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Latanova A, Karpov V, Starodubova E. Extracellular Vesicles in Flaviviridae Pathogenesis: Their Roles in Viral Transmission, Immune Evasion, and Inflammation. Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25:2144. [PMID: 38396820 PMCID: PMC10889558 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25042144] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2023] [Revised: 02/04/2024] [Accepted: 02/08/2024] [Indexed: 02/25/2024] Open
Abstract
The members of the Flaviviridae family are becoming an emerging threat for public health, causing an increasing number of infections each year and requiring effective treatment. The consequences of these infections can be severe and include liver inflammation with subsequent carcinogenesis, endothelial damage with hemorrhage, neuroinflammation, and, in some cases, death. The mechanisms of Flaviviridae pathogenesis are being actively investigated, but there are still many gaps in their understanding. Extracellular vesicles may play important roles in these mechanisms, and, therefore, this topic deserves detailed research. Recent data have revealed the involvement of extracellular vesicles in steps of Flaviviridae pathogenesis such as transmission, immune evasion, and inflammation, which is critical for disease establishment. This review covers recent papers on the roles of extracellular vesicles in the pathogenesis of Flaviviridae and includes examples of clinical applications of the accumulated data.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anastasia Latanova
- Engelhardt Institute of Molecular Biology, Russian Academy of Sciences, 119991 Moscow, Russia; (V.K.); (E.S.)
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2
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Parthasarathy G, Hirsova P, Kostallari E, Sidhu GS, Ibrahim SH, Malhi H. Extracellular Vesicles in Hepatobiliary Health and Disease. Compr Physiol 2023; 13:4631-4658. [PMID: 37358519 PMCID: PMC10798368 DOI: 10.1002/cphy.c210046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/27/2023]
Abstract
Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are membrane-bound nanoparticles released by cells and are an important means of intercellular communication in physiological and pathological states. We provide an overview of recent advances in the understanding of EV biogenesis, cargo selection, recipient cell effects, and key considerations in isolation and characterization techniques. Studies on the physiological role of EVs have relied on cell-based model systems due to technical limitations of studying endogenous nanoparticles in vivo . Several recent studies have elucidated the mechanistic role of EVs in liver diseases, including nonalcoholic fatty liver disease, viral hepatitis, cholestatic liver disease, alcohol-associated liver disease, acute liver injury, and liver cancers. Employing disease models and human samples, the biogenesis of lipotoxic EVs downstream of endoplasmic reticulum stress and microvesicles via intracellular activation stress signaling are discussed in detail. The diverse cargoes of EVs including proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids can be enriched in a disease-specific manner. By carrying diverse cargo, EVs can directly confer pathogenic potential, for example, recruitment and activation of monocyte-derived macrophages in NASH and tumorigenicity and chemoresistance in hepatocellular carcinoma. We discuss the pathogenic role of EVs cargoes and the signaling pathways activated by EVs in recipient cells. We review the literature that EVs can serve as biomarkers in hepatobiliary diseases. Further, we describe novel approaches to engineer EVs to deliver regulatory signals to specific cell types, and thus use them as therapeutic shuttles in liver diseases. Lastly, we identify key lacunae and future directions in this promising field of discovery and development. © 2023 American Physiological Society. Compr Physiol 13:4631-4658, 2023.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Petra Hirsova
- Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota, USA
| | - Enis Kostallari
- Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota, USA
| | - Guneet S. Sidhu
- Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota, USA
| | - Samar H. Ibrahim
- Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota, USA
| | - Harmeet Malhi
- Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota, USA
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Gong J, Tu W, Liu J, Tian D. Hepatocytes: A key role in liver inflammation. Front Immunol 2023; 13:1083780. [PMID: 36741394 PMCID: PMC9890163 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.1083780] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2022] [Accepted: 12/30/2022] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Hepatocytes, the major parenchymal cells in the liver, are responsible for a variety of cellular functions including carbohydrate, lipid and protein metabolism, detoxification and immune cell activation to maintain liver homeotasis. Recent studies show hepatocytes play a pivotal role in liver inflammation. After receiving liver insults and inflammatory signals, hepatocytes may undergo organelle damage, and further respond by releasing mediators and expressing molecules that can act in the microenvironment as well as initiate a robust inflammatory response. In this review, we summarize how the hepatic organelle damage link to liver inflammation and introduce numerous hepatocyte-derived pro-inflammatory factors in response to chronic liver injury.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Dean Tian
- *Correspondence: Jingmei Liu, ; Dean Tian,
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4
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Yin Y, Zhao Y, Chen Q, Chen Y, Mao L. Dual roles and potential applications of exosomes in HCV infections. Front Microbiol 2022; 13:1044832. [PMID: 36578571 PMCID: PMC9791051 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2022.1044832] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2022] [Accepted: 11/22/2022] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The hepatitis C virus (HCV) causes severe liver diseases, including hepatitis, liver cirrhosis, and hepatocellular carcinoma, which have high morbidity and mortality. Antibody targeting receptor-mediated HCV infections have limited therapeutic benefits, suggesting that the transmission of HCV infections is possibly mediated via receptor-independent mechanisms. Exosomes are membrane-enclosed vesicles with a diameter of 30-200 nm, which originate from the fusion of endosomal multivesicular bodies with the plasma membrane. Accumulating evidence suggests that exosomes have a pivotal role in HCV infections. Exosomes can transfer viral and cellular bioactive substances, including nucleic acids and proteins, to uninfected cells, thus spreading the infection by masking these materials from immunological recognition. In addition, exosomes originating from some cells can deliver antiviral molecules or prompt the immune response to inhibit HCV infection. Exosomes can be used for the diagnosis of HCV-related diseases, and are being presently evaluated as therapeutic tools for anti-HCV drug delivery. This review summarizes the current knowledge on the dual roles and potential clinical applications of exosomes in HCV infections.
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Yu S, Zhou L, Fu J, Xu L, Liu B, Zhao Y, Wang J, Yan X, Su J. H-TEX-mediated signaling between hepatocellular carcinoma cells and macrophages and exosome-targeted therapy for hepatocellular carcinoma. Front Immunol 2022; 13:997726. [PMID: 36311698 PMCID: PMC9608495 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.997726] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2022] [Accepted: 09/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
There is increasing evidence for the key role of the immune microenvironment in the occurrence and development of hepatocellular carcinoma. As an important component of the immune microenvironment, the polarization state and function of macrophages determine the maintenance of the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment. Hepatocellular carcinoma tumor-derived exosomes, as information carriers, regulate the physiological state of cells in the microenvironment and control cancer progression. In this review, we focus on the role of the exosome content in disease outcomes at different stages in the progression of hepatitis B virus/hepatitis C virus-induced hepatocellular carcinoma. We also explore the mechanism by which macrophages contribute to the formation of hepatocellular carcinoma and summarize the regulation of macrophage functions by the heterogeneity of exosome loading in liver cancer. Finally, with the rise of exosome modification in immunotherapy research on hepatocellular carcinoma, we summarize the application prospects of exosome-based targeted drug delivery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sihang Yu
- Department of Pathophysiology, College of Basic Medical Sciences, Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Lei Zhou
- Department of Pathology, Affiliated Hospital to Changchun University of Chinese Medicine, Changchun, Jilin, China
| | - Jiaying Fu
- Department of Pathophysiology, College of Basic Medical Sciences, Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Long Xu
- Department of Pathophysiology, College of Basic Medical Sciences, Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Buhan Liu
- Department of Pathophysiology, College of Basic Medical Sciences, Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Yuanxin Zhao
- Department of Pathophysiology, College of Basic Medical Sciences, Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Jian Wang
- Department of Pathophysiology, College of Basic Medical Sciences, Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Xiaoyu Yan
- Department of Pathophysiology, College of Basic Medical Sciences, Jilin University, Changchun, China
- *Correspondence: Xiaoyu Yan, ; Jing Su,
| | - Jing Su
- Department of Pathophysiology, College of Basic Medical Sciences, Jilin University, Changchun, China
- *Correspondence: Xiaoyu Yan, ; Jing Su,
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Lee Y, Kim JH. The emerging roles of extracellular vesicles as intercellular messengers in liver physiology and pathology. Clin Mol Hepatol 2022; 28:706-724. [PMID: 35232008 PMCID: PMC9597227 DOI: 10.3350/cmh.2021.0390] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2021] [Accepted: 02/25/2022] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are membrane-enclosed particles released from almost all cell types. EVs mediate intercellular communication by delivering their surface and luminal cargoes, including nucleic acids, proteins, and lipids, which reflect the pathophysiological conditions of their cellular origins. Hepatocytes and hepatic non-parenchymal cells utilize EVs to regulate a wide spectrum of biological events inside the liver and transfer them to distant organs through systemic circulation. The liver also receives EVs from multiple organs and integrates these extrahepatic signals that participate in pathophysiological processes. EVs have recently attracted growing attention for their crucial roles in maintaining and regulating hepatic homeostasis. This review summarizes the roles of EVs in intrahepatic and interorgan communications under different pathophysiological conditions of the liver, with a focus on chronic liver diseases including nonalcoholic steatohepatitis, alcoholic hepatitis, viral hepatitis, liver fibrosis, and hepatocellular carcinoma. This review also discusses recent progress for potential therapeutic applications of EVs by targeting or enhancing EV-mediated cellular communication for the treatment of liver diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Youngseok Lee
- Laboratory of Stem Cells and Tissue Regeneration, Department of Biotechnology, College of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Korea University, Seoul, Korea
| | - Jong-Hoon Kim
- Laboratory of Stem Cells and Tissue Regeneration, Department of Biotechnology, College of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Korea University, Seoul, Korea,Corresponding author : Jong-Hoon Kim Laboratory of Stem Cells and Tissue Regeneration, Department of Biotechnology, College of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Korea University, 145 Anam-ro, Seongbuk-gu, Seoul 02841, Korea Tel: +82-2-3290-3007, Fax: +82-2-3290-3040, E-mail:
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Wu X, Xu X, Xiang Y, Fan D, An Q, Yue G, Jin Z, Ding J, Hu Y, Du Q, Xu J, Xie R. Exosome-mediated effects and applications in inflammatory diseases of the digestive system. Eur J Med Res 2022; 27:163. [PMID: 36045437 PMCID: PMC9429695 DOI: 10.1186/s40001-022-00792-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2022] [Accepted: 08/17/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Exosomes are membranous vesicles containing RNA and proteins that are specifically secreted in vivo. Exosomes have many functions, such as material transport and signal transduction between cells. Many studies have proven that exosomes can not only be used as biomarkers for disease diagnosis but also as carriers to transmit information between cells. Exosomes participate in a variety of physiological and pathological processes, including the immune response, antigen presentation, cell migration, cell differentiation, and tumour development. Differences in exosome functions depend on cell type. In recent years, exosome origin, cargo composition, and precise regulatory mechanisms have been the focus of research. Although exosomes have been extensively reported in digestive tumours, few articles have reviewed their roles in inflammatory diseases of the digestive system, especially inflammatory-related diseases (such as reflux oesophagitis, gastritis, inflammatory bowel disease, hepatitis, and pancreatitis). This paper briefly summarizes the roles of exosomes in inflammatory diseases of the digestive system to provide a basis for research on the mechanism of inflammatory diseases of the digestive system targeted by exosomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xianli Wu
- Department of Gastroenterology, Digestive Disease Hospital, Affiliated Hospital of Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, China.,The Collaborative Innovation Center of Tissue Damage Repair and Regeneration Medicine of Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, China
