/2016] [Accepted: 09/25/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Among the phospholipase C (PLC) isoforms, PLCγ not only has unique structural characteristics in terms of harboring SH2 and SH3 domains but also mediates growth factor-induced signaling pathways. PLCγ isoforms are expressed in several innate immune cell types, including macrophages, natural killer cells, mast cells, and neutrophils. Stimulation of Fc receptor or integrin in innate immune cells induces PLCγ activation, which leads to phosphoinositide hydrolysis and calcium increase. The products of PLCγ activity mediate the innate immune response by regulating respiratory burst, phagocytosis, cell adhesion, and cell migration. PLCγ also regulates the inflammatory response by affecting Toll-like receptor-mediated signaling. Here, we briefly review the current understanding of the functional role of PLCγ in inflammation and innate immunity in some innate immune cell types.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yoe-Sik Bae
- Department of Biological Sciences, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon 16419, Republic of Korea; Department of Health Sciences and Technology, SAIHST, Sungkyunkwan University, Seoul 06351, Republic of Korea.
| | - Ha Young Lee
- Department of Biological Sciences, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon 16419, Republic of Korea
| | - Young Su Jung
- Department of Biological Sciences, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon 16419, Republic of Korea
| | - Mingyu Lee
- Department of Health Sciences and Technology, SAIHST, Sungkyunkwan University, Seoul 06351, Republic of Korea
| | - Pann-Ghill Suh
- School of Nano-Biotechnology and Chemical Engineering, Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology, Ulsan 44919, Republic of Korea
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21
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Wang X, Liu J, Zhang W, Stashko MA, Nichols J, Miley M, Norris-Drouin J, Chen Z, Machius M, DeRyckere D, Wood E, Graham DK, Earp HS, Kireev D, Frye SV. Design and Synthesis of Novel Macrocyclic Mer Tyrosine Kinase Inhibitors. ACS Med Chem Lett 2016; 7:1044-1049. [PMID: 27994735 PMCID: PMC5151143 DOI: 10.1021/acsmedchemlett.6b00221] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2016] [Accepted: 09/13/2016] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Mer tyrosine kinase (MerTK) is aberrantly elevated in various tumor cells and has a normal anti-inflammatory role in the innate immune system. Inhibition of MerTK may provide dual effects against these MerTK-expressing tumors through reducing cancer cell survival and redirecting the innate immune response. Recently, we have designed novel and potent macrocyclic pyrrolopyrimidines as MerTK inhibitors using a structure-based approach. The most active macrocycles had an EC50 below 40 nM in a cell-based MerTK phosphor-protein ELISA assay. The X-ray structure of macrocyclic analogue 3 complexed with MerTK was also resolved and demonstrated macrocycles binding in the ATP binding pocket of the MerTK protein as anticipated. In addition, the lead compound 16 (UNC3133) had a 1.6 h half-life and 16% oral bioavailability in a mouse PK study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaodong Wang
- Center
for Integrative Chemical Biology and Drug Discovery, Division of Chemical
Biology and Medicinal Chemistry, Eshelman School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, United States
| | - Jing Liu
- Center
for Integrative Chemical Biology and Drug Discovery, Division of Chemical
Biology and Medicinal Chemistry, Eshelman School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, United States
| | - Weihe Zhang
- Center
for Integrative Chemical Biology and Drug Discovery, Division of Chemical
Biology and Medicinal Chemistry, Eshelman School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, United States
| | - Michael A. Stashko
- Center
for Integrative Chemical Biology and Drug Discovery, Division of Chemical
Biology and Medicinal Chemistry, Eshelman School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, United States
| | - James Nichols
- Meryx,
Inc., 450 West Dr., Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, United States
| | - Michael
J. Miley
- Department
of Pharmacology, University of North Carolina
at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, United States
| | - Jacqueline Norris-Drouin
- Center
for Integrative Chemical Biology and Drug Discovery, Division of Chemical
Biology and Medicinal Chemistry, Eshelman School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, United States
| | - Zhilong Chen
- Center
for Integrative Chemical Biology and Drug Discovery, Division of Chemical
Biology and Medicinal Chemistry, Eshelman School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, United States
| | - Mischa Machius
- Department
of Pharmacology, University of North Carolina
at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, United States
| | - Deborah DeRyckere
- Aflac
Cancer and Blood Disorders Center of Children’s Healthcare
of Atlanta, Department of Pediatrics, School of Medicine, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia 30322, United States
| | - Edgar Wood
- Meryx,
Inc., 450 West Dr., Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, United States
| | - Douglas K. Graham
- Meryx,
Inc., 450 West Dr., Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, United States
- Aflac
Cancer and Blood Disorders Center of Children’s Healthcare
of Atlanta, Department of Pediatrics, School of Medicine, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia 30322, United States
| | - H. Shelton Earp
- Center
for Integrative Chemical Biology and Drug Discovery, Division of Chemical
Biology and Medicinal Chemistry, Eshelman School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, United States
- Meryx,
Inc., 450 West Dr., Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, United States
- Lineberger
Comprehensive Cancer Center, Department of Medicine, School of Medicine, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, United States
| | - Dmitri Kireev
- Center
for Integrative Chemical Biology and Drug Discovery, Division of Chemical
Biology and Medicinal Chemistry, Eshelman School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, United States
| | - Stephen V. Frye
- Center
for Integrative Chemical Biology and Drug Discovery, Division of Chemical
Biology and Medicinal Chemistry, Eshelman School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, United States
- Meryx,
Inc., 450 West Dr., Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, United States
- Lineberger
Comprehensive Cancer Center, Department of Medicine, School of Medicine, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, United States
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22
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Penberthy KK, Ravichandran KS. Apoptotic cell recognition receptors and scavenger receptors. Immunol Rev 2016; 269:44-59. [PMID: 26683144 DOI: 10.1111/imr.12376] [Citation(s) in RCA: 134] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Phosphatidylserine recognition receptors are a highly diverse set of receptors grouped by their ability to recognize the 'eat-me' signal phosphatidylserine on apoptotic cells. Most of the phosphatidylserine recognition receptors dampen inflammation by inducing the production of anti-inflammatory mediators during the phagocytosis of apoptotic corpses. However, many phosphatidylserine receptors are also capable of recognizing other ligands, with some receptors being categorized as scavenger receptors. It is now appreciated that these receptors can elicit different downstream events for particular ligands. Therefore, how phosphatidylserine recognition receptors mediate specific signals during recognition of apoptotic cells versus other ligands, and how this might help regulate the inflammatory state of a tissue is an important question that is not fully understood. Here, we revisit the work on signaling downstream of the phosphatidylserine recognition receptor BAI1, and evaluate how these and other signaling modules mediate signaling downstream from other receptors, including Stabilin-2, MerTK, and αvβ5. We also propose the concept that phosphatidylserine recognition receptors could be viewed as a subset of scavenger receptors that are capable of eliciting anti-inflammatory responses to apoptotic cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristen K Penberthy
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Cancer Biology, Center for Cell Clearance, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, USA
