FSH stimulates lipid biosynthesis in chicken adipose tissue by upregulating the expression of its receptor FSHR

Neuroendocrinology of bone

The past decade has witnessed significant advances in our understanding of skeletal homeostasis and the mechanisms that mediate the loss of bone in primary and secondary osteoporosis. Recent breakthroughs have primarily emerged from identifying disease-causing mutations and phenocopying human bone disease in rodents. Notably, using genetically-modified rodent models, disrupting the reciprocal relationship with tropic pituitary hormone and effector hormones, we have learned that pituitary hormones have independent roles in skeletal physiology, beyond their effects exerted through target endocrine glands. The rise of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) in the late perimenopause may account, at least in part, for the rapid bone loss when estrogen is normal, while low thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) levels may contribute to the bone loss in thyrotoxicosis. Admittedly speculative, suppressed levels of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) may directly exacerbate bone loss in the setting of glucocorticoid-induced osteoporosis. Furthermore, beyond their established roles in reproduction and lactation, oxytocin and prolactin may affect intergenerational calcium transfer and therefore fetal skeletal mineralization, whereas elevated vasopressin levels in chronic hyponatremic states may increase the risk of bone loss.. Here, we discuss the interaction of each pituitary hormone in relation to its role in bone physiology and pathophysiology.

Effects of follicle-stimulating hormone on energy balance and tissue metabolic health after loss of ovarian function

Loss of ovarian function imparts increased susceptibility to obesity and metabolic disease. These effects are largely attributed to decreased estradiol (E2), but the role of increased follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) in modulating energy balance has not been fully investigated. Previous work that blocked FSH binding to its receptor in mice suggested this hormone may play a part in modulating body weight and energy expenditure after ovariectomy (OVX). We used an alternate approach to isolate the individual and combined contributions of FSH and E2 in mediating energy imbalance and changes in tissue-level metabolic health. Female Wistar rats were ovariectomized and given the gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH) antagonist degarelix to suppress FSH production. E2 and FSH were then added back individually and in combination for a period of 3 wk. Energy balance, body mass composition, and transcriptomic profiles of individual tissues were obtained. In contrast to previous studies, suppression and replacement of FSH in our paradigm had no effect on body weight, body composition, food intake, or energy expenditure. We did, however, observe organ-specific effects of FSH that produced unique transcriptomic signatures of FSH in retroperitoneal white adipose tissue. These included reductions in biological processes related to lipogenesis and carbohydrate transport. In addition, rats administered FSH had reduced liver triglyceride concentration (P < 0.001), which correlated with FSH-induced changes at the transcriptomic level. Although not appearing to modulate energy balance after loss of ovarian function in rats, FSH may still impart tissue-specific effects in the liver and white adipose tissue that might affect the metabolic health of those organs.NEW & NOTEWORTHY We find no effect of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) on energy balance using a novel model in which rats are ovariectomized, subjected to gonadotropin-releasing hormone antagonism, and systematically given back FSH by osmotic pump. However, tissue-specific effects of FSH on adipose tissue and liver were observed in this study. These include unique transcriptomic signatures induced by the hormone and a stark reduction in hepatic triglyceride accumulation.

The pFSH dose affects the efficiency of in vivo embryo production in Santa Inês ewes

This study compared the follicular growth, superovulatory response, and in vivo embryo production after administering two doses of porcine follicle-stimulating hormone (pFSH) in Santa Inês ewes. The estrous cycle of 36 multiparous ewes was synchronized with the Day 0 protocol and superovulated with 133 mg (G133, n=18) or 200 mg (G200, n=18) of pFSH. Ultrasonographic evaluations of the ovaries were performed, ewes were mated and submitted to non-surgical embryo recovery. Viable blastocysts were stained with Nile Red and Hoechst. The G200 had a greater number of medium and large follicles, as well as a larger size of the third largest follicle. A total of 97.2% (35/36) of the ewes came into estrus and it was possible to transpose cervix in 80.6% (29/36). There were no effects of treatments in the response to superovulation, the proportion of ewes in which was possible to transpose the cervix, the number of corpora lutea, the number of anovulatory follicles, the proportion of ewes flushed with at least one recovered structure, number of recovered structures, number of viable embryos, viability rate, and recovery rate. The G200 ewes were in estrus for a longer period of time than the G133 ewes (54.0 ± 4.5 h vs. 40.3 ± 3.6 h) and produced more freezable embryos (6.5 ± 1.6 vs. 2.3 ± 0.7) than G133. Both doses promoted an efficient superovulatory response and did not affect embryonic lipid accumulation. The dose of 200 mg of pFSH showed greater potential to increase the superovulatory response, as it increased follicular recruitment and the recovery of freezable embryos.

Trajectories of Blood Lipids Profile in Midlife Women: Does Menopause Matter?

Background It remains controversial whether changes of lipids over menopause transition (MT) are more age-related or more menopause-related. We aimed to classify women into different trajectory groups based on pattern and level of total cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, apolipoprotein B (ApoB), high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C), triglyceride, and apolipoprotein A-I over the MT, as well as examine the effect of MT-related factors on lipid trajectory groups and levels. Methods and Results The cohort included 2582 subjects from the Study of Women's Health Across the Nation. Different trajectory patterns of lipids during the MT were determined using the latent class growth mixture model. The predictors of distinct blood lipids trajectory groups were determined by multiple linear regression models and multinomial logistic regression models. Women were categorized into either inverse U-shape or progressing trajectory group in each blood lipids measurement. The inverse U-shape total cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, apolipoprotein B, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol, log(TG), and apolipoprotein A-I trajectories showed an increasing trend before menopause but a decreasing trend after menopause. The U-shape total cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, and apolipoprotein B trajectories started to rise 5 years before menopause. Age at menopause, follicle-stimulating hormone, vasomotor symptoms, and estradiol predicted the shape and level of the women's lipids over the MT. Conclusions Distinct lipid trajectories were identified during the MT, and the existence of at least 1 trajectory in each lipid parameters suggested a contribution of menopause. Our study highlights the need for earlier and continuous surveillance of lipids during the MT.