| | - Xiaolin Xu
- Department of Gastroenterology, Digestive Disease Hospital, Affiliated Hospital of Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, China.,The Collaborative Innovation Center of Tissue Damage Repair and Regeneration Medicine of Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, China
| | - Yiwei Xiang
- Department of Gastroenterology, Digestive Disease Hospital, Affiliated Hospital of Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, China.,The Collaborative Innovation Center of Tissue Damage Repair and Regeneration Medicine of Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, China
| | - Dongdong Fan
- Department of Gastroenterology, Digestive Disease Hospital, Affiliated Hospital of Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, China.,The Collaborative Innovation Center of Tissue Damage Repair and Regeneration Medicine of Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, China
| | - Qiming An
- Department of Gastroenterology, Digestive Disease Hospital, Affiliated Hospital of Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, China.,The Collaborative Innovation Center of Tissue Damage Repair and Regeneration Medicine of Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, China
| | - Gengyu Yue
- Department of Gastroenterology, Digestive Disease Hospital, Affiliated Hospital of Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, China.,The Collaborative Innovation Center of Tissue Damage Repair and Regeneration Medicine of Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, China
| | - Zhe Jin
- Department of Gastroenterology, Digestive Disease Hospital, Affiliated Hospital of Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, China.,The Collaborative Innovation Center of Tissue Damage Repair and Regeneration Medicine of Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, China
| | - Jianhong Ding
- Department of Gastroenterology, Digestive Disease Hospital, Affiliated Hospital of Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, China.,The Collaborative Innovation Center of Tissue Damage Repair and Regeneration Medicine of Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, China
| | - Yanxia Hu
- Department of Gastroenterology, Digestive Disease Hospital, Affiliated Hospital of Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, China.,The Collaborative Innovation Center of Tissue Damage Repair and Regeneration Medicine of Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, China
| | - Qian Du
- Department of Gastroenterology, Digestive Disease Hospital, Affiliated Hospital of Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, China.,The Collaborative Innovation Center of Tissue Damage Repair and Regeneration Medicine of Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, China
| | - Jingyu Xu
- Department of Gastroenterology, Digestive Disease Hospital, Affiliated Hospital of Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, China. .,The Collaborative Innovation Center of Tissue Damage Repair and Regeneration Medicine of Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, China.
| | - Rui Xie
- Department of Gastroenterology, Digestive Disease Hospital, Affiliated Hospital of Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, China. .,The Collaborative Innovation Center of Tissue Damage Repair and Regeneration Medicine of Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, China.
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Galectin-9 and Interferon-Gamma Are Released by Natural Killer Cells upon Activation with Interferon-Alpha and Orchestrate the Suppression of Hepatitis C Virus Infection. Viruses 2022; 14:v14071538. [PMID: 35891518 PMCID: PMC9317111 DOI: 10.3390/v14071538] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2022] [Revised: 06/30/2022] [Accepted: 07/11/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Natural killer (NK) cells mount an immune response against hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection and can be activated by several cytokines, including interleukin-2 (IL-2), IL-15, and interferon-alpha (IFN-α). By exploiting the Huh7.5 hepatoma cell line infected with the HCV JFH1 genome, we provide novel insights into the antiviral effector functions of human primary NK cells after cytokine stimulation. NK cells activated with IFN-α (IFNα-NKs) had enhanced contact-dependent and -independent responses as compared with NK cells activated with IL-2/IL-15 (IL2/IL15-NKs) and could inhibit HCV replication both in vitro and in vivo. Importantly, IFN-α, but not IL-2/IL-15, protected NK cells from the functional inhibition exerted by HCV. By performing flow cytometry, multiplex cytokine profiling, and mass-spectrometry-based proteomics, we discovered that IFNα-NKs secreted high levels of galectin-9 and interferon-gamma (IFN-γ), and by conducting neutralization assays, we confirmed the major role of these molecules in HCV suppression. We speculated that galectin-9 might act extracellularly to inhibit HCV binding to host cells and downstream infection. In silico approaches predicted the binding of HCV envelope protein E2 to galectin-9 carbohydrate-recognition domains, and co-immunoprecipitation assays confirmed physical interaction. IFN-γ, on the other hand, triggered the intracellular expressions of two antiviral gate-keepers in target cells, namely, myxovirus-1 (MX1) and interferon-induced protein with tetratricopeptide repeats 1 (IFIT1). Collectively, our data add more complexity to the antiviral innate response mediated by NK cells and highlight galectin-9 as a key molecule that might be exploited to neutralize productive viral infection.
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Jennelle LT, Magoro T, Angelucci AR, Dandekar A, Hahn YS. Hepatitis C Virus Alters Macrophage Cholesterol Metabolism Through Interaction with Scavenger Receptors. Viral Immunol 2022; 35:223-235. [PMID: 35467430 PMCID: PMC9063163 DOI: 10.1089/vim.2021.0101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Lipid accumulation and inflammation act together to induce, sustain, and further development of chronic liver disease. Hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection induces metabolic and immune changes in liver macrophages, promoting lipid accumulation and inflammation that synergize and culminate in the development of steatohepatitis and fibrogenesis. Chronic HCV patients have increased liver macrophages with disruptions in cholesterol metabolism and alterations in inflammatory mediators. While HCV-induced changes in inflammatory mediators are well documented, how HCV triggers metabolic change in macrophages is unknown. In this report, we examined the mechanism of macrophage sensing of HCV to cause metabolic impairment and subsequent immune dysfunction. We demonstrate that HCV protein and RNA kinetics in macrophages are distinct from hepatocytes. In macrophages, HCV RNAs and protein accumulate rapidly after exposure but internalized RNAs quickly decline to a low-level set point. Notably, exposure of macrophages to HCV resulted in increased lipids and cholesterol and activation of cholesterol-sensing, immunomodulatory liver X receptors (LXRs). Furthermore, we provide evidence that HCV RNA accumulation in macrophages occurs through scavenging receptors. These results suggest that HCV released from infected hepatocytes stimulates accumulation of lipids and activation of LXR in macrophages contributing to metabolic changes involved in HCV-induced chronic liver disease. Our results provide novel insight into mechanisms through which impaired lipid metabolism in macrophages associated with HCV infection promotes development of liver steatohepatitis and fibrosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucas T. Jennelle
- Beirne B. Carter Center for Immunology Research, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia, USA
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Cancer Biology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia, USA
| | - Tshifhiwa Magoro
- Beirne B. Carter Center for Immunology Research, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia, USA
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Cancer Biology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia, USA
| | - Angelina R. Angelucci
- Beirne B. Carter Center for Immunology Research, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia, USA
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Cancer Biology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia, USA
| | - Aditya Dandekar
- Beirne B. Carter Center for Immunology Research, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia, USA
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Cancer Biology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia, USA
| | - Young S. Hahn
- Beirne B. Carter Center for Immunology Research, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia, USA
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Cancer Biology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia, USA
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Dunsmore G, Rosero EP, Shahbaz S, Santer DM, Jovel J, Lacy P, Houston S, Elahi S. Neutrophils promote T-cell activation through the regulated release of CD44-bound Galectin-9 from the cell surface during HIV infection. PLoS Biol 2021; 19:e3001387. [PMID: 34411088 PMCID: PMC8407585 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pbio.3001387] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2021] [Revised: 08/31/2021] [Accepted: 08/04/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The interaction of neutrophils with T cells has been the subject of debate and controversies. Previous studies have suggested that neutrophils may suppress or activate T cells. Despite these studies, the interaction between neutrophils and T cells has remained a largely unexplored field. Here, based on our RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) analysis, we found that neutrophils have differential transcriptional and functional profiling depending on the CD4 T-cell count of the HIV-infected individual. In particular, we identified that neutrophils in healthy individuals express surface Galectin-9 (Gal-9), which is down-regulated upon activation, and is consistently down-regulated in HIV-infected individuals. However, down-regulation of Gal-9 was associated with CD4 T-cell count of patients. Unstimulated neutrophils express high levels of surface Gal-9 that is bound to CD44, and, upon stimulation, neutrophils depalmitoylate CD44 and induce its movement out of the lipid raft. This process causes the release of Gal-9 from the surface of neutrophils. In addition, we found that neutrophil-derived exogenous Gal-9 binds to cell surface CD44 on T cells, which promotes LCK activation and subsequently enhances T-cell activation. Furthermore, this process was regulated by glycolysis and can be inhibited by interleukin (IL)-10. Together, our data reveal a novel mechanism of Gal-9 shedding from the surface of neutrophils. This could explain elevated plasma Gal-9 levels in HIV-infected individuals as an underlying mechanism of the well-characterized chronic immune activation in HIV infection. This study provides a novel role for the Gal-9 shedding from neutrophils. We anticipate that our results will spark renewed investigation into the role of neutrophils in T-cell activation in other acute and chronic conditions, as well as improved strategies for modulating Gal-9 shedding. This study shows that HIV-infected individuals have different neutrophil profiles depending on their CD4 T cell count. In particular, neutrophils express high levels of surface Gal-9 but this is shed upon stimulation; this exogenous Gal-9 binds to CD44 on T cells, which promotes LCK activation and subsequently enhances T cell activation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Garett Dunsmore
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada
| | - Eliana Perez Rosero
- School of Dentistry, Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada
| | - Shima Shahbaz
- School of Dentistry, Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada
| | - Deanna M. Santer
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada
- Li Ka Shing Institute of Virology, Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada
| | - Juan Jovel
- School of Dentistry, Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada
| | - Paige Lacy
- Department of Medicine, Division of Pulmonary Medicine, Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada
| | - Stan Houston
- Department of Medicine, Division of Infectious Disease, Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada
| | - Shokrollah Elahi
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada
- School of Dentistry, Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada
- Li Ka Shing Institute of Virology, Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada
- Department of Oncology, Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada
- * E-mail:
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Kostallari E, Valainathan S, Biquard L, Shah VH, Rautou PE. Role of extracellular vesicles in liver diseases and their therapeutic potential. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2021; 175:113816. [PMID: 34087329 PMCID: PMC10798367 DOI: 10.1016/j.addr.2021.05.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2021] [Revised: 05/17/2021] [Accepted: 05/29/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
More than eight hundred million people worldwide have chronic liver disease, with two million deaths per year. Recurring liver injury results in fibrogenesis, progressing towards cirrhosis, for which there doesn't exists any cure except liver transplantation. Better understanding of the mechanisms leading to cirrhosis and its complications is needed to develop effective therapies. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are released by cells and are important for cell-to-cell communication. EVs have been reported to be involved in homeostasis maintenance, as well as in liver diseases. In this review, we present current knowledge on the role of EVs in non-alcoholic fatty liver disease and non-alcoholic steatohepatitis, alcohol-associated liver disease, chronic viral hepatitis, primary liver cancers, acute liver injury and liver regeneration. Moreover, therapeutic strategies involving EVs as targets or as tools to treat liver diseases are summarized.