| | - Kodi S Ravichandran
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Cancer Biology, Center for Cell Clearance, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, USA
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23
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Kimani SG, Kumar S, Davra V, Chang YJ, Kasikara C, Geng K, Tsou WI, Wang S, Hoque M, Boháč A, Lewis-Antes A, De Lorenzo MS, Kotenko SV, Birge RB. Normalization of TAM post-receptor signaling reveals a cell invasive signature for Axl tyrosine kinase. Cell Commun Signal 2016; 14:19. [PMID: 27595981 PMCID: PMC5011882 DOI: 10.1186/s12964-016-0142-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2016] [Accepted: 08/26/2016] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Tyro3, Axl, and Mertk (TAMs) are a family of three conserved receptor tyrosine kinases that have pleiotropic roles in innate immunity and homeostasis and when overexpressed in cancer cells can drive tumorigenesis. Methods In the present study, we engineered EGFR/TAM chimeric receptors (EGFR/Tyro3, EGFR/Axl, and EGF/Mertk) with the goals to interrogate post-receptor functions of TAMs, and query whether TAMs have unique or overlapping post-receptor activation profiles. Stable expression of EGFR/TAMs in EGFR-deficient CHO cells afforded robust EGF inducible TAM receptor phosphorylation and activation of downstream signaling. Results Using a series of unbiased screening approaches, that include kinome-view analysis, phosphor-arrays, RNAseq/GSEA analysis, as well as cell biological and in vivo readouts, we provide evidence that each TAM has unique post-receptor signaling platforms and identify an intrinsic role for Axl that impinges on cell motility and invasion compared to Tyro3 and Mertk. Conclusion These studies demonstrate that TAM show unique post-receptor signatures that impinge on distinct gene expression profiles and tumorigenic outcomes. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12964-016-0142-1) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stanley G Kimani
- Rutgers, Department of Microbiology, Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, Cancer Center, Rutgers- New Jersey Medical School, 205 South Orange Ave, Newark, NJ, 07103, USA
| | - Sushil Kumar
- Rutgers, Department of Microbiology, Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, Cancer Center, Rutgers- New Jersey Medical School, 205 South Orange Ave, Newark, NJ, 07103, USA
| | - Viralkumar Davra
- Rutgers, Department of Microbiology, Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, Cancer Center, Rutgers- New Jersey Medical School, 205 South Orange Ave, Newark, NJ, 07103, USA
| | - Yun-Juan Chang
- Rutgers, Biomedical and Health Sciences, OIT/High Performance and Research Computing, 185 South Orange Ave, Newark, NJ, 07103, USA
| | - Canan Kasikara
- Rutgers, Department of Microbiology, Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, Cancer Center, Rutgers- New Jersey Medical School, 205 South Orange Ave, Newark, NJ, 07103, USA
| | - Ke Geng
- Rutgers, Department of Microbiology, Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, Cancer Center, Rutgers- New Jersey Medical School, 205 South Orange Ave, Newark, NJ, 07103, USA
| | - Wen-I Tsou
- Rutgers, Department of Microbiology, Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, Cancer Center, Rutgers- New Jersey Medical School, 205 South Orange Ave, Newark, NJ, 07103, USA
| | - Shenyan Wang
- Rutgers, Department of Microbiology, Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, Cancer Center, Rutgers- New Jersey Medical School, 205 South Orange Ave, Newark, NJ, 07103, USA
| | - Mainul Hoque
- Rutgers, Department of Microbiology, Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, Genomics Research Program, Rutgers- New Jersey Medical School, 185 South Orange Ave, Newark, NJ, 07103, USA
| | - Andrej Boháč
- Department of Organic Chemistry, Comenius University in Bratislava, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Mlynská dolina, Ilkovičova 6, 842 15, Bratislava, Slovakia.,Biomagi, Ltd, Mamateyova 26, 851 04, Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Anita Lewis-Antes
- Rutgers, Department of Microbiology, Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, Cancer Center, Rutgers- New Jersey Medical School, 205 South Orange Ave, Newark, NJ, 07103, USA
| | - Mariana S De Lorenzo
- Rutgers, Department of Microbiology, Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, Cancer Center, Rutgers- New Jersey Medical School, 205 South Orange Ave, Newark, NJ, 07103, USA
| | - Sergei V Kotenko
- Rutgers, Department of Microbiology, Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, Cancer Center, Rutgers- New Jersey Medical School, 205 South Orange Ave, Newark, NJ, 07103, USA
| | - Raymond B Birge
- Rutgers, Department of Microbiology, Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, Cancer Center, Rutgers- New Jersey Medical School, 205 South Orange Ave, Newark, NJ, 07103, USA.
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24
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Jiang H, Shi H, Sun M, Wang Y, Meng Q, Guo P, Cao Y, Chen J, Gao X, Li E, Liu J. PFKFB3-Driven Macrophage Glycolytic Metabolism Is a Crucial Component of Innate Antiviral Defense. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2016; 197:2880-90. [DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1600474] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2016] [Accepted: 08/01/2016] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
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25
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Das A, Ghatak S, Sinha M, Chaffee S, Ahmed NS, Parinandi NL, Wohleb ES, Sheridan JF, Sen CK, Roy S. Correction of MFG-E8 Resolves Inflammation and Promotes Cutaneous Wound Healing in Diabetes. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2016; 196:5089-100. [PMID: 27194784 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1502270] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2015] [Accepted: 04/18/2016] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Milk fat globule epidermal growth factor-factor 8 (MFG-E8) is a peripheral glycoprotein that acts as a bridging molecule between the macrophage and apoptotic cells, thus executing a pivotal role in the scavenging of apoptotic cells from affected tissue. We have previously reported that apoptotic cell clearance activity or efferocytosis is compromised in diabetic wound macrophages. In this work, we test the hypothesis that MFG-E8 helps resolve inflammation, supports angiogenesis, and accelerates wound closure. MFG-E8(-/-) mice displayed impaired efferocytosis associated with exaggerated inflammatory response, poor angiogenesis, and wound closure. Wound macrophage-derived MFG-E8 was recognized as a critical driver of wound angiogenesis. Transplantation of MFG-E8(-/-) bone marrow to MFG-E8(+/+) mice resulted in impaired wound closure and compromised wound vascularization. In contrast, MFG-E8(-/-) mice that received wild-type bone marrow showed improved wound closure and improved wound vascularization. Hyperglycemia and exposure to advanced glycated end products inactivated MFG-E8, recognizing a key mechanism that complicates diabetic wound healing. Diabetic db/db mice suffered from impaired efferocytosis accompanied with persistent inflammation and slow wound closure. Topical recombinant MFG-E8 induced resolution of wound inflammation, improvements in angiogenesis, and acceleration of closure, upholding the potential of MFG-E8-directed therapeutics in diabetic wound care.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amitava Das
- Department of Surgery, Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center, Columbus, OH 43210; Davis Heart and Lung Research Institute, Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center, Columbus, OH 43210; Comprehensive Wound Center, Center for Regenerative Medicine and Cell Based Therapies, Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center, Columbus, OH 43210
| | - Subhadip Ghatak
- Department of Surgery, Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center, Columbus, OH 43210; Davis Heart and Lung Research Institute, Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center, Columbus, OH 43210; Comprehensive Wound Center, Center for Regenerative Medicine and Cell Based Therapies, Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center, Columbus, OH 43210
| | - Mithun Sinha