Follicle-stimulating hormone is negatively associated with nonalcoholic fatty liver disease in a Chinese elderly population: a retrospective observational study

BACKGROUND

Several studies have explored the connection between follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). However, the impact of FSH elevation on NAFLD remains a topic of debate. Hence, this investigation aimed to evaluate the potential correlation between FSH levels and NAFLD in the aging population.

METHODS

This was a retrospective observational cross-sectional study between July 2017 and August 2018 in our hospital. We used data obtained from 455 patients over 60 years old. Anthropometrics and laboratory tests were performed for each patient. NAFLD was diagnosed by sonographic features and the fatty liver index (LFI).

RESULTS

Of the 455 patients, 200 (43.96%) had NAFLD on their ultrasound and 169 (37.14%) had NAFLD according to the LFI. An intraclass correlation coefficient of the two methods was 80.4% (P < 0.001). People with NAFLD on their ultrasound showed lower FSH levels (52.68 vs. 61.39 IU/L) and more unfavorable metabolic profiles. FSH was negatively correlated with age, alanine aminotransferase, estradiol, testosterone, systolic blood pressure, waist, body mass index, fasting blood glucose, postload plasma glucose and positive associated with total cholesterol, high-density lipoprotein-cholesterol and low-density lipoprotein-cholesterol by Spearman correlation analysis (all P < 0.05). By controlling for all confounding factors, the odds ratios (OR) of FSH for NAFLD were determined in elderly individuals, both men and women, aged 60-70 years and over 70 years. These ORs were found to be 0.937, 0.982, 0.983, and 0.973, respectively, with corresponding 95% confidence intervals (CI) of 0.892-0.984 (P = 0.009), 0.971-0.993 (P = 0.002), 0.967-0.999 (P = 0.033), and 0.958-0.989 (P = 0.001). In addition, our findings demonstrated no significant correlation between FSH and advanced fibrosis when adjusting for potential covariates. The OR for advanced fibrosis was 0.979 (95% CI, 0.938-1.022, P = 0.339). Additionally, ROC curve analysis showed an optimal cut-off value of 66.91 for women and 15.25 for men for NAFLD diagnosis.

CONCLUSIONS

There was an inverse relationship observed between levels of FSH in the blood serum and NAFLD in the elderly population. These findings suggest that reduced FSH levels might serve as a potential risk factor or biomarker for NAFLD in the elderly.

Association of follicle-stimulating hormone with lipid profiles in older women: a cross-sectional SPECT-China study

AIMS

Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) is associated with higher risks of metabolic syndrome and diabetes in menopausal women. We aimed to investigate whether FSH was associated with the lipid profile in women older than 55 years.

DESIGN

The data were obtained from a cross-sectional study.

PARTICIPANTS

Our data were from the Survey on Prevalence in East China for Metabolic Diseases and Risk Factors (China, including Shanghai and Zhejiang, Jiangxi and Anhui provinces). A total of 1795 women older than 55 years were selected.

METHODS

Morning serum sex hormones and lipid profiles were measured. Linear and logistic regression analyses were used to analyse the data.

RESULTS

Lower FSH was associated with lower high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C) and higher triglycerides (TG), total cholesterol (TC)/HDL-C ratio and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C)/HDL-C ratio (all p for trend <0.05) after adjusting for age and other sex hormones. After further adjustment for body mass index, diabetes and hypertension, the associations of FSH with the lipid profile weakened, but the associations of FSH quartiles with HDL-C and the TC/HDL-C ratio were still significant (both p for trend <0.05). Compared with women in the highest FSH quartile, the odds of low HDL-C (HDL-C<1.04 mmol/L) in women in the lowest FSH quartile were 5.25 (95% CI 1.60 to 17.26) (p for trend <0.05) in the fully adjusted model, and the odds of TC≥6.22 mmol/L, TGs≥2.26 mmol/L and LDL-C≥4.14 mmol/L were not significant. Luteinising hormone did not show a significant association with dyslipidaemia.

CONCLUSION

Lower FSH was associated with a worse lipid profile in women older than 55. Diabetes, adiposity and hypertension mostly explained the association of FSH with TGs and the LDL-C/HDL-C ratio but only partially explained the associations of FSH with HDL-C and the TC/HDL-C ratio.

Extra-Gonadal and Non-Canonical Effects of FSH in Males

Recombinant follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) is commonly used for the treatment of female infertility and is increasingly being used in males as well, as recommended by notable guidelines. FSH is composed of an α subunit, shared with other hormones, and a β subunit, which confers specificity of biological action by interacting with its surface receptor (FSHR), predominantly located in granulosa and Sertoli cells. However, FSHRs also exist in extra-gonadal tissues, indicating potential effects beyond male fertility. Emerging evidence suggests that FSH may have extra-gonadal effects, including on bone metabolism, where it appears to stimulate bone resorption by binding to specific receptors on osteoclasts. Additionally, higher FSH levels have been associated with worse metabolic and cardiovascular outcomes, suggesting a possible impact on the cardiovascular system. FSH has also been implicated in immune response modulation, as FSHRs are expressed on immune cells and may influence inflammatory response. Furthermore, there is growing interest in the role of FSH in prostate cancer progression. This paper aims to provide a comprehensive analysis of the literature on the extra-gonadal effects of FSH in men, with a focus on the often-conflicting results reported in this field. Despite the contradictory findings, the potential for future development in this area is substantial, and further research is needed to elucidate the mechanisms underlying these effects and their clinical implications.