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Affiliation(s)
- Enis Kostallari
- Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, United States.
| | - Shantha Valainathan
- Université de Paris, AP-HP, Hôpital Beaujon, Service d'Hépatologie, DMU DIGEST, Centre de Référence des Maladies Vasculaires du Foie, FILFOIE, ERN RARE-LIVER, Centre de recherche sur l'inflammation, Inserm, UMR 1149, Paris, France
| | - Louise Biquard
- Université de Paris, Centre de recherche sur l'inflammation, Inserm, UMR 1149, Paris, France.
| | - Vijay H Shah
- Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, United States.
| | - Pierre-Emmanuel Rautou
- Université de Paris, AP-HP, Hôpital Beaujon, Service d'Hépatologie, DMU DIGEST, Centre de Référence des Maladies Vasculaires du Foie, FILFOIE, ERN RARE-LIVER, Centre de recherche sur l'inflammation, Inserm, UMR 1149, Paris, France.
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Aydin Y, Koksal AR, Reddy V, Lin D, Osman H, Heidari Z, Rhadhi SM, Wimley WC, Parsi MA, Dash S. Extracellular Vesicle Release Promotes Viral Replication during Persistent HCV Infection. Cells 2021; 10:cells10050984. [PMID: 33922397 PMCID: PMC8146326 DOI: 10.3390/cells10050984] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2021] [Revised: 04/16/2021] [Accepted: 04/19/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection promotes autophagic degradation of viral replicative intermediates for sustaining replication and spread. The excessive activation of autophagy can induce cell death and terminate infection without proper regulation. A prior publication from this laboratory showed that an adaptive cellular response to HCV microbial stress inhibits autophagy through beclin 1 degradation. The mechanisms of how secretory and degradative autophagy are regulated during persistent HCV infection is unknown. This study was performed to understand the mechanisms of viral persistence in the absence of degradative autophagy, which is essential for virus survival. Using HCV infection of a CD63-green fluorescence protein (CD63-GFP), labeled stable transfected Huh-7.5 cell, we found that autophagy induction at the early stage of HCV infection increased the degradation of CD63-GFP that favored virus replication. However, the late-stage of persistent HCV infection showed impaired autophagic degradation, leading to the accumulation of CD63-GFP. We found that impaired autophagic degradation promoted the release of extracellular vesicles and exosomes. The impact of blocking the release of extracellular vesicles (EVs) on virus survival was investigated in persistently infected cells and sub-genomic replicon cells. Our study illustrates that blocking EV and exosome release severely suppresses virus replication without effecting host cell viability. Furthermore, we found that blocking EV release triggers interferon lambda 1 secretion. These findings suggest that the release of EVs is an innate immune escape mechanism that promotes persistent HCV infection. We propose that inhibition of extracellular vesicle release can be explored as a potential antiviral strategy for the treatment of HCV and other emerging RNA viruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yucel Aydin
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Tulane University Health Sciences Center, New Orleans, LA 70112, USA; (Y.A.); (V.R.); (D.L.); (H.O.); (S.M.R.)
| | - Ali Riza Koksal
- Department of Medicine, Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Tulane University Health Sciences Center, New Orleans, LA 70112, USA; (A.R.K.); (M.A.P.)
| | - Venu Reddy
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Tulane University Health Sciences Center, New Orleans, LA 70112, USA; (Y.A.); (V.R.); (D.L.); (H.O.); (S.M.R.)
| | - Dong Lin
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Tulane University Health Sciences Center, New Orleans, LA 70112, USA; (Y.A.); (V.R.); (D.L.); (H.O.); (S.M.R.)
| | - Hanadi Osman
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Tulane University Health Sciences Center, New Orleans, LA 70112, USA; (Y.A.); (V.R.); (D.L.); (H.O.); (S.M.R.)
| | - Zahra Heidari
- Department of Chemical and Biomedical Engineering, Tulane University, New Orleans, LA 70112, USA;
| | - Sadeq Mutlab Rhadhi
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Tulane University Health Sciences Center, New Orleans, LA 70112, USA; (Y.A.); (V.R.); (D.L.); (H.O.); (S.M.R.)
| | - William C Wimley
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Tulane University Health Sciences Center, New Orleans, LA 70112, USA;
| | - Mansour A Parsi
- Department of Medicine, Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Tulane University Health Sciences Center, New Orleans, LA 70112, USA; (A.R.K.); (M.A.P.)
| | - Srikanta Dash
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Tulane University Health Sciences Center, New Orleans, LA 70112, USA; (Y.A.); (V.R.); (D.L.); (H.O.); (S.M.R.)
- Department of Medicine, Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Tulane University Health Sciences Center, New Orleans, LA 70112, USA; (A.R.K.); (M.A.P.)
- Southeast Louisiana Veterans Health Care System, 2400 Canal Street, New Orleans, LA 70119, USA
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +1-504-988-2519; Fax: +1-504-988-7389
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Moar P, Tandon R. Galectin-9 as a biomarker of disease severity. Cell Immunol 2021; 361:104287. [PMID: 33494007 DOI: 10.1016/j.cellimm.2021.104287] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2020] [Revised: 12/26/2020] [Accepted: 01/09/2021] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Galectin-9 (Gal-9) is a β-galactoside binding lectin known for its immunomodulatory role in various microbial infections. Gal-9 is expressed in all organ systems and localized in the nucleus, cell surface, cytoplasm and the extracellular matrix. It mediates host-pathogen interactions and regulates cell signalling via binding to its receptors. Gal-9 is involved in many physiological functions such as cell growth, differentiation, adhesion, communication and death. However, recent studies have emphasized on the elevated levels of Gal-9 in autoimmune disorders, viral infections, parasitic invasion, cancer, acute liver failure, atopic dermatitis, chronic kidney disease, type-2 diabetes, coronary artery disease, atherosclerosis and benign infertility-related gynecological disorders. In this paper we have reviewed the potential of Gal-9 as a reliable, sensitive and non-invasive biomarker of disease severity. Tracking changes in Gal-9 levels and its implementation as a biomarker in clinical practice will be an important tool to monitor disease activity and facilitate personalized treatment decisions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Preeti Moar
- Laboratory of AIDS Research and Immunology, School of Biotechnology, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, India.
| | - Ravi Tandon
- Laboratory of AIDS Research and Immunology, School of Biotechnology, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, India.
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14
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Evaluation of Serum and Gene Expression of Galectin-4, Interleukin-27, and Complement-7 in Hepatitis C Virus-Infected Egyptian Patients. BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2020; 2020:8879758. [PMID: 33381596 PMCID: PMC7758134 DOI: 10.1155/2020/8879758] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2020] [Revised: 11/10/2020] [Accepted: 12/02/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Background Hepatitis C virus (HCV) is considered a major global public health problem. Recently, there are great advances in HCV therapy, but there are some limitations that are creating an urgent need for assessment of some cytokines that have a potent antiviral effect in the immune system and anti-inflammatory effects to provide a potential novel immunotherapeutic target in HCV infection. Objective This study was directed to assess the serum levels and gene expression levels of Galectin-4 (LEG4), Interleukin-27 (IL-27), and Complement-7 (C-7) and their correlation with the viral load in HCV infection. Subjects and Methods. This work was conducted on 80 subjects, Group 1 (n = 40) early detected HCV patients and Group 2 (n = 40) healthy controls. LEG4, IL-27, and C-7 were assessed at the protein levels by ELISA, and their gene expression was assessed by RT-qPCR. The viral load was measured by PCR. Results There were significant elevations in the mean levels of gene expression and serum levels of all studied parameters LEG4, IL-27, and C-7 in the HCV group compared to the control group. Significant negative correlations between the viral load and each of the serum proteins and gene expressions of both LEG4 and IL-27 in HCV patients were found. The gene expression levels of LEG4, IL-27, and C-7 were positively correlated with their corresponding serum proteins in HCV patients. Conclusion LEG4 and IL-27 showed significant negative correlations with the viral load, which could be an immune response to the control of the extent of hepatic inflammation, thus creating a potential novel immunotherapeutic approach in HCV infection for further studies or therapeutic clinical trials.