- Department of Surgery, Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center, Columbus, OH 43210; Davis Heart and Lung Research Institute, Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center, Columbus, OH 43210; Comprehensive Wound Center, Center for Regenerative Medicine and Cell Based Therapies, Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center, Columbus, OH 43210
| | - Scott Chaffee
- Department of Surgery, Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center, Columbus, OH 43210; Davis Heart and Lung Research Institute, Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center, Columbus, OH 43210; Comprehensive Wound Center, Center for Regenerative Medicine and Cell Based Therapies, Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center, Columbus, OH 43210
| | - Noha S Ahmed
- Department of Surgery, Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center, Columbus, OH 43210; Davis Heart and Lung Research Institute, Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center, Columbus, OH 43210; Comprehensive Wound Center, Center for Regenerative Medicine and Cell Based Therapies, Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center, Columbus, OH 43210
| | - Narasimham L Parinandi
- Davis Heart and Lung Research Institute, Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center, Columbus, OH 43210; Department of Internal Medicine, Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center, Columbus, OH 43210; and
| | - Eric S Wohleb
- Division of Biosciences, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210
| | - John F Sheridan
- Division of Biosciences, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210
| | - Chandan K Sen
- Department of Surgery, Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center, Columbus, OH 43210; Davis Heart and Lung Research Institute, Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center, Columbus, OH 43210; Comprehensive Wound Center, Center for Regenerative Medicine and Cell Based Therapies, Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center, Columbus, OH 43210
| | - Sashwati Roy
- Department of Surgery, Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center, Columbus, OH 43210; Davis Heart and Lung Research Institute, Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center, Columbus, OH 43210; Comprehensive Wound Center, Center for Regenerative Medicine and Cell Based Therapies, Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center, Columbus, OH 43210;
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McCubbrey AL, Nelson JD, Stolberg VR, Blakely PK, McCloskey L, Janssen WJ, Freeman CM, Curtis JL. MicroRNA-34a Negatively Regulates Efferocytosis by Tissue Macrophages in Part via SIRT1. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2015; 196:1366-75. [PMID: 26718338 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1401838] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2014] [Accepted: 11/19/2015] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
Apoptotic cell (AC) clearance (efferocytosis) is an evolutionarily conserved process essential for immune health, particularly to maintain self-tolerance. Despite identification of many recognition receptors and intracellular signaling components of efferocytosis, its negative regulation remains incompletely understood and has not previously been known to involve microRNAs (miRs). In this article, we show that miR-34a (gene ID 407040), well recognized as a p53-dependent tumor suppressor, mediates coordinated negative regulation of efferocytosis by resident murine and human tissue macrophages (Mø). The miR-34a expression varied greatly between Mø from different tissues, correlating inversely with their capacity for AC uptake. Transient or genetic knockdown of miR-34a increased efferocytosis, whereas miR-34a overexpression decreased efferocytosis, without altering recognition of live, necrotic, or Ig-opsonized cells. The inhibitory effect of miR-34a was mediated both by reduced expression of Axl, a receptor tyrosine kinase known to recognize AC, and of the deacetylase silent information regulator T1, which had not previously been linked to efferocytosis by tissue Mø. Exposure to AC downregulated Mø miR-34a expression, resulting in a positive feedback loop that increased subsequent capacity to engulf AC. These findings demonstrate that miR-34a both specifically regulates and is regulated by efferocytosis. Given the ability of efferocytosis to polarize ingesting Mø uniquely and to reduce their host-defense functions, dynamic negative regulation by miR-34a provides one means of fine-tuning Mø behavior toward AC in specific tissue environments with differing potentials for microbial exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandra L McCubbrey
- Graduate Program in Immunology, University of Michigan Health System, Ann Arbor, MI 48109
| | - Joshua D Nelson
- Division of Pulmonary & Critical Care Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, University of Michigan Health System, Ann Arbor, MI 48109
| | | | - Pennelope K Blakely
- Department of Neurology, University of Michigan Health System, Ann Arbor, MI 48109
| | - Lisa McCloskey
- Division of Pulmonary & Critical Care Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, University of Michigan Health System, Ann Arbor, MI 48109
| | - William J Janssen
- Division of Pulmonary Sciences and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Medicine, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO 80045; Department of Medicine, National Jewish Health, Denver, CO 80262; and
| | - Christine M Freeman
- Division of Pulmonary & Critical Care Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, University of Michigan Health System, Ann Arbor, MI 48109; Research Service, VA Ann Arbor Healthcare System, Ann Arbor, MI 48105
| | - Jeffrey L Curtis
- Graduate Program in Immunology, University of Michigan Health System, Ann Arbor, MI 48109; Division of Pulmonary & Critical Care Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, University of Michigan Health System, Ann Arbor, MI 48109; Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine Section, VA Ann Arbor Healthcare System, Ann Arbor, MI 48105
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27
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Phagocytosis of apoptotic cells in homeostasis. Nat Immunol 2015; 16:907-17. [PMID: 26287597 DOI: 10.1038/ni.3253] [Citation(s) in RCA: 582] [Impact Index Per Article: 64.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2015] [Accepted: 07/17/2015] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Human bodies collectively turn over about 200 billion to 300 billion cells every day. Such turnover is an integral part of embryonic and postnatal development, as well as routine tissue homeostasis. This process involves the induction of programmed cell death in specific cells within the tissues and the specific recognition and removal of dying cells by a clearance 'crew' composed of professional, non-professional and specialized phagocytes. In the past few years, considerable progress has been made in identifying many features of apoptotic cell clearance. Some of these new observations challenge the way dying cells themselves are viewed, as well as how healthy cells interact with and respond to dying cells. Here we focus on the homeostatic removal of apoptotic cells in tissues.
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Abstract
Introduction The role of MerTK has not been assessed in gastric cancer (GC). The aim of this study was to identify a subgroup of GC patients with MerTK tumor overexpression, and to evaluate MerTK as a potential therapeutic target in this disease. Methods Protein and mRNA expression of MerTK were evaluated, and other various in vitro analyses including shRNA transfection, cell cycle anslysis, MTS assay and colony forming assay were carried out with GC cell lines and GC patient-derived cells (PDCs). Results shRNA-mediated knockdown of MerTK resulted in inhibition of cell growth, as well as increased cellular apoptosis in MerTK positive GC cells. Out of 192 GC patients, 16 (8.3%) patients showed strong protein expression and they had a significantly shorter overall survival compared to those with no MerTK expression. In 54 cases of GC PDCs, 4 cases (7.4%) showed mRNA overexpression, which was comparable to the protein expression rate. When we administered UNC1062, a novel MerTK-selective small molecular tyrosine kinase inhibitor, proliferation of MerTK overexpressing GC cells and PDCs were considerably inhibited. Conclusion MerTK may be involved in GC carcinogenesis, and it could be a potential novel therapeutic target in GC patients.