Atypical pituitary hormone-target tissue axis

A long-held belief is that pituitary hormones bind to their cognate receptors in classical target glands to actuate their manifold functions. However, a number of studies have shown that multiple types of pituitary hormone receptors are widely expressed in non-classical target organs. Each pituitary gland-derived hormone exhibits a wide range of nonconventional biological effects in these non-classical target organs. Herein, the extra biological functions of pituitary hormones, thyroid-stimulating hormone, follicle-stimulating hormone, luteinizing hormone, adrenocorticotrophic hormone, and prolactin when they act on non-classical organs were summarized, defined by the novel concept of an "atypical pituitary hormone-target tissue axis." This novel proposal explains the pathomechanisms of abnormal glucose and lipid metabolism, obesity, hypertension, fatty liver, and atherosclerosis while offering a more comprehensive and systematic insights into the coordinated regulation of environmental factors, genetic factors, and neuroendocrine hormones on human biological functions. The continued exploration of the physiology of the "atypical pituitary hormone-target tissue axis" could enable the identification of novel therapeutic targets for metabolic diseases.

Inadequate detection of the FSHR complicates future research on extragonadal FSHR localization

INTRODUCTION

Recently, follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) through interaction with its receptor (FSHR) has been proposed to play a role in postmenopausal osteoporosis and cardiovascular disease, rather than the loss of estrogen. To explore this hypothesis, unravelling which cells express extragonadal FSHR on protein level is key.

METHODS

We used two commercial anti-FSHR antibodies and validated them by performing immunohistochemistry on positive (ovary, testis) and negative controls (skin).

RESULTS

The monoclonal anti-FSHR antibody could not identify the FSHR in ovary or testis. The polyclonal anti-FSHR antibody stained the granulosa cells (ovary) and Sertoli cells (testis), yet there was equally intense staining of other cells/extracellular matrix. Furthermore, the polyclonal anti-FSHR antibody also stained skin tissue extensively, suggesting that the antibody stains more than just FSHR.

DISCUSSION

The findings in this study may add accuracy to literature on extragonadal FSHR localization and warrants attention to the use of inadequate anti-FSHR antibodies to value the potential role of FSH/FSHR in postmenopausal disease.

Associations of Serum Follicle-Stimulating Hormone and Luteinizing Hormone Levels with Fat and Lean Mass during Menopausal Transition

INTRODUCTION

The association of serum follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) levels with body fat mass remains inconclusive. Furthermore, little was known about the association of luteinizing hormone (LH) with body fat. This study aimed to investigate the associations of serum FSH and LH levels with fat and lean mass in women during menopausal transition.

METHODS

The data analyzed in this study were derived from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey from 1999 to 2002. Women aged from 35 to 60 years were eligible. Serum FSH and LH levels were assayed using the microparticle enzyme immunoassay technology. A dual energy X-ray absorptiometry was used to measure body fat mass and lean mass. Fat mass index (FMI) and fat-free mass index (FFMI) were respectively used to assess fat and lean mass. General linear regression was employed to examine the associations of serum FSH and LH levels with FMI and FFMI.

RESULTS

This study included 1,329 women. For the total participants, elevated serum FSH and LH levels were associated with an increased FMI (β = 0.004 and 0.007; 95% CI: 0.002, 0.006 and 0.004, 0.010, respectively) and a decreased FFMI (β = -0.004 and -0.007; 95% CI: -0.006, -0.002 and -0.010, -0.004, respectively). Furthermore, the significant associations of serum FSH and LH levels with FMI and FFMI were fully observed in postmenopausal women, especially in a certain range of higher serum FSH and LH quartiles.

CONCLUSION

Elevated serum FSH and LH levels were associated with increased body fat mass but decreased lean mass in postmenopausal women but not in premenopausal women. Furthermore, only higher serum FSH and LH percentiles were associated with fat and lean mass in postmenopausal women.

Effects of follicle-stimulating hormone on fat metabolism and cognitive impairment in women during menopause

Lipid metabolism disorder is a common pathological manifestation of menopausal women, and is also an important risk factor for many diseases at this stage of life. Epidemiological studies have shown that high levels of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) in menopausal women are closely associated with changes in body composition, central obesity, and cognitive decline. Exogenous FSH causes growth and proliferation of adipose, whereas blockage of the FSH signaling pathway leads to decline in adipose. Mechanistically, FSH, FSH receptor (FSHR), G protein coupling, gene mutation and other pathways are involved in adipogenesis and cognitive impairment. Here, we review the critical role and potential interactions of FSH in adipogenesis and cognitive impairment in menopausal women. Further understanding of the exact mechanisms of FSH aggravating obesity and cognitive impairment may provide a new perspective for promoting healthy aging in menopausal women.

The Diverse Roles of 17β-Estradiol in Non-Gonadal Tissues and Its Consequential Impact on Reproduction in Laying and Broiler Breeder Hens

Estradiol-17β (E2) has long been studied as the primary estrogen involved in sexual maturation of hens. Due to the oviparous nature of avian species, ovarian production of E2 has been indicated as the key steroid responsible for activating the formation of the eggshell and internal egg components in hens. This involves the integration and coordination between ovarian follicular development, liver metabolism and bone physiology to produce the follicle, yolk and albumen, and shell, respectively. However, the ability of E2 to be synthesized by non-gonadal tissues such as the skin, heart, muscle, liver, brain, adipose tissue, pancreas, and adrenal glands demonstrates the capability of this hormone to influence a variety of physiological processes. Thus, in this review, we intend to re-establish the role of E2 within these tissues and identify direct and indirect integration between the control of reproduction, metabolism, and bone physiology. Specifically, the sources of E2 and its activity in these tissues via the estrogen receptors (ERα, ERβ, GPR30) is described. This is followed by an update on the role of E2 during sexual differentiation of the embryo and maturation of the hen. We then also consider the implications of the recent discovery of additional E2 elevations during an extended laying cycle. Next, the specific roles of E2 in yolk formation and skeletal development are outlined. Finally, the consequences of altered E2 production in mature hens and the associated disorders are discussed. While these areas of study have been previously independently considered, this comprehensive review intends to highlight the critical roles played by E2 to alter and coordinate physiological processes in preparation for the laying cycle.