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15
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Wang WH, Lin CY, Chang MR, Urbina AN, Assavalapsakul W, Thitithanyanont A, Chen YH, Liu FT, Wang SF. The role of galectins in virus infection - A systemic literature review. JOURNAL OF MICROBIOLOGY, IMMUNOLOGY, AND INFECTION = WEI MIAN YU GAN RAN ZA ZHI 2020; 53:925-935. [PMID: 31630962 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmii.2019.09.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2019] [Revised: 09/05/2019] [Accepted: 09/08/2019] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Galectins are β-Galactose binding lectins expressed in numerous cells and play multiple roles in various physiological and cellular functions. However, few information is available regarding the role of galectins in virus infections. Here, we conducted a systemic literature review to analyze the role of galectins in human virus infection. METHODS This study uses a systematic method to identify and select eligible articles according to the PRISMA guidelines. References were selected from PubMed, Web of Science and Google Scholar database covering publication dated from August 1995 to December 2018. RESULTS Results indicate that galectins play multiple roles in regulation of virus infections. Galectin-1 (Gal-1), galectin-3 (Gal-3), galectin-8 (Gal-8), and galectin-9 (Gal-9) were found as the most predominant galectins reported to participate in virus infection. The regulatory function of galectins occurs by extracellularly binding to viral glycosylated envelope proteins, interacting with ligands or receptors on immune cells, or acting intracellularly with viral or cellular components in the cytoplasm. Several galectins express either positive or negative regulatory role, while some had dual regulatory capabilities on virus propagation based on the conditions and their localization. However, limited information about the endogenous function of galectins were found. Therefore, the endogenous effects of galectins in host-virus regulation remains valuable to investigate. CONCLUSIONS This study offers information regarding the various roles galectins shown in viral infection and suggest that galectins can potentially be used as viral therapeutic targets or antagonists.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wen-Hung Wang
- Division of Infectious Disease, Department of Internal Medicine, Kaohsiung Medical University Hospital, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, 80708, Taiwan; Center for Tropical Medicine and Infectious Disease, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, 80708, Taiwan
| | - Chih-Yen Lin
- Center for Tropical Medicine and Infectious Disease, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, 80708, Taiwan; Department of Medical Laboratory Science and Biotechnology, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, 80708, Taiwan
| | - Max R Chang
- Program in Tropical Medicine, College of Medicine, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung City, 80708, Taiwan
| | - Aspiro Nayim Urbina
- Program in Tropical Medicine, College of Medicine, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung City, 80708, Taiwan
| | - Wanchai Assavalapsakul
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Science, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, 10330, Thailand
| | - Arunee Thitithanyanont
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Science, Mahidol University, Bangkok, 10400, Thailand
| | - Yen-Hsu Chen
- Division of Infectious Disease, Department of Internal Medicine, Kaohsiung Medical University Hospital, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, 80708, Taiwan; Center for Tropical Medicine and Infectious Disease, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, 80708, Taiwan; Department of Internal Medicine, Kaohsiung Municipal Ta-Tung Hospital, Kaohsiung Medical University, 80145, Taiwan; Department of Biological Science and Technology, College of Biological Science and Technology, National Chiao Tung University, HsinChu, 300, Taiwan.
| | - Fu-Tong Liu
- Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Academia Sinica, Taipei, 11529, Taiwan
| | - Sheng-Fan Wang
- Center for Tropical Medicine and Infectious Disease, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, 80708, Taiwan; Department of Medical Laboratory Science and Biotechnology, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, 80708, Taiwan.
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16
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Lim HK, Jeffrey GP, Ramm GA, Soekmadji C. Pathogenesis of Viral Hepatitis-Induced Chronic Liver Disease: Role of Extracellular Vesicles. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2020; 10:587628. [PMID: 33240824 PMCID: PMC7683521 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2020.587628] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2020] [Accepted: 10/13/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Extracellular vesicles are encapsulated lipid nanoparticles secreted by a variety of cell types in living organisms. They are known to carry proteins, metabolites, nucleic acids, and lipids as their cargoes and are important mediators of intercellular communication. The role of extracellular vesicles in chronic liver disease has been reported. Chronic liver disease such as viral hepatitis accounts for a significant mortality and morbidity burden worldwide. Hepatic fibrosis has been commonly associated with the chronic form of viral hepatitis, which results in end-stage liver disease, including cirrhosis, liver failure, and carcinoma in some patients. In this review, we discuss the potential role of extracellular vesicles in mediating communication between infectious agents (hepatitis B and C viruses) and host cells, and how these complex cell-cell interactions may facilitate the development of chronic liver disease. We will further discuss how understanding their biological mechanism of action might be beneficial for developing therapeutic strategies to treat chronic liver disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hong Kiat Lim
- Hepatic Fibrosis Group, Department of Cellular and Molecular Biology, QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
| | - Gary P Jeffrey
- Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Western Australia, Perth, WA, Australia.,Sir Charles Gairdner Hospital, Nedlands, Hepatology Department and Liver Transplant Service, Perth, WA, Australia
| | - Grant A Ramm
- Hepatic Fibrosis Group, Department of Cellular and Molecular Biology, QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Brisbane, QLD, Australia.,Faculty of Medicine, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
| | - Carolina Soekmadji
- Hepatic Fibrosis Group, Department of Cellular and Molecular Biology, QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Brisbane, QLD, Australia.,Faculty of Medicine, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
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17
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Rosen HR, Golden-Mason L. Control of HCV Infection by Natural Killer Cells and Macrophages. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Med 2020; 10:a037101. [PMID: 31871225 PMCID: PMC7447067 DOI: 10.1101/cshperspect.a037101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Host defense against invading pathogens within the liver is dominated by innate immunity. Natural killer (NK) cells have been implicated at all stages of hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection, from providing innate protection to contributing to treatment-induced clearance. Decreased NK cell levels, altered NK cell subset distribution, activation marker expression, and functional polarization toward a cytolytic phenotype are hallmarks of chronic HCV infection. Interferon α (IFN-α) is a potent activator of NK cells; therefore, it is not surprising that NK cell activation has been identified as a key factor associated with sustained virological response (SVR) to IFN-α-based therapies. Understanding the role of NK cells, macrophages, and other innate immune cells post-SVR remains paramount for prevention of disease pathogenesis and progression. Novel strategies to treat liver disease may be aimed at targeting these cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hugo R Rosen
- Department of Medicine, University of Southern California (USC), Los Angeles, California 90033, USA
- USC Research Center for Liver Diseases, Los Angeles, California 90033, USA
| | - Lucy Golden-Mason
- Department of Medicine, University of Southern California (USC), Los Angeles, California 90033, USA
- USC Research Center for Liver Diseases, Los Angeles, California 90033, USA
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18
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Liang T, Ma C, Wang T, Deng R, Ding J, Wang W, Xu Z, Li X, Li H, Sun Q, Shen H, Wang Z, Chen G. Galectin-9 Promotes Neuronal Restoration via Binding TLR-4 in a Rat Intracerebral Hemorrhage Model. Neuromolecular Med 2020; 23:267-284. [PMID: 32865657 DOI: 10.1007/s12017-020-08611-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2020] [Accepted: 08/21/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH) is a devastating disease with high rates of mortality and morbidity. Galactose lectin-9 (Gal-9) belongs to the family of β-galactoside-binding lectins, which has been shown to play a vital role in immune tolerance and inflammation. However, the function of Gal-9 in ICH has not been fully studied in details. Several experiments were carried out to explore the role of Gal-9 in the late period of ICH. Primarily, ICH models were established in male adult Sprague Dawley (SD) rats. Next, the relative protein levels of Gal-9 at different time points after ICH were examined and the result showed that the level of Gal-9 increased and peaked at the 7th day after ICH. Then we found that when the content of Gal-9 increased, both the number of M2-type microglia and the corresponding anti-inflammatory factors also increased. Through co-immunoprecipitation (CO-IP) analysis, it was found that Gal-9 combines with Toll-like receptor-4 (TLR-4) during the period of the recovery after ICH. TUNEL staining and Fluoro-Jade B staining (FJB) proved that the amount of cell death decreased with the increase of Gal-9 content. Additionally, several behavioral experiments also demonstrated that when the level of Gal-9 increased, the motor, sensory, learning, and memory abilities of the rats recovered better compared to the ICH group. In short, this study illustrated that Gal-9 takes a crucial role after ICH. Enhancing Gal-9 could alleviate brain injury and promote the recovery of ICH-induced injury, so that Gal-9 may exploit a new pathway for clinical treatment of ICH.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tianyu Liang
- Department of Neurosurgery & Brain and Nerve Research Laboratory, The First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, 188 Shizi Street, Suzhou, 215006, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Cheng Ma
- Department of Neurosurgery & Brain and Nerve Research Laboratory, The First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, 188 Shizi Street, Suzhou, 215006, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Tianyi Wang
- Department of Neurosurgery & Brain and Nerve Research Laboratory, The First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, 188 Shizi Street, Suzhou, 215006, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Ruming Deng
- Department of Neurosurgery & Brain and Nerve Research Laboratory, The First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, 188 Shizi Street, Suzhou, 215006, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Jiasheng Ding
- Department of Neurosurgery & Brain and Nerve Research Laboratory, The First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, 188 Shizi Street, Suzhou, 215006, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Wenjie Wang
- Department of Neurosurgery & Brain and Nerve Research Laboratory, The First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, 188 Shizi Street, Suzhou, 215006, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Zhongmou Xu
- Department of Neurosurgery & Brain and Nerve Research Laboratory, The First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, 188 Shizi Street, Suzhou, 215006, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Xiang Li
- Department of Neurosurgery & Brain and Nerve Research Laboratory, The First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, 188 Shizi Street, Suzhou, 215006, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Haiying Li
- Department of Neurosurgery & Brain and Nerve Research Laboratory, The First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, 188 Shizi Street, Suzhou, 215006, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Qing Sun
- Department of Neurosurgery & Brain and Nerve Research Laboratory, The First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, 188 Shizi Street, Suzhou, 215006, Jiangsu Province, China.
| | - Haitao Shen
- Department of Neurosurgery & Brain and Nerve Research Laboratory, The First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, 188 Shizi Street, Suzhou, 215006, Jiangsu Province, China.