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Tang Y, Wu S, Liu Q, Xie J, Zhang J, Han D, Lu Q, Lu Q. Mertk deficiency affects macrophage directional migration via disruption of cytoskeletal organization. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0117787. [PMID: 25617898 PMCID: PMC4305281 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0117787] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2014] [Accepted: 12/30/2014] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Mertk belongs to the Tyro3, Axl and Mertk (TAM) family of receptor tyrosine kinases, and plays a pivotal role in regulation of cytoskeletal rearrangement during phagocytosis. Phagocytosis by either professional or non-professional phagocytes is impaired in the Mertk deficient individual. In the present study, we further investigated the effects of Mertk mutation on peritoneal macrophage morphology, attachment, spreading and movement. Mertk-mutated macrophages exhibited decreased attachment, weak spreading, loss of spindle-like body shape and lack of clear leading and trailing edges within the first few hours of culture, as observed by environmental scanning electron microscopy. Time-lapse video photography recording showed that macrophage without Mertk conducted mainly random movement with oscillating swing around the cell body, and lost the directional migration action seen on the WT cells. Western blotting showed a decreased phosphorylation of focal adhesion kinase (FAK). Immunocytochemistry revealed that actin filaments and dynamic protein myosin II failed to concentrate in the leading edge of migrating cells. Microtubules were localized mainly in one side of mutant cell body, with no clear MTOC and associated radially-distributed microtubule bundles, which were clearly evident in the WT cells. Our results suggest that Mertk deficiency affects not only phagocytosis but also cell shape and migration, likely through a common regulatory mechanism on cytoskeletons.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yong Tang
- Beijing Institute of Ophthalmology, Beijing Tong-Ren Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100069, China
| | - Shen Wu
- Beijing Tong-Ren Eye Center, Beijing Tong-Ren Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100069, China
- Beijing Ophthalmology and Visual Science Key Laboratory. Beijing 100069, China
| | - Qian Liu
- Beijing Tong-Ren Eye Center, Beijing Tong-Ren Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100069, China
- Beijing Ophthalmology and Visual Science Key Laboratory. Beijing 100069, China
| | - Jiayi Xie
- National Center for Nanoscience and Technology, Beijing 100190, China
| | - Jingxue Zhang
- Beijing Tong-Ren Eye Center, Beijing Tong-Ren Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100069, China
- Beijing Ophthalmology and Visual Science Key Laboratory. Beijing 100069, China
| | - Dong Han
- National Center for Nanoscience and Technology, Beijing 100190, China
| | - Qingxian Lu
- Beijing Institute of Ophthalmology, Beijing Tong-Ren Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100069, China
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, University of Louisville School of Medicine, 301 E. Muhammad Ali Blvd, Louisville, KY 40202, United States of America
- * E-mail: (Qingjun Lu); (Qingxian Lu)
| | - Qingjun Lu
- Beijing Institute of Ophthalmology, Beijing Tong-Ren Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100069, China
- Beijing Tong-Ren Eye Center, Beijing Tong-Ren Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100069, China
- Beijing Ophthalmology and Visual Science Key Laboratory. Beijing 100069, China
- * E-mail: (Qingjun Lu); (Qingxian Lu)
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30
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Kelley JL, Ozment TR, Li C, Schweitzer JB, Williams DL. Scavenger receptor-A (CD204): a two-edged sword in health and disease. Crit Rev Immunol 2015; 34:241-61. [PMID: 24941076 DOI: 10.1615/critrevimmunol.2014010267] [Citation(s) in RCA: 100] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
Scavenger receptor A (SR-A), also known as the macrophage scavenger receptor and cluster of differentiation 204 (CD204), plays roles in lipid metabolism, atherogenesis, and a number of metabolic processes. However, recent evidence points to important roles for SR-A in inflammation, innate immunity, host defense, sepsis, and ischemic injury. Herein, we review the role of SR-A in inflammation, innate immunity, host defense, sepsis, cardiac and cerebral ischemic injury, Alzheimer's disease, virus recognition and uptake, bone metabolism, and pulmonary injury. Interestingly, SR-A is reported to be host protective in some disease states, but there is also compelling evidence that SR-A plays a role in the pathophysiology of other diseases. These observations of both harmful and beneficial effects of SR-A are discussed here in the framework of inflammation, innate immunity, and endoplasmic reticulum stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jim L Kelley
- Departments of Internal Medicine, James H. Quillen College of Medicine, East Tennessee State University, Johnson City, TN 37614
| | - Tammy R Ozment
- Departments of Surgery, James H. Quillen College of Medicine, East Tennessee State University, Johnson City, TN 37614
| | - Chuanfu Li
- Departments of Surgery, James H. Quillen College of Medicine, East Tennessee State University, Johnson City, TN 37614
| | - John B Schweitzer
- Departments of Pathology, James H. Quillen College of Medicine, East Tennessee State University, Johnson City, TN 37614
| | - David L Williams
- Departments of Surgery, James H. Quillen College of Medicine, East Tennessee State University, Johnson City, TN 37614
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31
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Rothlin CV, Carrera-Silva EA, Bosurgi L, Ghosh S. TAM receptor signaling in immune homeostasis. Annu Rev Immunol 2015; 33:355-91. [PMID: 25594431 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-immunol-032414-112103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 320] [Impact Index Per Article: 35.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
The TAM receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs)-TYRO3, AXL, and MERTK-together with their cognate agonists GAS6 and PROS1 play an essential role in the resolution of inflammation. Deficiencies in TAM signaling have been associated with chronic inflammatory and autoimmune diseases. Three processes regulated by TAM signaling may contribute, either independently or collectively, to immune homeostasis: the negative regulation of the innate immune response, the phagocytosis of apoptotic cells, and the restoration of vascular integrity. Recent studies have also revealed the function of TAMs in infectious diseases and cancer. Here, we review the important milestones in the discovery of these RTKs and their ligands and the studies that underscore the functional importance of this signaling pathway in physiological immune settings and disease.