Seasonal and sex-dependent gene expression in emu (Dromaius novaehollandiae) fat tissues

Emu (Dromaius novaehollandiae) farming has been gaining wide interest for fat production. Oil rendered from this large flightless bird’s fat is valued for its anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties for uses in therapeutics and cosmetics. We analyzed the seasonal and sex-dependent differentially expressed (DE) genes involved in fat metabolism in emus. Samples were taken from back and abdominal fat tissues of a single set of four male and four female emus in April, June, and November for RNA-sequencing. We found 100 DE genes (47 seasonally in males; 34 seasonally in females; 19 between sexes). Seasonally DE genes with significant difference between the sexes in gene ontology terms suggested integrin beta chain-2 (ITGB2) influences fat changes, in concordance with earlier studies. Six seasonally DE genes functioned in more than two enriched pathways (two female: angiopoietin-like 4 (ANGPTL4) and lipoprotein lipase (LPL); four male: lumican (LUM), osteoglycin (OGN), aldolase B (ALDOB), and solute carrier family 37 member 2 (SLC37A2)). Two sexually DE genes, follicle stimulating hormone receptor (FSHR) and perilipin 2 (PLIN2), had functional investigations supporting their influence on fat gain and loss. The results suggested these nine genes influence fat metabolism and deposition in emus.

Dietary administration of D-chiro-inositol attenuates sex-specific metabolic imbalances in the 5xFAD mouse model of Alzheimer's disease

Increasing evidence shows that hypothalamic dysfunction, insulin resistance, and weight loss precede and progress along with the cognitive decline in sporadic Alzheimer's Disease (AD) with sex differences. This study aimed to determine the effect of oral dietary administration of D-Chiro-inositol (DCI), an inositol used against insulin resistance associated with polycystic ovary, on the occurrence of metabolic disorders in the transgenic 5xFAD mouse model of AD (FAD: Family Alzheimer's Disease). DCI was administered from 6 to 10 months of age to male and female 5xFAD mice and control (non-Tg) littermates. Energy balance and multiple metabolic and inflammatory parameters in the hypothalamus, liver and plasma were evaluated to assess the central and peripheral effects of DCI. Results indicated that weight loss and reduced food intake in 5xFAD mice were associated with decreased neuropeptides controlling food intake and the appearance of a pro-inflammatory state in the hypothalamus. Oral administration of DCI partially restored energy balance and hypothalamic parameters, highlighting an increased expression of Npy and Agrp and female-specific downregulation of Gfap and Igf1. DCI also partially normalized impaired insulin signaling and circulating insulin, GLP-1, and GIP deficiencies in 5xFAD mice. Principal component analysis of metabolic parameters indicated the presence of a female-specific fatty liver in 5xFAD mice: DCI administration reversed hepatic fat accumulation, β-oxidation, inflammation and increased GOT and GPT levels. Our study depicts that metabolic impairment along with the cognitive decline in a mouse model of AD, which is exacerbated in females, can be ameliorated by oral supplementation with insulin-sensitizing DCI.

Relationship between metabolic syndrome and follicle-stimulating hormone in postmenopausal women

Depletion of ovarian reserve during menopausal transition raises follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) markedly and menopause is related to an increased risk for metabolic syndrome (MetS). This study examined the relationship between FSH and MetS in postmenopausal women.We evaluated the anthropometric values, lipid profiles, high-sensitivity C-reactive protein (hs-CRP) level, Homeostasis model assessment for insulin resistance (HOMA-IR), and serum adipokines levels in 219 postmenopausal women. Serum FSH and estradiol levels were significantly lower in the MetS group than in the non-MetS group. An inverse correlation was observed between FSH with body fat mass (BFM), and HOMA-IR, and a positive correlation was found between FSH and adiponectin level after adjustment for age, years since menopause, BMI, and serum estradiol.The odds ratio for MetS was higher significantly in the lowest quartile of FSH level than the highest quartile of FSH level (odd ratio = 1.32, 95% CI = 1.09-1.75). Our study showed an increased FSH level favored insulin sensitivity with a higher adiponectin and lower HOMA-IR as well as a lower incidence of MetS in postmenopausal women.These findings suggest a new approach to the role of FSH for regulating energy metabolism and for use as a biomarker of MetS risk in postmenopausal women.This systematic review is based on published researches, so there is no ethical approval required.

The influence of menopause and cardiorespiratory fitness on lipoprotein particles in midlife women

Lipoprotein particles may provide better information about cardiovascular risk than standard cholesterol measures for women. Whether lipoprotein subclasses change with menopausal stage is unclear. Given the high prevalence of low cardiorespiratory fitness in midlife women and benefit of cardiovascular disease risk, it is also important to understand the effect of fitness on lipoprotein profiles. This study evaluated the influence of menopausal status and fitness on lipoprotein particles in healthy midlife women. Lipoprotein particles were measured in high- (n = 25) and low- (n = 13) fit perimenopausal and late postmenopausal women, and in high-fit premenopausal (n = 10), perimenopausal (n = 12), and late postmenopausal women (n = 13). There were larger low-density lipoprotein particles (LDL-P; 21.7 ± 0.06 vs. 21.3 ± 0.1 nm, p = 0.002), more large LDL-P (623.1 ± 32.8 vs. 500.2 ± 52.6 nmol/L, p = 0.045), and fewer small LDL-P (145.5 ± 31.4 vs. 311.5 ± 44.7 nmol/L, p = 0.001) in the high-fit group vs. the low-fit group. High-density lipoprotein particles (HDL-P) were larger (10.1 ± 0.1 vs. 9.7 ± 0.1 nm, p = 0.002) in the high-fit group, with more large (14.8 ± 0.7 vs. 11.0 ± 0.9 μmol/L, p = 0.002), medium (12.9 ± 0.8 vs. 8.4 ± 0.9 μmol/L, p = 0.002) HDL-P, and fewer small HDL-P (10.2 ± 1.1 vs. 15.4 ± 1.6 μmol/L, p = 0.009) compared with the low-fit group. High-fit postmenopausal women had more large LDL-P (662.9 ± 47.5 nmol/L) compared with premenopausal women (479.1 ± 52.6 nmol/L, p = 0.035), and more HDL-P (40.2 ± 1.1 µmol/L) compared with premenopausal (34.9 ± 1.5 μmol/L, p = 0.023) and perimenopausal women (35.4 ± 1.3 μmol/L, p = 0.033). High fitness positively influences lipoprotein particles in healthy perimenopausal and late postmenopausal women. In healthy fit women, menopause may not have a large influence on lipoprotein particles. Novelty: In highly fit women, menopause may not have a negative influence on lipoprotein particle subclasses. High fitness is associated with a less atherogenic lipoprotein profile in perimenopausal and late postmenopausal women.