| | - Zhong Wang
- Department of Neurosurgery & Brain and Nerve Research Laboratory, The First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, 188 Shizi Street, Suzhou, 215006, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Gang Chen
- Department of Neurosurgery & Brain and Nerve Research Laboratory, The First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, 188 Shizi Street, Suzhou, 215006, Jiangsu Province, China
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19
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Sun MJ, Cao ZQ, Leng P. The roles of galectins in hepatic diseases. J Mol Histol 2020; 51:473-484. [PMID: 32734557 DOI: 10.1007/s10735-020-09898-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2020] [Accepted: 07/14/2020] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Hepatic diseases include all diseases that occur in the liver, including hepatitis, cirrhosis, hepatocellular carcinoma, etc. Hepatic diseases worldwide are characterized by high incidences of digestive system diseases, which present with subtle symptoms, are difficult to treat and have high mortality. Galectins are β-galactoside-binding proteins that have been found to be aberrantly expressed during hepatic disease progression. An increasing number of studies have shown that abnormal expression of galectins is extensively involved in hepatic diseases, such as hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), liver cirrhosis, hepatitis and liver fibrosis. Galectins function as intracellular and extracellular hepatic disease regulators mainly through the binding of their carbohydrate recognition domain to glycoconjugates expressed in hepatocytes. In this review, we summarize current research on the various roles of galectins in cirrhosis, hepatitis, liver fibrosis and HCC, which may provide a preliminary theoretical basis for the exploration of new targets for the treatment of hepatic diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mei-Juan Sun
- Department of Pharmacy, The Affiliated Hospital of Qingdao University, No. 16 Jiang Su Road, Qingdao, 266003, People's Republic of China
| | - Zhan-Qi Cao
- Department of Pharmacy, The Affiliated Hospital of Qingdao University, No. 16 Jiang Su Road, Qingdao, 266003, People's Republic of China
| | - Ping Leng
- Department of Pharmacy, The Affiliated Hospital of Qingdao University, No. 16 Jiang Su Road, Qingdao, 266003, People's Republic of China.
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20
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Tazhitdinova R, Timoshenko AV. The Emerging Role of Galectins and O-GlcNAc Homeostasis in Processes of Cellular Differentiation. Cells 2020; 9:cells9081792. [PMID: 32731422 PMCID: PMC7465113 DOI: 10.3390/cells9081792] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2020] [Revised: 07/24/2020] [Accepted: 07/24/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Galectins are a family of soluble β-galactoside-binding proteins with diverse glycan-dependent and glycan-independent functions outside and inside the cell. Human cells express twelve out of sixteen recognized mammalian galectin genes and their expression profiles are very different between cell types and tissues. In this review, we summarize the current knowledge on the changes in the expression of individual galectins at mRNA and protein levels in different types of differentiating cells and the effects of recombinant galectins on cellular differentiation. A new model of galectin regulation is proposed considering the change in O-GlcNAc homeostasis between progenitor/stem cells and mature differentiated cells. The recognition of galectins as regulatory factors controlling cell differentiation and self-renewal is essential for developmental and cancer biology to develop innovative strategies for prevention and targeted treatment of proliferative diseases, tissue regeneration, and stem-cell therapy.
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21
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Blois SM, Verlohren S, Wu G, Clark G, Dell A, Haslam SM, Barrientos G. Role of galectin-glycan circuits in reproduction: from healthy pregnancy to preterm birth (PTB). Semin Immunopathol 2020; 42:469-486. [PMID: 32601855 PMCID: PMC7508936 DOI: 10.1007/s00281-020-00801-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2020] [Accepted: 05/20/2020] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Growing evidence suggests that galectins, an evolutionarily conserved family of glycan-binding proteins, fulfill key roles in pregnancy including blastocyst implantation, maternal-fetal immune tolerance, placental development, and maternal vascular expansion, thereby establishing a healthy environment for the growing fetus. In this review, we comprehensively present the function of galectins in shaping cellular circuits that characterize a healthy pregnancy. We describe the current understanding of galectins in term and preterm labor and discuss how the galectin-glycan circuits contribute to key immunological pathways sustaining maternal tolerance and preventing microbial infections. A deeper understanding of the glycoimmune pathways regulating early events in preterm birth could offer the broader translational potential for the treatment of this devastating syndrome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandra M Blois
- Experimental and Clinical Research Center, A Cooperation Between the Max Delbrück Center for Molecular Medicine in the Helmholtz Association and the Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, AG GlycoImmunology, Berlin, Germany. .,Institute for Medical Immunology, Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany. .,Department of Obstetrics and Fetal Medicine, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany.
| | - Stefan Verlohren
- Department of Obstetrics, Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Gang Wu
- Department of Life Sciences, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - Gary Clark
- Department of Obstetrics, Gynaecology and Women's Health, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri, USA
| | - Anne Dell
- Department of Life Sciences, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - Stuart M Haslam
- Department of Life Sciences, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - Gabriela Barrientos
- Laboratory of Experimental Medicine, Hospital Alemán, School of Medicine, University of Buenos Aires, CONICET, Buenos Aires, Argentina
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22
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Extracellular Vesicles in Viral Infections of the Nervous System. Viruses 2020; 12:v12070700. [PMID: 32605316 PMCID: PMC7411781 DOI: 10.3390/v12070700] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2020] [Revised: 06/19/2020] [Accepted: 06/25/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Almost all types of cells release extracellular vesicles (EVs) into the extracellular space. EVs such as exosomes and microvesicles are membrane-bound vesicles ranging in size from 30 to 1000 nm in diameter. Under normal conditions, EVs mediate cell to cell as well as inter-organ communication via the shuttling of their cargoes which include RNA, DNA and proteins. Under pathological conditions, however, the number, size and content of EVs are found to be altered and have been shown to play crucial roles in disease progression. Emerging studies have demonstrated that EVs are involved in many aspects of viral infection-mediated neurodegenerative diseases. In the current review, we will describe the interactions between EV biogenesis and the release of virus particles while also reviewing the role of EVs in various viral infections, such as HIV-1, HTLV, Zika, CMV, EBV, Hepatitis B and C, JCV, and HSV-1. We will also discuss the potential uses of EVs and their cargoes as biomarkers and therapeutic vehicles for viral infections.
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23
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Sepulveda-Crespo D, Resino S, Martinez I. Innate Immune Response against Hepatitis C Virus: Targets for Vaccine Adjuvants. Vaccines (Basel) 2020; 8:vaccines8020313. [PMID: 32560440 PMCID: PMC7350220 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines8020313] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2020] [Revised: 06/12/2020] [Accepted: 06/16/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Despite successful treatments, hepatitis C virus (HCV) infections continue to be a significant world health problem. High treatment costs, the high number of undiagnosed individuals, and the difficulty to access to treatment, particularly in marginalized susceptible populations, make it improbable to achieve the global control of the virus in the absence of an effective preventive vaccine. Current vaccine development is mostly focused on weakly immunogenic subunits, such as surface glycoproteins or non-structural proteins, in the case of HCV. Adjuvants are critical components of vaccine formulations that increase immunogenic performance. As we learn more information about how adjuvants work, it is becoming clear that proper stimulation of innate immunity is crucial to achieving a successful immunization. Several hepatic cell types participate in the early innate immune response and the subsequent inflammation and activation of the adaptive response, principally hepatocytes, and antigen-presenting cells (Kupffer cells, and dendritic cells). Innate pattern recognition receptors on these cells, mainly toll-like receptors, are targets for new promising adjuvants. Moreover, complex adjuvants that stimulate different components of the innate immunity are showing encouraging results and are being incorporated in current vaccines. Recent studies on HCV-vaccine adjuvants have shown that the induction of a strong T- and B-cell immune response might be enhanced by choosing the right adjuvant.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Salvador Resino
- Correspondence: (S.R.); (I.M.); Tel.: +34-91-8223266 (S.R.); +34-91-8223272 (I.M.); Fax: +34-91-5097919 (S.R. & I.M.)
| | - Isidoro Martinez
- Correspondence: (S.R.); (I.M.); Tel.: +34-91-8223266 (S.R.); +34-91-8223272 (I.M.); Fax: +34-91-5097919 (S.R. & I.M.)
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24
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Hou J, Zhang H, Sun B, Karin M. The immunobiology of hepatocellular carcinoma in humans and mice: Basic concepts and therapeutic implications. J Hepatol 2020; 72:167-182. [PMID: 31449859 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhep.2019.08.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 108] [Impact Index Per Article: 27.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2019] [Revised: 08/02/2019] [Accepted: 08/14/2019] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Basic and clinical studies have demonstrated the efficacy of immunotherapy, a technical and conceptual breakthrough that has revolutionised cancer treatment. Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), a deadly malignancy with aetiologic diversity and a chronic course, is strongly influenced by the immune system, and was recently found to partially benefit from immune-checkpoint inhibitor therapy. Notably, HCC onco-immunology depends on diverse genetic and environmental factors that together shape cancer-promoting inflammation and immune dysfunction - critical processes that control HCC malignant progression and response to therapy. Herein, we summarise the current understanding of liver and HCC onco-immunology obtained through basic studies with mouse models and clinical practice in humans. In particular, we discuss preclinical and clinical findings that implicate immunomodulation as a major factor in HCC development and explain the basis for HCC-targeting immunotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiajie Hou
- Department of Hepatobiliary Surgery, The Affiliated Drum Tower Hospital of Nanjing University Medical School, Nanjing 210008, China; Department of Hepatobiliary Surgery, Sun Yat-sen University Cancer Center, Guangzhou 510060, China; State Key Laboratory of Oncology in South China, Sun Yat-sen University Cancer Center, Guangzhou 510060, China
| | - Haiyan Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Oncology in South China, Sun Yat-sen University Cancer Center, Guangzhou 510060, China
| | - Beicheng Sun
- Department of Hepatobiliary Surgery, The Affiliated Drum Tower Hospital of Nanjing University Medical School, Nanjing 210008, China; Liver Transplantation Center, The First Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing 210029, China.
| | - Michael Karin
- Laboratory of Gene Regulation and Signal Transduction, Departments of Pharmacology and Pathology, University of California San Diego, School of Medicine, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA.