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32
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Zagórska A, Través PG, Lew ED, Dransfield I, Lemke G. Diversification of TAM receptor tyrosine kinase function. Nat Immunol 2014; 15:920-8. [PMID: 25194421 PMCID: PMC4169336 DOI: 10.1038/ni.2986] [Citation(s) in RCA: 308] [Impact Index Per Article: 30.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2014] [Accepted: 08/05/2014] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The clearance of apoptotic cells is critical for both tissue homeostasis and the resolution of inflammation. We found that the TAM receptor tyrosine kinases Axl and Mer had distinct roles as phagocytic receptors in these two settings, in which they exhibited divergent expression, regulation and activity. Mer acted as a tolerogenic receptor in resting macrophages and during immunosuppression. In contrast, Axl was an inflammatory response receptor whose expression was induced by proinflammatory stimuli. Axl and Mer differed in their ligand specificities, ligand-receptor complex formation in tissues, and receptor shedding upon activation. These differences notwithstanding, phagocytosis by either protein was strictly dependent on receptor activation triggered by bridging of TAM receptor-ligand complexes to the 'eat-me' signal phosphatidylserine on the surface of apoptotic cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Zagórska
- Molecular Neurobiology Laboratory, Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - Paqui G Través
- Molecular Neurobiology Laboratory, Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - Erin D Lew
- Molecular Neurobiology Laboratory, Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - Ian Dransfield
- MRC Centre for Inflammation Research, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Greg Lemke
- 1] Molecular Neurobiology Laboratory, Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, California, USA. [2] Immunobiology and Microbial Pathogenesis Laboratory, Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, California, USA
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33
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Tsou WI, Nguyen KQN, Calarese DA, Garforth SJ, Antes AL, Smirnov SV, Almo SC, Birge RB, Kotenko SV. Receptor tyrosine kinases, TYRO3, AXL, and MER, demonstrate distinct patterns and complex regulation of ligand-induced activation. J Biol Chem 2014; 289:25750-63. [PMID: 25074926 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m114.569020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 165] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
TYRO3, AXL, and MER receptors (TAMs) are three homologous type I receptor-tyrosine kinases that are activated by endogenous ligands, protein S (PROS1) and growth arrest-specific gene 6 (GAS6). These ligands can either activate TAMs as soluble factors, or, in turn, opsonize phosphatidylserine (PS) on apoptotic cells (ACs) and serve as bridging molecules between ACs and TAMs. Abnormal expression and activation of TAMs have been implicated in promoting proliferation and survival of cancer cells, as well as in suppressing anti-tumor immunity. Despite the fact that TAM receptors share significant similarity, little is known about the specificity of interaction between TAM receptors and their ligands, particularly in the context of ACs, and about the functional diversity of TAM receptors. To study ligand-mediated activation of TAMs, we generated a series of reporter cell lines expressing chimeric TAM receptors. Using this system, we found that each TAM receptor has a unique pattern of interaction with and activation by GAS6 and PROS1, which is also differentially affected by the presence of ACs, PS-containing lipid vesicles and enveloped virus. We also demonstrated that γ-carboxylation of ligands is essential for the full activation of TAMs and that soluble immunoglobulin-like TAM domains act as specific ligand antagonists. These studies demonstrate that, despite their similarity, TYRO3, AXL, and MER are likely to perform distinct functions in both immunoregulation and the recognition and removal of ACs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wen-I Tsou
- From the Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University Hospital Cancer Center and Center for Immunity and Inflammation, New Jersey Medical School, Rutgers Biomedical and Health Sciences, Newark, New Jersey 07103, and
| | - Khanh-Quynh N Nguyen
- From the Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University Hospital Cancer Center and
| | | | | | - Anita L Antes
- From the Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University Hospital Cancer Center and
| | - Sergey V Smirnov
- From the Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University Hospital Cancer Center and Center for Immunity and Inflammation, New Jersey Medical School, Rutgers Biomedical and Health Sciences, Newark, New Jersey 07103, and
| | - Steve C Almo
- the Department of Biochemistry and Albert Einstein Cancer Center, Albert Einstein College of Medicine of Yeshiva University, Bronx, New York 10461
| | - Raymond B Birge
- From the Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University Hospital Cancer Center and
| | - Sergei V Kotenko
- From the Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University Hospital Cancer Center and Center for Immunity and Inflammation, New Jersey Medical School, Rutgers Biomedical and Health Sciences, Newark, New Jersey 07103, and
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Abstract
Abstract
TAM receptors (Tyro3, Axl, and Mer) belong to a family of receptor tyrosine kinases that have important effects on hemostasis and inflammation. Also, they affect cell proliferation, survival, adhesion, and migration. TAM receptors can be activated by the vitamin K–dependent proteins Gas6 and protein S. Protein S is more commonly known as an important cofactor for protein C as well as a direct inhibitor of multiple coagulation factors. To our knowledge, the functions of Gas6 are limited to TAM receptor activation. When activated, the TAM receptors have effects on primary hemostasis and coagulation and display an anti-inflammatory or a proinflammatory effect, depending on cell type. To comprehend the effects that the TAM receptors and their ligands have on hemostasis and inflammation, we compare studies that report the different phenotypes displayed by mice with deficiencies in the genes of this receptor family and its ligands (protein S+/−, Gas6−/−, TAM−/−, and variations of these). In this manner, we aim to display which features are attributable to the different ligands. Because of the effects TAM receptors have on hemostasis, inflammation, and cancer growth, their modulation could make interesting therapeutic targets in thromboembolic disease, atherosclerosis, sepsis, autoimmune disease, and cancer.
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35
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Tim4- and MerTK-mediated engulfment of apoptotic cells by mouse resident peritoneal macrophages. Mol Cell Biol 2014; 34:1512-20. [PMID: 24515440 DOI: 10.1128/mcb.01394-13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Apoptotic cells are swiftly engulfed by macrophages to prevent the release of noxious materials from dying cells. Apoptotic cells expose phosphatidylserine (PtdSer) on their surface, and macrophages engulf them by recognizing PtdSer using specific receptors and opsonins. Here, we found that mouse resident peritoneal macrophages expressing Tim4 and MerTK are highly efficient at engulfing apoptotic cells. Neutralizing antibodies against either Tim4 or MerTK inhibited the macrophage engulfment of apoptotic cells. Tim4-null macrophages exhibited reduced binding and engulfment of apoptotic cells, whereas MerTK-null macrophages retained the ability to bind apoptotic cells but failed to engulf them. The incubation of wild-type peritoneal macrophages with apoptotic cells induced the rapid tyrosine phosphorylation of MerTK, which was not observed with Tim4-null macrophages. When mouse Ba/F3 cells were transformed with Tim4, apoptotic cells bound to the transformants but were not engulfed. Transformation of Ba/F3 cells with MerTK had no effect on the binding or engulfment of apoptotic cells; however, Tim4/MerTK transformants exhibited strong engulfment activity. Taken together, these results indicate that the engulfment of apoptotic cells by resident peritoneal macrophages proceeds in two steps: binding to Tim4, a PtdSer receptor, followed by MerTK-mediated cell engulfment.
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Suleiman L, Négrier C, Boukerche H. Protein S: A multifunctional anticoagulant vitamin K-dependent protein at the crossroads of coagulation, inflammation, angiogenesis, and cancer. Crit Rev Oncol Hematol 2013; 88:637-54. [PMID: 23958677 DOI: 10.1016/j.critrevonc.2013.07.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2013] [Revised: 06/18/2013] [Accepted: 07/17/2013] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Since its discovery in 1970, protein S (PS) has emerged as a key vitamin K-dependent natural anticoagulant protein at the crossroads of multiple biological processes, including coagulation, apoptosis, atherosclerosis, angiogenesis/vasculogenesis, and cancer progression. Following the binding to a unique family of protein tyrosine kinase receptors referred to as Tyro-3, Axl and Mer (TAM) receptors, PS can lead to regulation of coagulation, phagocytosis of apoptotic cells, cell survival, activation of innate immunity, vessel integrity and angiogenesis, and local invasion and metastasis. Because of these dynamics and multiple functions of PS, which are largely lost following invalidation of the mouse PROS1 gene, this molecule is currently intensively studied in biomedical research. The purpose of this review is to provide a brief chronicle of the discovery and current understanding of the mechanisms of PS signaling, and how PS and their signaling partners regulate various cellular functions, with a particular focus on TAM receptors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lutfi Suleiman
- University Claude Bernard, Lyon I, INSERM, Department of Onco-Haematology, EA 4174, France
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37
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Mustafi D, Kevany BM, Genoud C, Bai X, Palczewski K. Photoreceptor phagocytosis is mediated by phosphoinositide signaling. FASEB J 2013; 27:4585-95. [PMID: 23913857 DOI: 10.1096/fj.13-237537] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Circadian oscillations in peripheral tissues, such as the retinal compartment of the eye, are critical to anticipating changing metabolic demands. Circadian shedding of retinal photoreceptor cell discs with subsequent phagocytosis by the neighboring retinal pigmented epithelium (RPE) is essential for removal of toxic metabolites and lifelong survival of these postmitotic neurons. Defects in photoreceptor phagocytosis can lead to severe retinal pathology, but the biochemical mechanisms remain poorly defined. By first documenting a 2.8-fold burst of photoreceptor phagocytosis events in the mouse eye in the morning compared with the afternoon by serial block face imaging, we established time points to assess transcriptional readouts by RNA sequencing (RNA-Seq). We identified 365 oscillating protein-coding transcripts that implicated the phosphoinositide lipid signaling network mediating the discrete steps of photoreceptor phagocytosis. Moreover, examination of overlapping cistromic sites by core clock transcription factors and promoter elements of these effector genes provided a functional basis for the circadian cycling of these transcripts. RNA-Seq also revealed oscillating expression of 16 long intergenic noncoding RNAs and key histone modifying enzymes critical for circadian gene expression. Our phenotypic and genotypic characterization reveals a complex global landscape of overlapping and temporally controlled networks driving the essential circadian process in the eye.