Trajectories of Blood Pressure in Midlife Women: Does Menopause Matter?

BACKGROUND

Whether changes in blood pressure (BP) over women's midlife are more driven by chronological aging or the menopause transition has been debated. We sought to determine whether women can be classified into distinct trajectory groups based on pattern and level of systolic BP (SBP), diastolic BP, pulse pressure (PP), and mean arterial pressure (MAP) over the menopause transition, and to assess whether menopause-related factors predict the group and level of BP measures.

METHODS

Participants were from the SWAN (Study of Women's Health Across the Nation). Group-based trajectory modeling was used to identify women who shared distinct BP trajectories over time relative to menopause onset and to assess associations of menopause-related factors with trajectory group and level of BP measures. An accelerated rise relative to menopause onset suggests a menopause contribution.

RESULTS

The study included 3302 multiracial and multiethnic women with BP measures over 17 follow-up visits (baseline age [SD]: 46.3 [2.7]). Women were classified into either low, medium, or high trajectory group in each BP measure. The low SBP, PP, and MAP trajectories (in 35%, 53%, and 28% of the cohort, respectively) were rising slowly before menopause but showed a significant accelerated rise 1 year after menopause, indicating a menopause contribution. The remaining BP trajectories were rising up until menopause and either continued with the same rise or declined after menopause. A younger menopause age predicted the low SBP, PP, and MAP trajectories. A greater follicle-stimulating hormone level predicted lower SBP and PP levels, while vasomotor symptoms occurrence predicted higher SBP, PP, and MAP levels over time. Estradiol did not predict trajectory or level of any BP measure.

CONCLUSIONS

Distinct BP trajectories over the menopause transition exist that revealed a group of women whose SBP, PP, and MAP trajectories are consistent with a menopause contribution. Our findings support frequent monitoring of BP during the menopause transition.

Association Between Serum Follicle-Stimulating Hormone and Sarcopenia and Physical Disability Among Older Chinese Men: Evidence From a Cross-Sectional Study

Background: Sarcopenia is a geriatric syndrome characterized by progressive loss of muscle mass, function and quality and associated with a range of adverse health outcomes including disability. Despite a negative correlation between muscle mass and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) levels in postmenopausal women, it is unclear if FSH is associated with sarcopenia and its poor outcomes, especially in older men.

Methods: We used cross-sectional data from 360 men aged over 80 who participated in health check-ups to investigate correlations between serum FSH and sarcopenia, individual sarcopenia components, low physical performance (gait speed ≤ 0.8 m/s) and instrumental activities of daily living (IADL) disability. Sarcopenia and severe sarcopenia were diagnosed according to the revised definition of the European Working Group on Sarcopenia in Old People (EWGSOP2).

Results: The prevalence of sarcopenia was 17.8% in this population. In binary logistic regression analysis, compared with higher FSH group, lower FSH group showed a significant reduction in the risk of low calf circumference (a surrogate for muscle mass; OR 0.308, 95% CI 0.109–0.868, P = 0.026) after adjusting potential confounders including age, waist circumference, education, exercise, associated biochemical parameters, other sex hormones and high-sensitivity C-reactive protein. The correlation between FSH and low handgrip strength was marginally significant (OR 0.390, 95% CI 0.151–1.005, P = 0.051). No associations were observed between FSH and sarcopenia, severe sarcopenia, and disability in adjusted models.

Conclusion: In older men, circulating FSH was not associated with sarcopenia, sarcopenia severity, the majority of its components and adverse health outcome (IADL disability), with the exception of low calf circumference. Further work is needed to better elucidate the association of FSH and low muscle quantity by adopting more accurate measurement method of appendicular skeletal muscle mass such as DXA, CT or MRI.

The importance of estradiol for body weight regulation in women

Obesity in women of reproductive age has a number of adverse metabolic effects, including Type II Diabetes (T2D), dyslipidemia, and cardiovascular disease. It is associated with increased menstrual irregularity, ovulatory dysfunction, development of insulin resistance and infertility. In women, estradiol is not only critical for reproductive function, but they also control food intake and energy expenditure. Food intake is known to change during the menstrual cycle in humans. This change in food intake is largely mediated by estradiol, which acts directly upon anorexigenic and orexigenic neurons, largely in the hypothalamus. Estradiol also acts indirectly with peripheral mediators such as glucagon like peptide-1 (GLP-1). Like estradiol, GLP-1 acts on receptors at the hypothalamus. This review describes the physiological and pathophysiological mechanisms governing the actions of estradiol during the menstrual cycle on food intake and energy expenditure and how estradiol acts with other weight-controlling molecules such as GLP-1. GLP-1 analogs have proven to be effective both to manage obesity and T2D in women. This review also highlights the relationship between steroid hormones and women's mental health. It explains how a decline or imbalance in estradiol levels affects insulin sensitivity in the brain. This can cause cerebral insulin resistance, which contributes to the development of conditions such as Parkinson's or Alzheimer's disease. The proper use of both estradiol and GLP-1 analogs can help to manage obesity and preserve an optimal mental health in women by reducing the mechanisms that trigger neurodegenerative disorders.

Associations of Endogenous Hormones With HDL Novel Metrics Across the Menopause Transition: The SWAN HDL Study

CONTEXT

Novel metrics of high-density lipoprotein (HDL) (subclasses, lipid content, and function) may improve characterization of the anti-atherogenic features of HDL. In midlife women, changes in these metrics vary by time relative to the final menstrual period (FMP), supporting a contribution of estradiol (E2) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH).