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Matsuoka N, Kozuru H, Koga T, Abiru S, Yamasaki K, Komori A, Fujita Y, Tenmoku J, Asano T, Sato S, Suzuki E, Furuya M, Kobayashi H, Watanabe H, Naganuma A, Yoshizawa K, Shimada M, Ario K, Yamashita H, Kohno H, Kaneyoshi T, Nakamura M, Furukawa H, Takahashi A, Kawakami A, Ohira H, Yatsuhashi H, Migita K. Galectin-9 in autoimmune hepatitis: Correlation between serum levels of galectin-9 and M2BPGi in patients with autoimmune hepatitis. Medicine (Baltimore) 2019; 98:e16924. [PMID: 31464928 PMCID: PMC6736219 DOI: 10.1097/md.0000000000016924] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Autoimmune hepatitis (AIH) is a disorder of unknown etiology in which immune-mediated liver damage progresses to cirrhosis or hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). The mainstay therapy for AIH is steroids and other immunosuppressive treatments. Currently, there are no validated markers for monitoring immune-mediated hepatic inflammation. Galectin-9 has recently been identified as a potential biomarker in patients with chronic liver disease. The objective of this study was to determine whether Galectin-9 and other serum proteins are associated with active disease in AIH patients.We enrolled 77 Japanese patients with well-documented AIH who were identified from the National Hospital Organization-AIH-liver-network database, as well as 32 patients with chronic hepatitis C (CHC), 27 patients with SLE, and 17 healthy control subjects. Serum levels of galectin-9, and markers of liver injury were measured and compared between groups.Serum levels of galectin-9 were significantly higher in AIH patients than in CHC patients (13.8 ± 4.9 ng/mL vs 8.9 ± 3.0 ng/mL, P < .001) or healthy controls (13.8 ± 4.9 ng/mL vs 5.0 ± 1.3 ng/mL, P < .001). In AIH group, serum galectin-9 levels weakly correlated with alanine aminotransferase levels or total bilirubin (TB) and strongly correlated with C-X-C motif chemokine 10 (CXCL10) and Mac-2 binding protein glycosylation isomer (M2BPGi) levels, but did not correlate with the histological grade of liver fibrosis. Steroid treatment of AIH patients significantly reduced serum galectin-9 levels (14.1 ± 4.9 ng/mL vs 8.3 ± 3.8 ng/mL, P < .001). SLE patients exhibited higher galectin-9 levels, whereas the galectin-9 levels did not correlate with liver function tests such as alanine aminotransferase levels.Serum galectin-9 correlated with disease status in AIH patients and could thus be useful biomarkers to detect hepatic autoimmunity. Because circulating galectin-9 reflects autoimmune-mediated inflammation, it may have additional utility as a biomarker for other autoimmune disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Naoki Matsuoka
- Clinical Research Center, Nagasaki Medical Center, Nagasaki
- Department of Rheumatology, Fukushima Medical University, Fukushima
| | - Hideko Kozuru
- Clinical Research Center, Nagasaki Medical Center, Nagasaki
| | - Tomohiro Koga
- Department of Immunology and Rheumatology, Unit of Translational Medicine, Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Nagasaki University, Nagasaki
| | - Seigo Abiru
- Clinical Research Center, Nagasaki Medical Center, Nagasaki
| | | | | | - Yuya Fujita
- Department of Rheumatology, Fukushima Medical University, Fukushima
| | - Junpei Tenmoku
- Department of Rheumatology, Fukushima Medical University, Fukushima
| | - Tomoyuki Asano
- Department of Rheumatology, Fukushima Medical University, Fukushima
| | - Shuzo Sato
- Department of Rheumatology, Fukushima Medical University, Fukushima
| | - Eiji Suzuki
- Department of Rheumatology, Fukushima Medical University, Fukushima
| | - Makiko Furuya
- Department of Rheumatology, Fukushima Medical University, Fukushima
| | - Hiroko Kobayashi
- Department of Rheumatology, Fukushima Medical University, Fukushima
| | - Hiroshi Watanabe
- Department of Rheumatology, Fukushima Medical University, Fukushima
| | - Atsushi Naganuma
- National Hospital Organization, Takasaki Medical Center, Takasaki
| | - Kaname Yoshizawa
- National Hospital Organization, Shinsyu-Ueda Medical Center, Ueda, Nagano
| | - Masaaki Shimada
- National Hospital Organization, Nagoya Medical Center, Nagoya, Aichi
| | - Keisuke Ario
- National Hospital Organization, Ureshino Medical Center, Ureshino, Saga
| | | | - Hiroshi Kohno
- National Hospital Organization, Kure Medical Center, Kure
| | - Toshihiko Kaneyoshi
- National Hospital Organization, Fukuyama Medical Center, Fukuyama, Hiroshima
| | - Minoru Nakamura
- Department of Hepatology, Nagasaki University Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Nagasaki University, Nagasaki
| | - Hiroshi Furukawa
- Molecular and Genetic Epidemiology Laboratory, Faculty of Medicine, University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba
| | - Atsushi Takahashi
- Department of Gastroenterology, Fukushima Medical University, Fukushima, Japan
| | - Atsushi Kawakami
- Department of Immunology and Rheumatology, Unit of Translational Medicine, Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Nagasaki University, Nagasaki
| | - Hiromasa Ohira
- Department of Gastroenterology, Fukushima Medical University, Fukushima, Japan
| | | | - Kiyoshi Migita
- Clinical Research Center, Nagasaki Medical Center, Nagasaki
- Department of Rheumatology, Fukushima Medical University, Fukushima
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26
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Restriction of Human Cytomegalovirus Infection by Galectin-9. J Virol 2019; 93:JVI.01746-18. [PMID: 30487283 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01746-18] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2018] [Accepted: 10/31/2018] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) is a ubiquitous human herpesvirus. While HCMV infection is generally asymptomatic in the immunocompetent, it can have devastating consequences in those with compromised or underdeveloped immune systems, including transplant recipients and neonates. Galectins are a widely expressed protein family that have been demonstrated to modulate both antiviral immunity and regulate direct host-virus interactions. The potential for galectins to directly modulate HCMV infection has not previously been studied, and our results reveal that galectin-9 (Gal-9) can potently inhibit HCMV infection. Gal-9-mediated inhibition of HCMV was dependent upon its carbohydrate recognition domains and thus dependent on glycan interactions. Temperature shift studies revealed that Gal-9 specific inhibition was mediated primarily at the level of virus-cell fusion and not binding. Additionally, we found that during reactivation of HCMV in hematopoietic stem cell transplant (HSCT) patients soluble Gal-9 is upregulated. This study provides the first evidence for Gal-9 functioning as a potent antiviral defense effector molecule against HCMV infection and identifies it as a potential clinical candidate to restrict HCMV infections.IMPORTANCE Human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) continues to cause serious and often life-threatening disease in those with impaired or underdeveloped immune systems. This virus is able to infect and replicate in a wide range of human cell types, which enables the virus to spread to other individuals in a number of settings. Current antiviral drugs are associated with a significant toxicity profile, and there is no vaccine; these factors highlight a need to identify additional targets for the development of anti-HCMV therapies. We demonstrate for the first time that secretion of a member of the galectin family of proteins, galectin-9 (Gal-9), is upregulated during natural HCMV-reactivated infection and that this soluble cellular protein possesses a potent capacity to block HCMV infection by inhibiting virus entry into the host cell. Our findings support the possibility of harnessing the antiviral properties of Gal-9 to prevent HCMV infection and disease.