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Affiliation(s)
- Debarshi Mustafi
- 1Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Case Western Reserve University, 10900 Euclid Ave., Cleveland, OH 44106-4965, USA.
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Park HJ, Baen JY, Lee YJ, Choi YH, Kang JL. The TAM-family receptor Mer mediates production of HGF through the RhoA-dependent pathway in response to apoptotic cells. Mol Biol Cell 2012; 23:3254-65. [PMID: 22740630 PMCID: PMC3418318 DOI: 10.1091/mbc.e12-01-0029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023] Open
Abstract
The TAM receptor protein tyrosine kinases Tyro3, Axl, and Mer play important roles in macrophage function. We investigated the roles of the TAM receptors in mediating the induction of hepatocyte growth factor (HGF) during the interaction of macrophages with apoptotic cells. Mer-specific neutralizing antibody, small interfering RNA (siRNA), and a recombinant Mer protein (Mer/Fc) inhibited HGF mRNA and protein expression, as well as activation of RhoA, Akt, and specific mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinases in response to apoptotic cells. Inhibition of Axl or Tyro3 with specific antibodies, siRNA, or Fc-fusion proteins did not prevent apoptotic cell-induced HGF mRNA and protein expression and did not inhibit activation of the postreceptor signaling molecules RhoA and certain MAP kinases, including extracellular signal-regulated protein kinase and c-Jun NH(2)-terminal kinase. However, Axl- and Tyro3-specific blockers did inhibit the activation of Akt and p38 MAP kinase in response to apoptotic cells. In addition, none of the TAM receptors mediated the effects of apoptotic cells on transforming growth factor-β or epidermal growth factor mRNA expression. However, they were involved in the induction of vascular endothelial growth factor mRNA expression. Our data provide evidence that when macrophages interact with apoptotic cells, only Mer of the TAM-family receptors is responsible for mediating transcriptional HGF production through a RhoA-dependent pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hyun-Jung Park
- Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, Ewha Womans University, Seoul, Korea
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Schmidt T, Ben-Batalla I, Schultze A, Loges S. Macrophage-tumor crosstalk: role of TAMR tyrosine kinase receptors and of their ligands. Cell Mol Life Sci 2012; 69:1391-414. [PMID: 22076650 PMCID: PMC11115155 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-011-0863-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2011] [Revised: 10/14/2011] [Accepted: 10/14/2011] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Ample clinical and preclinical evidence indicates that macrophages interact with tumor cells as well as with virtually all populations of host cells present in the tumor microenvironment. This crosstalk can strongly promote malignancy, but also has in principle the potential to inhibit tumor growth. Thus, it is of the utmost importance to improve our understanding of the mechanisms driving the pro- and antimalignant behavior of tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) in order to develop better anticancer therapies. In this review, we discuss the biological consequences of reciprocal interactions between TAMs, cancer cells, endothelial cells, fibroblasts and other leukocyte subfractions within tumors. It was recently elucidated that tumors specifically educate macrophages to secrete growth arrest-specific gene 6 (Gas6), the common ligand of the Tyro3, Axl, Mer receptor (TAMR) family. In turn, Gas6 fosters tumor growth by promoting cancer cell proliferation. Therefore, the Gas6-TAMR axis might represent a novel target for disrupting tumor-macrophage crosstalk. We summarize here what is known about TAMR and their ligands in (human) cancer biology. In order to shed more light on the role of macrophages in human cancer, we additionally provide an overview of what is currently known about the prognostic impact of TAMs in human cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Schmidt
- Department of General, Visceral and Transplantation Surgery, University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Isabel Ben-Batalla
- Department of Hematology and Oncology with Sections BMT and Pneumology, Hubertus Wald Tumorzentrum, University Comprehensive Cancer Center Hamburg, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Martinistrasse 52, 20246 Hamburg, Germany
- Institute of Tumor Biology, Center of Experimental Medicine, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Alexander Schultze
- Department of Hematology and Oncology with Sections BMT and Pneumology, Hubertus Wald Tumorzentrum, University Comprehensive Cancer Center Hamburg, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Martinistrasse 52, 20246 Hamburg, Germany
- Institute of Tumor Biology, Center of Experimental Medicine, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Sonja Loges
- Department of Hematology and Oncology with Sections BMT and Pneumology, Hubertus Wald Tumorzentrum, University Comprehensive Cancer Center Hamburg, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Martinistrasse 52, 20246 Hamburg, Germany
- Institute of Tumor Biology, Center of Experimental Medicine, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
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Laurance S, Lemarié CA, Blostein MD. Growth arrest-specific gene 6 (gas6) and vascular hemostasis. Adv Nutr 2012; 3:196-203. [PMID: 22516727 PMCID: PMC3648720 DOI: 10.3945/an.111.001826] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Gas6 (growth arrest-specific 6) belongs structurally to the family of plasma vitamin K-dependent proteins. Gas6 has a high structural homology with the natural anticoagulant protein S, sharing the same modular composition. Interestingly, despite the presence of a γ-carboxyglutamic acid domain in its structure, no role in the coagulation cascade has been identified for gas6. Gas6 has been shown to be involved in vascular homeostasis and more precisely is involved in proliferation, apoptosis, efferocytosis, leukocyte migration, and sequestration and platelet aggregation. It is also involved in the activation of different cell types, from platelets to endothelial and vascular smooth muscle cells. Thus, it has been shown to play a role in several pathophysiological processes such as atherosclerosis, cancer, and thrombosis. Interestingly, studies using gas6 null mice highlighted that gas6 may represent a novel potential target for anticoagulant therapy, because these animals are protected from lethal venous thromboembolism without excessive bleeding. However, the mechanism in thrombus occurrence remains to be further explored. In the present review, we will focus on the role of gas6 in innate immunity, atherosclerosis, thrombosis, and cancer-related events.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Mark D. Blostein
- Lady Davis Institute for Medical Research, and,To whom correspondence should be addressed. E-mail:
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Qingxian L, Qiutang L, Qingjun L. Regulation of phagocytosis by TAM receptors and their ligands. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2010; 5:227-237. [PMID: 21057587 DOI: 10.1007/s11515-010-0034-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
The TAM family of receptors is preferentially expressed by professional and non-professional phagocytes, including macrophages, dendritic cells and natural killer cells in the immune system, osteoclasts in bone, Sertoli cells in testis, and retinal pigmental epithelium cells in the retina. Mutations in the Mertk single gene or in different combinations of the double or triple gene mutations in the same cell cause complete or partial impairment in phagocytosis of their preys; and as a result, either the normal apoptotic cells cannot be efficiently removed or the tissue neighbor cells die by apoptosis. This scenario of TAM regulation represents a widely adapted model system used by phagocytes in all different tissues. The present review will summarize current known functional roles of TAM receptors and their ligands, Gas 6 and protein S, in the regulation of phagocytosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lu Qingxian
- Departments of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, Anatomical Sciences and Neurobiology; Kentucky Lions Eye Center and James Brown Cancer Center; University of Louisville School of Medicine; 301 E. Muhammad Ali Blvd. Louisville, KY40202, USA