OBJECTIVE

We tested associations of endogenous E2 and FSH with novel HDL metrics and assessed whether these associations varied by time relative to FMP.

METHODS

This study was a longitudinal analysis from the Study of Women's Health Across the Nation (SWAN) HDL study, using a community-based cohort of 463 women, baseline mean age 50.2 (2.7) years. The main outcome measures were HDL cholesterol efflux capacity (HDL-CEC), HDL phospholipids (HDL-PL), HDL triglycerides (HDL-Tg), HDL particles (HDL-P), HDL size, and HDL cholesterol (HDL-C).

RESULTS

In multivariable analyses, E2 was positively associated with HDL size, large HDL-P, HDL-CEC, and HDL-Tg, but negatively with medium HDL-P (P values < 0.05). The positive association between E2 and HDL-Tg was stronger 2 years post-FMP than before, (interaction P = 0.031). FSH was positively related to total and medium HDL-P, but negatively to HDL size, large HDL-P, and HDL-CEC per particle (P values < 0.05). Associations of higher FSH with greater total HDL-P and smaller HDL size were only evident at/after menopause (interaction P values < 0.05).

CONCLUSION

Some of the associations linking E2 and FSH with novel HDL metrics were vulnerable to time relative to menopause onset. Whether a late initiation of hormone therapy relative to menopause could have a detrimental effect on lipid content of HDL particles should be tested in the future.

Ovariectomy induces abdominal fat accumulation by improving gonadotropin-releasing hormone secretion in mouse

The ovariectomy would induce the occurrence of obesity, but its regulatory mechanism is not clear. This study aimed to elucidate the regulation on fat accumulation for ovariectomy in mouse. In the current study, the abdominal fat mass dramatically increased in OVX mice compared with sham mice at eighth week after ovariectomy, accompanied with the higher GnRH level in blood and abdominal fat tissue. Also, a decrease of the abdominal fat mass was occurred in OVX mice with a GnRH-antagonist injection. Furthermore, the results in vivo and in vitro confirmed that GnRH promoted the transition of G1/S phase by upregulating CCND1 and CCNE1 mRNA levels by the mediation of GnRHR via the PKA-CREB pathway. Meanwhile, the higher FSH secretion was induced by increase GnRH and accelerate fat deposition in abdominal fat tissue. Our findings are the first to elucidate the effect mechanism of ovariectomy on obesity in mouse. GnRH stimulates fat accumulation in adipocytes via PKA-CREB pathway by directly promoting cell proliferation for driving the cell cycle and simultaneously accelerating differentiation for improving the FSH secretion.

Transcriptomics analysis of Daheng broilers reveals that PLIN2 regulates chicken preadipocyte proliferation, differentiation and apoptosis

BACKGROUND

Intramuscular fat content, an important meat quality trait, strongly affects flavor, juiciness, and tenderness. Sex hormones regulate lipid metabolism, and female hormones stimulate fat deposition, thereby making the female chickens always fatter than males. In this study, the effect of sex on IMF deposition was screened following transcriptomics in chickens.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Results confirmed significantly higher IMF content of 150-day female chickens as compared to the male chickens. The female chickens manifested higher serum TG, LDL-C, and VLDL, and significantly lower HDL-C contents than male chickens. Moreover, differential expression of genes involved in lipid metabolism were obtained in the muscle and liver between female and male chicken, which could partly interpret the possible reasons for the sex-mediated differences of IMF content. Cellular results revealed that inhibition of PLIN2 significantly inhibited chicken preadipocyte proliferation and induces apoptosis of preadipocytes, as well as promoted adipocyte differentiation.

CONCLUSIONS

According to our results, PLIN2 may be considered as a molecular marker for poultry meat quality and applying this gene in early breed selection.

A low follicle-stimulating hormone level is a protective factor for non-alcoholic fatty liver disease in older men aged over 80

PURPOSE

Recent studies have suggested the significant relationship between follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) in postmenopausal women. However, it is unknown whether FSH impacts the risk of NAFLD in men. This study aimed to investigate the association between serum FSH levels and NAFLD in elderly Chinese men aged 80-98, a particular group with worse outcomes of NAFLD.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

A cross-sectional analysis was performed in 444 subjects in a geriatric health center. The highest quartile of serum FSH was used as reference. Hepatic steatosis was defined according to the results of liver ultrasound. Fibrosis-4 (FIB-4) Index > 2.67 was defined as advanced fibrosis.

RESULTS

Based on liver ultrasound, 108 (24.3%) subjects had NAFLD. FSH level were negatively correlated with total testosterone, estradiol, nutritional risk, and the prevalence of high education level (all P < 0.01), and positively correlated with age, luteinizing hormone, alanine aminotransferase and aspartate aminotransferase (all P < 0.05). The correlation between FSH and body mass index or antihypertensive drug usage was marginally significant (P = 0.057; P = 0.066, respectively). The percentage of subjects with NAFLD had a trend to increase following the quartiles of serum FSH (20.0% in quartile 1, 18.2% in quartile 2, 27.3% in quartile 3, and 31.6% in quartile 4). After adjustment for common pathogenic risk factors, nutritional risk, and other sex hormones, serum FSH were progressively associated with odds ratios for NAFLD. The adjusted odds ratios and 95% CIs for quartile 1, quartile 2, and quartile 3, compared with quartile 4 were 0.132 (0.034-0.516), 0.190 (0.052-0.702), and 0.404 (0.139-1.173), respectively. Obesity was not involved in the potential negative role of circulating FSH on the risk of NAFLD in our population. Furthermore, our results revealed no significant association between FSH and advance fibrosis, the OR (95% CI) for advanced fibrosis was 1.018 (0.983-1.054) (P = 0.316) after adjusting for the potential covariates, although a positive correlation of FSH and FIB-4 score was observed (r = 0.325, P = 0.001).

CONCLUSION

Low FSH level may decrease the risk of NAFLD in elderly Chinese men. These findings warrant replication in more extensive studies.