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Machala EA, McSharry BP, Rouse BT, Abendroth A, Slobedman B. Gal power: the diverse roles of galectins in regulating viral infections. J Gen Virol 2019; 100:333-349. [PMID: 30648945 DOI: 10.1099/jgv.0.001208] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Viruses, as a class of pathogenic microbe, remain a significant health burden globally. Viral infections result in significant morbidity and mortality annually and many remain in need of novel vaccine and anti-viral strategies. The development of effective novel anti-viral therapeutics, in particular, requires detailed understanding of the mechanism of viral infection, and the host response, including the innate and adaptive arms of the immune system. In recent years, the role of glycans and lectins in pathogen-host interactions has become an increasingly relevant issue. This review focuses on the interactions between a specific lectin family, galectins, and the broad range of viral infections in which they play a role. Discussed are the diverse activities that galectins play in interacting directly with virions or the cells they infect, to promote or inhibit viral infection. In addition we describe how galectin expression is regulated both transcriptionally and post-transcriptionally by viral infections. We also compare the contribution of known galectin-mediated immune modulation, across a range of innate and adaptive immune anti-viral responses, to the outcome of viral infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emily A Machala
- 1Discipline of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, University of Sydney, Camperdown, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Brian P McSharry
- 1Discipline of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, University of Sydney, Camperdown, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Barry T Rouse
- 2Department of Biomedical and Diagnostic Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee, USA
| | - Allison Abendroth
- 1Discipline of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, University of Sydney, Camperdown, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Barry Slobedman
- 1Discipline of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, University of Sydney, Camperdown, New South Wales, Australia
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Yang Y, Tu ZK, Liu XK, Zhang P. Mononuclear phagocyte system in hepatitis C virus infection. World J Gastroenterol 2018; 24:4962-4973. [PMID: 30510371 PMCID: PMC6262249 DOI: 10.3748/wjg.v24.i44.4962] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2018] [Revised: 10/30/2018] [Accepted: 11/08/2018] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The mononuclear phagocyte system (MPS), which consists of monocytes, dendritic cells (DCs), and macrophages, plays a vital role in the innate immune defense against pathogens. Hepatitis C virus (HCV) is efficient in evading the host immunity, thereby facilitating its development into chronic infection. Chronic HCV infection is the leading cause of end-stage liver diseases, liver cirrhosis, and hepatocellular carcinoma. Acquired immune response was regarded as the key factor to eradicate HCV. However, innate immunity can regulate the acquired immune response. Innate immunity-derived cytokines shape the adaptive immunity by regulating T-cell differentiation, which determines the outcome of acute HCV infection. Inhibition of HCV-specific T-cell responses is one of the most important strategies for immune system evasion. It is meaningful to illustrate the role of innate immune response in HCV infection. With the MPS being the important factor in innate immunity, therefore, understanding the role of the MPS in HCV infection will shed light on the pathophysiology of chronic HCV infection. In this review, we outline the impact of HCV infection on the MPS and cytokine production. We discuss how HCV is detected by the MPS and describe the function and impairment of MPS components in HCV infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu Yang
- Department of Hepatobiliary and Pancreatic Surgery, The First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun 130021, Jilin Province, China
| | - Zheng-Kun Tu
- Institute of Translational Medicine, The First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun 130061, Jilin Province, China
| | - Xing-Kai Liu
- Department of Hepatobiliary and Pancreatic Surgery, The First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun 130021, Jilin Province, China
| | - Ping Zhang
- Department of Hepatobiliary and Pancreatic Surgery, The First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun 130021, Jilin Province, China
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Premeaux TA, D'Antoni ML, Abdel-Mohsen M, Pillai SK, Kallianpur KJ, Nakamoto BK, Agsalda-Garcia M, Shiramizu B, Shikuma CM, Gisslén M, Price RW, Valcour V, Ndhlovu LC. Elevated cerebrospinal fluid Galectin-9 is associated with central nervous system immune activation and poor cognitive performance in older HIV-infected individuals. J Neurovirol 2018; 25:150-161. [PMID: 30478799 DOI: 10.1007/s13365-018-0696-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2018] [Revised: 10/17/2018] [Accepted: 10/29/2018] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
We previously reported that galectin-9 (Gal-9), a soluble lectin with immunomodulatory properties, is elevated in plasma during HIV infection and induces HIV transcription. The link between Gal-9 and compromised neuronal function is becoming increasingly evident; however, the association with neuroHIV remains unknown. We measured Gal-9 levels by ELISA in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and plasma of 70 HIV-infected (HIV+) adults stratified by age (older > 40 years and younger < 40 years) either ART suppressed or with detectable CSF HIV RNA, including a subgroup with cognitive assessments, and 18 HIV uninfected (HIV-) controls. Gal-9 tissue expression was compared in necropsy brain specimens from HIV- and HIV+ donors using gene datasets and immunohistochemistry. Among older HIV+ adults, CSF Gal-9 was elevated in the ART suppressed and CSF viremic groups compared to controls, whereas in the younger group, Gal-9 levels were elevated only in the CSF viremic group (p < 0.05). CSF Gal-9 positively correlated with age in all groups (p < 0.05). CSF Gal-9 tracked with CSF HIV RNA irrespective of age (β = 0.33; p < 0.05). Higher CSF Gal-9 in the older viremic HIV+ group correlated with worse neuropsychological test performance scores independently of age and CSF HIV RNA (p < 0.05). Furthermore, CSF Gal-9 directly correlated with myeloid activation (CSF-soluble CD163 and neopterin) in both HIV+ older groups (p < 0.05). Among HIV+ necropsy specimens, Gal-9 expression was increased in select brain regions compared to controls (p < 0.05). Gal-9 may serve as a novel neuroimmuno-modulatory protein that is involved in driving cognitive deficits in those aging with HIV and may be valuable in tracking cognitive abnormalities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas A Premeaux
- Department of Tropical Medicine, Medical Microbiology & Pharmacology, John A. Burns School of Medicine, University of Hawai'i, 651 Ilalo St BSB 325, Honolulu, HI, 96813, USA
| | - Michelle L D'Antoni
- Department of Tropical Medicine, Medical Microbiology & Pharmacology, John A. Burns School of Medicine, University of Hawai'i, 651 Ilalo St BSB 325, Honolulu, HI, 96813, USA.,Hawai'i Center for AIDS, John A. Burns School of Medicine, University of Hawai'i, 651 Ilalo St BSB 225, Honolulu, HI, 96813, USA
| | | | - Satish K Pillai
- Blood Systems Research Institute, 270 Masonic Ave, San Francisco, CA, 94118, USA
| | - Kalpana J Kallianpur
- Department of Tropical Medicine, Medical Microbiology & Pharmacology, John A. Burns School of Medicine, University of Hawai'i, 651 Ilalo St BSB 325, Honolulu, HI, 96813, USA.,Hawai'i Center for AIDS, John A. Burns School of Medicine, University of Hawai'i, 651 Ilalo St BSB 225, Honolulu, HI, 96813, USA
| | - Beau K Nakamoto
- Hawai'i Center for AIDS, John A. Burns School of Medicine, University of Hawai'i, 651 Ilalo St BSB 225, Honolulu, HI, 96813, USA.,Straub Medical Center, 888 S King St, Honolulu, HI, 96813, USA
| | - Melissa Agsalda-Garcia
- Hawai'i Center for AIDS, John A. Burns School of Medicine, University of Hawai'i, 651 Ilalo St BSB 225, Honolulu, HI, 96813, USA
| | - Bruce Shiramizu
- Hawai'i Center for AIDS, John A. Burns School of Medicine, University of Hawai'i, 651 Ilalo St BSB 225, Honolulu, HI, 96813, USA
| | - Cecilia M Shikuma
- Hawai'i Center for AIDS, John A. Burns School of Medicine, University of Hawai'i, 651 Ilalo St BSB 225, Honolulu, HI, 96813, USA
| | - Magnus Gisslén
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Institute of Biomedicine, Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, 405 30, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Richard W Price
- Department of Neurology, University of California San Francisco, 1001 Potrero Ave, San Francisco, CA, 94110, USA
| | - Victor Valcour
- Memory and Aging Center, Department of Neurology, University of California, 675 Nelson Rising Lane, San Francisco, CA, 94158, USA
| | - Lishomwa C Ndhlovu
- Department of Tropical Medicine, Medical Microbiology & Pharmacology, John A. Burns School of Medicine, University of Hawai'i, 651 Ilalo St BSB 325, Honolulu, HI, 96813, USA. .,Hawai'i Center for AIDS, John A. Burns School of Medicine, University of Hawai'i, 651 Ilalo St BSB 225, Honolulu, HI, 96813, USA.
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30
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Wu J, Yang J, Ding J, Guo X, Zhu XQ, Zheng Y. Exosomes in virus-associated cancer. Cancer Lett 2018; 438:44-51. [PMID: 30219505 DOI: 10.1016/j.canlet.2018.09.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2018] [Revised: 08/30/2018] [Accepted: 09/10/2018] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Exosomes are phospholipid bilayer membrane-enclosed vesicles in a size from 30 to 150 nm, carrying a variety of active components, such as proteins, mRNA and miRNAs, and are involved in intercellular communication. Exosomes are released by almost all living cells and detected in various biological fluids. Viruses especially oncogenic viruses have been reported to influence the formation of virus-associated cancer through reshaping the tumor microenvironment via exosomes. In this review, a role of exosomes released by oncogenic virus-infected cells in promoting or inhibiting cancer formation is outlined. Moreover, the prospects and challenges of exosome applications in cancer therapies are critically discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jin'en Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, Key Laboratory of Veterinary Parasitology of Gansu Province, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, CAAS, Lanzhou, 730046, China
| | - Jing Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, Key Laboratory of Veterinary Parasitology of Gansu Province, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, CAAS, Lanzhou, 730046, China
| | - Juntao Ding
- College of Life Science and Technology, Xinjiang University, Urumqi, 830046, China
| | - Xiaola Guo
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, Key Laboratory of Veterinary Parasitology of Gansu Province, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, CAAS, Lanzhou, 730046, China
| | - Xing-Quan Zhu
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, Key Laboratory of Veterinary Parasitology of Gansu Province, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, CAAS, Lanzhou, 730046, China; Jiangsu Co-innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonoses, Yangzhou University College of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou, 225009, China
| | - Yadong Zheng
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, Key Laboratory of Veterinary Parasitology of Gansu Province, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, CAAS, Lanzhou, 730046, China; Jiangsu Co-innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonoses, Yangzhou University College of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou, 225009, China.