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Hong J, Behar J, Wands J, Resnick M, Wang LJ, Delellis RA, Lambeth D, Cao W. Bile acid reflux contributes to development of esophageal adenocarcinoma via activation of phosphatidylinositol-specific phospholipase Cgamma2 and NADPH oxidase NOX5-S. Cancer Res 2010; 70:1247-55. [PMID: 20086178 DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.can-09-2774] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Gastroesophageal reflux disease complicated by Barrett's esophagus (BE) is a major risk factor for esophageal adenocarcinoma (EA). However, the mechanisms of the progression from BE to EA are not fully understood. Besides acid reflux, bile acid reflux may also play an important role in the progression from BE to EA. In this study, we examined the role of phosphatidylinositol-specific phospholipase C (PI-PLC) and a novel NADPH oxidase NOX5-S in bile acid-induced increase in cell proliferation. We found that taurodeoxycholic acid (TDCA) significantly increased NOX5-S expression, hydrogen peroxide (H(2)O(2)) production, and cell proliferation in EA cells. The TDCA-induced increase in cell proliferation was significantly reduced by U73122, an inhibitor of PI-PLC. PI-PLCbeta1, PI-PLCbeta3, PI-PLCbeta4, PI-PLCgamma1, and PI-PLCgamma2, but not PI-PLCbeta2 and PI-PLCdelta1, were detectable in FLO cells by Western blot analysis. Knockdown of PI-PLCgamma2 or extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) 2 mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase with small interfering RNAs (siRNA) significantly decreased TDCA-induced NOX5-S expression, H(2)O(2) production, and cell proliferation. In contrast, knockdown of PI-PLCbeta1, PI-PLCbeta3, PI-PLCbeta4, PI-PLCgamma1, or ERK1 MAP kinase had no significant effect. TDCA significantly increased ERK2 phosphorylation, an increase that was reduced by U73122 or PI-PLCgamma2 siRNA. We conclude that TDCA-induced increase in NOX5-S expression and cell proliferation may depend on sequential activation of PI-PLCgamma2 and ERK2 MAP kinase in EA cells. It is possible that bile acid reflux present in patients with BE may increase reactive oxygen species production and cell proliferation via activation of PI-PLCgamma2, ERK2 MAP kinase, and NADPH oxidase NOX5-S, thereby contributing to the development of EA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jie Hong
- Department of Medicine, Rhode Island Hospital and Warren Alpert Medical School of Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island, USA
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CD47 promotes both phosphatidylserine-independent and phosphatidylserine-dependent phagocytosis of apoptotic murine thymocytes by non-activated macrophages. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2009; 387:58-63. [PMID: 19559673 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2009.06.121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2009] [Accepted: 06/23/2009] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
The ubiquitously expressed cell surface glycoprotein CD47 on host cells can inhibit phagocytosis of unopsonized or opsonized viable host target cells. Here we studied the role of target cell CD47 in macrophage uptake of viable or apoptotic murine thymocytes. As expected, IgG-opsonized viable CD47(-/-) thymocytes were taken up more efficiently than equally opsonized Wt thymocytes. However IgG-opsonized apoptotic thymocytes from Wt and CD47(-/-) mice were taken up equally. Although uptake of apoptotic thymocytes by non-activated bone marrow-derived macrophages was phosphatidylserine (PS)-independent, while uptake by non-activated resident peritoneal macrophages was PS-dependent, both macrophage populations showed a reduced uptake of non-opsonized apoptotic CD47(-/-) thymocytes, as compared with the uptake of apoptotic Wt thymocytes. This difference was only seen with non-activated macrophages, and not with beta-1,3-glucan-activated macrophages. CD47 promoted binding of thymocytes to macrophages, which did not require F-actin polymerization. CD47 became clustered on apoptotic thymocytes, both co-localized with or separated from, clustered PS and cholesterol-rich GM-1 domains. Thus, CD47 does not inhibit, but rather support, both PS-independent and PS-dependent uptake of apoptotic cells in the murine system. This mechanism only comes into play in non-activated macrophages.
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Une nouvelle fonction pour la transferrine exprimée par le testicule. Basic Clin Androl 2009. [DOI: 10.1007/s12610-009-0013-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Résumé
Chez l’homme, les oligospermies sévères sont associées à un faible taux de transferrine dans le liquide séminal. La transferrine apparaît comme un bon indicateur pour définir les dysfonctionnements testiculaires. Son niveau d’expression dans le testicule doit être parfaitement contrôlé. Elle y joue un rôl dans le transport du fer. Mais de récents résultats montrent l’existence d’une forme dimérique de la transferrine sertolienne comme puissant régulateur de la phagocytose des corps résiduels par les cellules de Sertoli.
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Anwar A, Keating AK, Joung D, Sather S, Kim GK, Sawczyn KK, Brandão L, Henson PM, Graham DK. Mer tyrosine kinase (MerTK) promotes macrophage survival following exposure to oxidative stress. J Leukoc Biol 2009; 86:73-9. [PMID: 19386698 DOI: 10.1189/jlb.0608334] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
The MerTK plays several important roles in normal macrophage physiology, including regulation of cytokine secretion and clearance of apoptotic cells. Mer signaling in other cell types, including malignant cells that ectopically overexpress the RTK, leads to downstream prosurvival pathway activation. We explored the hypothesis that Mer has a prosurvival role in macrophages exposed to oxidative stress. H(2)O(2) treatment of peritoneal exudate murine macrophages and J774 cells rapidly stimulated Mer phosphorylation in a concentration-dependent manner. Mer phosphorylation was dependent on the ligand Gas6, as treatment with warfarin or MerFc (a fusion protein of the extracellular domain of Mer and the Fc portion of human Ig), inhibitors of Gas6 activity, blocked H(2)O(2)-mediated activation of Mer. Antiapoptotic signals including pAkt and pErk 1/2 were increased dramatically (threefold and 4.5-fold, respectively) in WT Mer-positive macrophages compared with Mer KO macrophages stimulated with H(2)O(2). In a consistent manner, Mer expression led to decreased cleavage of proapoptotic indicators PARP and Caspase-3. Furthermore, Mer provided up to twofold enhanced cellular survival to primary macrophages exposed to H(2)O(2). These data represent the first report of Mer activation in response to oxidative stress and demonstrate the ability of Mer RTK to promote macrophage survival in disease states that involve an oxidative stress environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adil Anwar
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Colorado Denver, Aurora, CO 80045, USA
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Abstract
T cell-mediated autoimmune diseases such as type 1 diabetes (T1D) are believed to be the result in part of inefficient negative selection of self-specific thymocytes. However, the events regulating thymic negative selection are not fully understood. In the current study, we demonstrate that nonobese diabetic (NOD) mice lacking expression of the Mer tyrosine kinase (MerTK) have reduced inflammation of the pancreatic islets and fail to develop diabetes. Furthermore, NOD mice deficient in MerTK expression (Mer(-/-)) exhibit a reduced frequency of beta cell-specific T cells independent of immunoregulatory effectors. The establishment of bone marrow chimeric mice demonstrated that the block in beta cell autoimmunity required hematopoietic-derived cells lacking MerTK expression. Notably, fetal thymic organ cultures and self-peptide administration showed increased thymic negative selection in Mer(-/-) mice. Finally, thymic dendritic cells (DC) prepared from Mer(-/-) mice exhibited an increased capacity to induce thymocyte apoptosis in a peptide-specific manner in vitro. These findings provide evidence for a unique mechanism involving MerTK-mediated regulation of thymocyte negative selection and thymic DC, and suggest a role for MerTK in contributing to beta cell autoimmunity.