Mechanistic insight into how gonadotropin hormone receptor complexes direct signaling†

Gonadotropin hormones and their receptors play a central role in the control of male and female reproduction. In recent years, there has been growing evidence surrounding the complexity of gonadotropin hormone/receptor signaling, with it increasingly apparent that the Gαs/cAMP/PKA pathway is not the sole signaling pathway that confers their biological actions. Here we review recent literature on the different receptor-receptor, receptor-scaffold, and receptor-signaling molecule complexes formed and how these modulate and direct gonadotropin hormone-dependent intracellular signal activation. We will touch upon the more controversial issue of extragonadal expression of FSHR and the differential signal pathways activated in these tissues, and lastly, highlight the open questions surrounding the role these gonadotropin hormone receptor complexes and how this will shape future research directions.

Metabolism and Sex Differentiation in Animals from a Starvation Perspective

Animals determine their sex genetically (GSD: genetic sex determination) and/or environmentally (ESD: environmental sex determination). Medaka (Oryzias latipes) employ a XX/XY GSD system, however, they display female-to-male sex reversal in response to various environmental changes such as temperature, hypoxia, and green light. Interestingly, we found that 5 days of starvation during sex differentiation caused female-to-male sex reversal. In this situation, the metabolism of pantothenate and fatty acid synthesis plays an important role in sex reversal. Metabolism is associated with other biological factors such as germ cells, HPG axis, lipids, and epigenetics, and supplys substances and acts as signal transducers. In this review, we discuss the importance of metabolism during sex differentiation and how metabolism contributes to sex differentiation.

Reproductive performance, metabolism and oxidative stress profile in Chinese yellow-feathered broiler breeder hens fed multiple levels of isoleucine

1. This experiment was conducted to evaluate the effects of dietary isoleucine (Ile) on reproductive performance and certain indices of metabolism and oxidative stress in Chinese yellow-feathered broiler breeder hens.2. A total of 600, 40-week-old Chinese yellow-feathered broiler breeder hens were fed a basal diet formulated with maize, corn gluten meal and spray-dried blood cell meal containing 3.3 g/kg Ile, or supplemented to contain 4.5, 5.7, 6.9, or 8.1 g/kg Ile for five weeks. Each dietary treatment had six replicates with 20 birds per replicate. After three weeks of receiving the trial diets, 24 eggs were collected at random from each replicate to measure egg quality. Starting after four weeks of treatment, 50 settable eggs per replicate were collected for 7 d in succession for hatching. After five weeks of being fed the treatment diets, birds were slaughtered for tissue and organ collection.3. For the overall period, laying rate, egg weight, egg mass and hatchling weight linearly (P < 0.05) and quadratically (P < 0.05) increased with dietary Ile levels. Final body weight, feed intake and relative liver weight of birds fed 3.3 g/kg Ile was lower compared to birds fed the other diets (P < 0.05). There was no effect of Ile level on egg quality (P > 0.05). Hatchling weight was linearly (P < 0.05) and quadratically increased (P < 0.05) in line with dietary supplemental Ile.4. After three weeks on the trial diets, birds fed the diet containing 3.3 g/kg Ile had decreased blood TG concentrations compared to breeders fed 6.9 or 8.1 g/kg Ile (P < 0.05). Activities of CK were significantly higher in breeders fed the 3.3 g/kg Ile diet compared to all other levels of dietary Ile after five weeks of treatment. A quadratic effect (P < 0.05) was evident for glucose at 8.1 g/kg Ile level. After five weeks of treatment, plasma TG concentrations in birds fed 3.3 g/kg Ile were significantly lower than in birds fed all other levels of Ile. Glucose concentrations in breeder hens receiving the 3.3 g/kg Ile diet were lowest and the highest concentrations were in birds fed 5.7 g/kg Ile (P < 0.05). Plasma activities of LDH were highest in breeders on the 3.3 g/kg Ile diet but were only significantly different (P < 0.05) for birds fed 5.7 g/kg Ile.5. The current study indicated that Ile deficiency decreased reproductive performance and appeared to serve as a stressor. The optimal dietary Ile for Chinese yellow-feathered broiler breeder hens in the laying period was 5.79 g/kg feed (0.75 g/d).

Follicle-Stimulating Hormone Induces Lipid Droplets via Gαi/o and β-Arrestin in an Endometrial Cancer Cell Line

Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and its G protein-coupled receptor, FSHR, represents a paradigm for receptor signaling systems that activate multiple and complex pathways. Classically, FSHR activates Gαs to increase intracellular levels of cAMP, but its ability to activate other G proteins, and β-arrestin-mediated signaling is well documented in many different cell systems. The pleiotropic signal capacity of FSHR offers a mechanism for how FSH drives multiple and dynamic downstream functions in both gonadal and non-gonadal cell types, including distinct diseases, and how signal bias may be achieved at a pharmacological and cell system-specific manner. In this study, we identify an additional mechanism of FSH-mediated signaling and downstream function in the endometrial adenocarcinoma Ishikawa cell line. While FSH did not induce increases in cAMP levels, this hormone potently activated pertussis toxin sensitive Gαi/o signaling. A selective allosteric FSHR ligand, B3, also activated Gαi/o signaling in these cells, supporting a role for receptor-mediated activation despite the low levels of FSHR mRNA. The low expression levels may attribute to the lack of Gαs/cAMP signaling as increasing FSHR expression resulted in FSH-mediated activation of the Gαs pathway. Unlike prior reports for FSH-mediated Gαs/cAMP signaling, FSH-mediated Gαi/o signaling was not affected by inhibition of dynamin-dependent receptor internalization. While chronic FSH did not alter cell viability, FSH was able to increase lipid droplet size. The β-arrestins are key adaptor proteins known to regulate FSHR signaling. Indeed, a rapid, FSH-dependent increase in interactions between β-arrestin1 and Gαi1 was observed via NanoBiT complementation in Ishikawa cells. Furthermore, both inhibition of Gαi/o signaling and siRNA knockdown of β-arrestin 1/2 significantly reduced FSH-induced lipid droplet accumulation, implying a role for a Gαi/o/β-arrestin complex in FSH functions in this cell type. As FSH/FSHR has been implicated in distinct hormone-dependent cancers, including endometrial cancer, analysis of the cancer genome database from 575 human endometrial adenocarcinoma tumors revealed that a subpopulation of samples expressed FSHR. Overall, this study highlights a novel mechanism for FSHR signal pleiotropy that may be exploited for future personalized therapeutic approaches.