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31
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Fujita K, Niki T, Nomura T, Oura K, Tadokoro T, Sakamoto T, Tani J, Yoneyama H, Morishita A, Kuroda N, Arai T, Nishimoto N, Himoto T, Hirashima M, Masaki T. Correlation between serum galectin-9 levels and liver fibrosis. J Gastroenterol Hepatol 2018; 33:492-499. [PMID: 28618039 DOI: 10.1111/jgh.13851] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2017] [Revised: 06/07/2017] [Accepted: 06/11/2017] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND AIM Chronic liver diseases progress from chronic inflammation to fibrosis to tumorigenesis. Galectin-9, a β-galactoside-specific animal lectin, is indicated to contribute to all three steps of progression. The aim of this study was to determine which of the three steps was most dominant in elevating the serum galectin-9 concentration and to test the possibility of galectin-9 as a serum biomarker. METHODS Japanese patients with chronic hepatitis, liver cirrhosis, hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), non-alcoholic fatty liver disease, or alcoholic liver disease who provided informed consent were enrolled in this study. Serum galectin-9 levels were measured using a sandwich ELISA. Multiple regression analyses were performed using ezr to identify factors that determined serum galectin-9 concentration. RESULTS One hundred one patients with 50 of chronic hepatitis and 51 of liver cirrhosis were enrolled; the cohort included 45 cases of hepatitis C virus infection, 13 cases of hepatitis B virus infection, and 46 cases with HCC-related complications. The median serum galectin-9 concentration was 77.54 pg/mL (interquartile range: 18.89-241.9 pg/mL). Multiple linear regression analyses proved Fibrosis-4 index and aspartate aminotransferase to platelet ratio index, indexes of liver fibrosis, were able to predict the serum galectin-9 levels with statistical significance. A multiple logistic regression analysis determined 10 pg/mL increase in the serum galectin-9 concentration presented an odds ratio of 3.90 for liver fibrosis progression. CONCLUSIONS The serum galectin-9 concentration represents a potential biomarker of liver fibrosis in patients with chronic liver diseases, regardless of chronic inflammation or the presence of HCC complications. Furthermore, higher serum galectin-9 levels are a predictor for liver fibrosis progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Koji Fujita
- Department of Gastroenterology and Neurology, Faculty of Medicine, Kagawa University, Takamatsu, Kagawa, Japan
| | - Toshiro Niki
- Department of Immunology and Immunopathology, Faculty of Medicine, Kagawa University, Takamatsu, Kagawa, Japan
| | - Takako Nomura
- Department of Gastroenterology and Neurology, Faculty of Medicine, Kagawa University, Takamatsu, Kagawa, Japan
| | - Kyoko Oura
- Department of Gastroenterology and Neurology, Faculty of Medicine, Kagawa University, Takamatsu, Kagawa, Japan
| | - Tomoko Tadokoro
- Department of Gastroenterology and Neurology, Faculty of Medicine, Kagawa University, Takamatsu, Kagawa, Japan
| | - Teppei Sakamoto
- Department of Gastroenterology and Neurology, Faculty of Medicine, Kagawa University, Takamatsu, Kagawa, Japan
| | - Joji Tani
- Department of Gastroenterology and Neurology, Faculty of Medicine, Kagawa University, Takamatsu, Kagawa, Japan
| | - Hirohito Yoneyama
- Department of Gastroenterology and Neurology, Faculty of Medicine, Kagawa University, Takamatsu, Kagawa, Japan
| | - Asahiro Morishita
- Department of Gastroenterology and Neurology, Faculty of Medicine, Kagawa University, Takamatsu, Kagawa, Japan
| | - Noriyuki Kuroda
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, Kagawa University Hospital, Kita District, Kagawa, Japan
| | - Takeshi Arai
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, Kagawa University Hospital, Kita District, Kagawa, Japan
| | - Naoki Nishimoto
- Clinical Research Support Center, Kagawa University Hospital, Kita District, Kagawa, Japan
| | - Takashi Himoto
- Department of Medical Technology, Kagawa Prefectural University of Health Sciences, Takamatsu, Kagawa, Japan
| | - Mitsuomi Hirashima
- Department of Immunology and Immunopathology, Faculty of Medicine, Kagawa University, Takamatsu, Kagawa, Japan
| | - Tsutomu Masaki
- Department of Gastroenterology and Neurology, Faculty of Medicine, Kagawa University, Takamatsu, Kagawa, Japan
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32
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Translational Implication of Galectin-9 in the Pathogenesis and Treatment of Viral Infection. Int J Mol Sci 2017; 18:ijms18102108. [PMID: 28991189 PMCID: PMC5666790 DOI: 10.3390/ijms18102108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2017] [Revised: 09/29/2017] [Accepted: 10/06/2017] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The interaction between galectin-9 and its receptor, Tim-3, triggers a series of signaling events that regulate immune responses. The expression of galectin-9 has been shown to be increased in a variety of target cells of many different viruses, such as hepatitis C virus (HCV), hepatitis B virus (HBV), herpes simplex virus (HSV), influenza virus, dengue virus (DENV), and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). This enhanced expression of galectin-9 following viral infection promotes significant changes in the behaviors of the virus-infected cells, and the resulting events tightly correlate with the immunopathogenesis of the viral disease. Because the human immune response to different viral infections can vary, and the lack of appropriate treatment can have potentially fatal consequences, understanding the implications of galectin-9 is crucial for developing better methods for monitoring and treating viral infections. This review seeks to address how we can apply the current understanding of galectin-9 function to better understand the pathogenesis of viral infection and better treat viral diseases.
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Secretion of Galectin-9 as a DAMP during Dengue Virus Infection in THP-1 Cells. Int J Mol Sci 2017; 18:ijms18081644. [PMID: 28788062 PMCID: PMC5578034 DOI: 10.3390/ijms18081644] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2017] [Revised: 07/17/2017] [Accepted: 07/22/2017] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) are endogenous cellular molecules released to the extracellular environment in response to stress conditions such as virus infection. Galectins are β-galactoside-binding proteins that are widely expressed in cells and tissues of the immune system, are localized in the cell cytoplasm, and have roles in inflammatory responses and immune responses against infection. Elevated levels of galectin-9 (Gal-9) in natural human infections have been documented in numerous reports. To investigate the effect of dengue virus (DENV) infection on expression of endogenous Gal-9, monocytic THP-1 cells were infected with varying doses of DENV-3 (multiplicity of infection (MOI) 0.01, 0.03 and 0.1) and incubated at varying time points (Day 1, Day 2, Day 3). Results showed augmentation of Gal-9 levels in the supernatant, reduction of Gal-9 levels in the cells and decreased expression of LGALS9 mRNA, while DENV-3 mRNA copies for all three doses remained stable through time. Dengue virus induced the secretion of Gal-9 as a danger response; in turn, Gal-9 and other inflammatory factors, and stimulated effector responses may have limited further viral replication. The results in this pilot experiment add to the evidence of Gal-9 as a potential DAMP.
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34
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Guo P, Yu H, Wang Y, Xie X, Chen G. Exosome: An Emerging Participant in the Development of Liver Disease. HEPATITIS MONTHLY 2017; 17. [DOI: 10.5812/hepatmon.58021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/30/2023]
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Golden-Mason L, Rosen HR. Galectin-9: Diverse roles in hepatic immune homeostasis and inflammation. Hepatology 2017; 66:271-279. [PMID: 28195343 PMCID: PMC5521806 DOI: 10.1002/hep.29106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2016] [Revised: 01/27/2017] [Accepted: 02/06/2017] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Glycan-binding proteins, which include galectins, are involved at all stages of immunity and inflammation, from initiation through resolution. Galectin-9 (Gal-9) is highly expressed in the liver and has a wide variety of biological functions in innate and adaptive immunity that are instrumental in the maintenance of hepatic homeostasis. In the setting of viral hepatitis, increased expression of Gal-9 drives the expansion of regulatory T cells and contraction of effector T cells, thereby favoring viral persistence. The dichotomous nature of Gal-9 is evident in hepatocellular carcinoma, where loss of expression in hepatocytes promotes tumor growth and metastasis, whereas overexpression by Kupffer cells and endothelial cells inhibits the antitumor immune response. In nonalcoholic fatty liver disease, Gal-9 is involved indirectly in the expansion of protective natural killer T-cell populations. In ischemic liver injury, hepatocyte-derived Gal-9 is both diagnostic and cytoprotective. In drug-induced acute liver failure, plasma levels correlate with outcome. Here, we offer a synthesis of recent and emerging findings on Gal-9 in the regulation of hepatic inflammation. Ongoing studies are warranted to better elucidate the pathophysiology of hepatic immune-mediated diseases and to develop new therapeutic interventions using glycan-binding proteins. (Hepatology 2017;66:271-279).
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucy Golden-Mason
- Division of Gastroenterology & Hepatology, University of Colorado Denver Medical Center, Aurora, CO
| | - Hugo R Rosen
- Division of Gastroenterology & Hepatology, University of Colorado Denver Medical Center, Aurora, CO
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Shen J, Huang CK, Yu H, Shen B, Zhang Y, Liang Y, Li Z, Feng X, Zhao J, Duan L, Cai X. The role of exosomes in hepatitis, liver cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma. J Cell Mol Med 2017; 21:986-992. [PMID: 28224705 PMCID: PMC5387156 DOI: 10.1111/jcmm.12950] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2016] [Accepted: 06/29/2016] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Exosomes are small vesicles that were initially thought to be a mechanism for discarding unneeded membrane proteins from reticulocytes. Their mediation of intercellular communication appears to be associated with several biological functions. Current studies have shown that most mammalian cells undergo the process of exosome formation and utilize exosome‐mediated cell communication. Exosomes contain various microRNAs, mRNAs and proteins. They have been reported to mediate multiple functions, such as antigen presentation, immune escape and tumour progression. This concise review highlights the findings regarding the roles of exosomes in liver diseases, particularly hepatitis B, hepatitis C, liver cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma. However, further elucidation of the contributions of exosomes to intercellular information transmission is needed. The potential medical applications of exosomes in liver diseases seem practical and will depend on the ingenuity of future investigators and their insights into exosome‐mediated biological processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiliang Shen
- Department of General Surgery, Sir Run-Run Shaw Hospital, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Chiung-Kuei Huang
- Department of Medicine, Rhode Island Hospital and The Warren Alpert Medical School of Brown University, Providence, RI, USA
| | - Hong Yu
- Department of General Surgery, Sir Run-Run Shaw Hospital, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Bo Shen
- Department of General Surgery, Sir Run-Run Shaw Hospital, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Yaping Zhang
- Department of Anesthesiology, Sir Run-Run Shaw Hospital, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Yuelong Liang
- Department of General Surgery, Sir Run-Run Shaw Hospital, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Zheyong Li
- Department of General Surgery, Sir Run-Run Shaw Hospital, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Xu Feng
- Department of General Surgery, Sir Run-Run Shaw Hospital, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Jie Zhao
- Department of General Surgery, Sir Run-Run Shaw Hospital, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Lian Duan
- Department of General Surgery, Sir Run-Run Shaw Hospital, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Xiujun Cai
- Department of General Surgery, Sir Run-Run Shaw Hospital, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
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Hepatitis C virus and atherosclerosis: A legacy after virologic cure? Clin Res Hepatol Gastroenterol 2017; 41:25-30. [PMID: 27840032 DOI: 10.1016/j.clinre.2016.09.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2016] [Revised: 09/14/2016] [Accepted: 09/22/2016] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Hepatitis C virus (HCV) is a major pathogen with approximately 3% of the world's population (over 170 million) infected. Epidemiological studies have shown HCV is associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular and cerebrovascular mortality as well as peripheral arterial disease. This is despite HCV inducing an ostensibly favourable lipid profile with accompanying low classical risk score for atherosclerosis (AS). We discuss possible factors involved in the aetiopathogenesis of atherosclerosis in chronic HCV and hypothesise that an important mechanism underlying the development of AS is the presence of circulating low-density immune complexes that induce an inflammatory response. We suggest that HCV particles may be inducing an antibody response to lipoproteins present in the lipoviral particles and sub-viral particles - a concept similar to the more general 'autoantibody' response to modified LDL. After virologic cure some AS risk factors will recede but an increase in serum cholesterol could result in progression of early atherosclerotic lesions, leaving a legacy from persistent HCV infection that has clinical and therapeutic implications.
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