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Curtis JL, Todt JC, Hu B, Osterholzer JJ, Freeman CM. Tyro3 receptor tyrosine kinases in the heterogeneity of apoptotic cell uptake. Front Biosci (Landmark Ed) 2009; 14:2631-46. [PMID: 19273223 DOI: 10.2741/3401] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Mononuclear phagocytes comprise a mobile, broadly dispersed and highly adaptable system that lies at the very epicenter of host defense against pathogens and the interplay of the innate and adaptive arms of immunity. Understanding the molecular mechanisms that control the response of mononuclear phagocytes to apoptotic cells and the anti-inflammatory consequences of that response is an important goal with implications for multiple areas of biomedical sciences. This review details current understanding of the heterogeneity of apoptotic cell uptake by different members of the mononuclear phagocyte family in humans and mice. It also recounts the unique role of the Tyro3 family of receptor tyrosine kinases, best characterized for Mertk, in the signal transduction leading both to apoptotic cell ingestion and the anti-inflammatory effects that result.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeffrey L Curtis
- Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Veterans Affairs Healthsystem and University of Michigan Health System, Ann Arbor, MI 48105, USA.
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Linger RMA, Keating AK, Earp HS, Graham DK. TAM receptor tyrosine kinases: biologic functions, signaling, and potential therapeutic targeting in human cancer. Adv Cancer Res 2008; 100:35-83. [PMID: 18620092 DOI: 10.1016/s0065-230x(08)00002-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 539] [Impact Index Per Article: 33.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Tyro-3, Axl, and Mer constitute the TAM family of receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs) characterized by a conserved sequence within the kinase domain and adhesion molecule-like extracellular domains. This small family of RTKs regulates an intriguing mix of processes, including cell proliferation/survival, cell adhesion and migration, blood clot stabilization, and regulation of inflammatory cytokine release. Genetic or experimental alteration of TAM receptor function can contribute to a number of disease states, including coagulopathy, autoimmune disease, retinitis pigmentosa, and cancer. In this chapter, we first provide a comprehensive review of the structure, regulation, biologic functions, and downstream signaling pathways of these receptors. In addition, we discuss recent evidence which suggests a role for TAM receptors in oncogenic mechanisms as family members are overexpressed in a spectrum of human cancers and have prognostic significance in some. Possible strategies for targeted inhibition of the TAM family in the treatment of human cancer are described. Further research will be necessary to evaluate the full clinical implications of TAM family expression and activation in cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachel M A Linger
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Colorado at Denver and Health Sciences Center, Aurora, CO, USA
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MFG-E8 regulates microglial phagocytosis of apoptotic neurons. J Neuroimmune Pharmacol 2008; 3:246-56. [PMID: 18670887 PMCID: PMC2832904 DOI: 10.1007/s11481-008-9118-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2008] [Accepted: 07/07/2008] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Phagocytosis is an essential mechanism for clearance of pathogens, dying cells, and other unwanted debris in order to maintain tissue health in the body. Macrophages execute this process in the peripheral immune system but in the brain microglia act as resident macrophages to accomplish this function. In the peripheral immune system, macrophages secrete Milk Fat Globule Factor-E8 (MFG-E8) that recognizes phosphatidylserine “eat me” signals expressed on the surface of apoptotic cells. MFG-E8 then acts as a tether to attach the apoptotic cell to the macrophage and trigger a signaling cascade that stimulates the phagocyte development, allowing the macrophage to engulf the dying cell. When this process becomes disrupted, inflammation and autoimmunity can result. MFG-E8 resides in the brain as well as in the periphery, and microglia express MFG-E8. However, the function of MFG-E8 in the brain has not been elucidated. We measured MFG-E8 production in the BV-2 microglial cell line and the role of this protein in the recognition and engulfment of apoptotic SY5Y neuroblastoma cells. BV-2 cells produced and released MFG-E8, which apoptotic SY5Y cells and the chemokine fractalkine further stimulated. Furthermore, MFG-E8 increased phagocytosis of apoptotic SY5Y cells, and a dominant negative form of MFG-E8 inhibited phagocytosis by BV-2 cells. Finally, brain MFG-E8 levels were altered in a mouse model of Alzheimer’s disease. Our data suggest that MFG-E8 acts in the brain via microglia to aid in clearance of apoptotic neurons, and we hypothesize that a dysregulation of this process may be involved in neurodegenerative disease.
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Todt JC, Hu B, Curtis JL. The scavenger receptor SR-A I/II (CD204) signals via the receptor tyrosine kinase Mertk during apoptotic cell uptake by murine macrophages. J Leukoc Biol 2008; 84:510-8. [PMID: 18511575 DOI: 10.1189/jlb.0307135] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Apoptotic cells (AC) must be cleared by macrophages (Mø) to resolve inflammation effectively. Mertk and scavenger receptor A (SR-A) are two of many receptors involved in AC clearance. As SR-A lacks enzymatic activity or evident intracellular signaling motifs, yet seems to signal in some cell types, we hypothesized that SR-A signals via Mer receptor tyrosine kinase (Mertk), which contains a multisubstrate docking site. We induced apoptosis in murine thymocytes by dexamethasone and used Western blotting and immunoprecipitation to analyze the interaction of Mertk and SR-A in the J774A.1 (J774) murine Mø cell line and in peritoneal Mø of wild-type mice and SR-A-/- mice. Phagocytosis (but not adhesion) of AC by J774 was inhibited by anti-SR-A or function-blocking SR-A ligands. In resting J774, SR-A was associated minimally with unphosphorylated (monomeric) Mertk; exposure to AC induced a time-dependent increase in association of SR-A with Mertk in a direct or indirect manner. Anti-SR-A inhibited AC-induced phosphorylation of Mertk and of phospholipase Cgamma2, essential steps in AC ingestion. Relative to tissue Mø of wild-type mice, AC-induced Mertk phosphorylation was reduced and delayed in tissue Mø of SR-A-/- mice, as was in vitro AC ingestion at early time-points. Thus, during AC uptake by murine Mø, SR-A is essential for optimal phosphorylation of Mertk and subsequent signaling required for AC ingestion. These data support the Mertk/SR-A complex as a potential target to manipulate AC clearance and hence, resolution of inflammation and infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jill C Todt
- Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, University of Michigan Health Care System, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
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