FSH promotes fat accumulation by activating PPARγ signaling in surgically castrated, but not immunocastrated, male pigs

Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) was recently implicated as a novel regulator of fat accumulation. Surgical castration causes high FSH concentrations and increases fat accumulation, whereas immunocastration results in low FSH concentrations and less fat in immunocastrated boars versus barrows. However, detailed information regarding the role of FSH in regulation of fat accumulation in male pigs is unclear. First, expression of FSH receptor was confirmed (real-time quantitative PCR) in subcutaneous and visceral adipose tissues (SAT and VAT, respectively) of boars. Then, surgical castration (high FSH model) was compared to immunocastration (low FSH model) to investigate potential roles of FSH in adipogenesis and fat accumulation. High FSH concentrations after surgical castration activated PPARγ signaling by upregulating expression of CREB (P < 0.05), and then recruited an array of PPARγ target adipogenic genes, including transcription factor (C/EBPα), long-chain fatty acid uptake (LPL), fatty acid de novo synthesis (FASN, ACACA) and lipid droplet formation (PLIN1) in both SAT and VAT, promoting fat accumulation in barrows. In contrast, much lower serum FSH concentrations in immunocastrates attenuated (P < 0.05) expressions of PPARγ and PPARγ target genes in both SAT and VAT, resulting in less fat accumulation in immunocastrated boars versus barrows. We concluded that the substantially elevated FSH concentrations in barrows promoted fat accumulation by activating the PPARγ signaling pathway in adipose tissues, whereas immunocastrates accumulated less fat due to low FSH.

First-in-class humanized FSH blocking antibody targets bone and fat

Blocking the action of FSH genetically or pharmacologically in mice reduces body fat, lowers serum cholesterol, and increases bone mass, making an anti-FSH agent a potential therapeutic for three global epidemics: obesity, osteoporosis, and hypercholesterolemia. Here, we report the generation, structure, and function of a first-in-class, fully humanized, epitope-specific FSH blocking antibody with a K _D of 7 nM. Protein thermal shift, molecular dynamics, and fine mapping of the FSH-FSH receptor interface confirm stable binding of the Fab domain to two of five receptor-interacting residues of the FSHβ subunit, which is sufficient to block its interaction with the FSH receptor. In doing so, the humanized antibody profoundly inhibited FSH action in cell-based assays, a prelude to further preclinical and clinical testing.

Relationships between Follicle-Stimulating Hormone and Adiponectin in Postmenopausal Women

Beyond fertility, follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) may exert action on adipocytes, which are the major source of adiponectin and leptin, linking to insulin resistance. Therefore, we evaluated the relationships between FSH and adipocyte-derived hormones. This cross-sectional study enrolled postmenopausal women aged 40–65 years. The variables measured in this study included clinical parameters, fasting levels of sex hormones, glucose, insulin, and adipokines. A total of 261 women without breast cancer, 88 women with breast cancer receiving tamoxifen, and 59 women with breast cancer receiving additional gonadotropin-releasing hormone analogs were enrolled in this study. Significant differences in the levels of adiponectin, leptin, and FSH were observed between the non-breast cancer group and the breast cancer groups. Spearman’s rank test revealed significant associations of FSH with either body mass index (BMI) or homeostatic model assessment of insulin resistance (HOMA-IR) values in the non-breast cancer group. After adjusting for BMI, age, and menopause duration, FSH levels were significantly associated with adiponectin (p < 0.001) and the leptin-to-adiponectin ratio (p = 0.008) in the non-breast cancer group, but they were only significantly associated with adiponectin (p = 0.001) in the breast cancer group receiving tamoxifen. Our data show that FSH levels are independently associated with adiponectin levels in postmenopausal women, suggesting that adiponectin may link FSH to metabolic relationships in postmenopausal female.

Differential actions of diacylglycerol acyltransferase (DGAT) 1 and 2 in regulating lipid metabolism and progesterone secretion of goose granulosa cells

Accumulating evidence shows that granulosa cells within both mammalian and avian ovaries have the ability to synthesize fatty acids through de novo lipogenesis and to accumulate triglycerides essential for oocyte and ovarian development. However, very little is known about the exact roles of key genes involved in the lipid metabolic pathway in granulosa cells. The goal of this study was to investigate the differential actions of diacylglycerol acyltransferase (DGAT) 1 and 2, which are recognized as the rate-limiting enzymes catalyzing the last step of triglyceride biosynthesis, in regulating lipid metabolism and steroidogenesis in granulosa cells of goose follicles at different developmental stages. It was observed that the mRNAs encoding DGAT1 and DGAT2 were ubiquitous in all examined granulosa cell layers but exhibited distinct expression profiles during follicle development. Notably, the mRNA levels of DGAT1, DGAT2, FSHR, LHR, STAR, CYP11A1, and 3βHSD remained almost constant in all except for 1-2 follicles within the 8-10 mm cohort, followed by an acute increase/decrease in the F5 follicles. At the cellular level, siRNA-mediated downregulation of DGAT1 or DGAT2 did not change the amount of lipids accumulated in both undifferentiated- and differentiated granulosa cells, while overexpression of DGAT2 promoted lipid accumulation and expression of lipogenic-related genes in these cells. Meanwhile, we found that interfering DGAT2 had no effect but interfering DGAT1 or overexpressing DGAT2 stimulated progesterone secretion in undifferentiated granulosa cells; in contrast, interference or overexpression of DGAT1/2 failed to change progesterone levels in differentiated granulosa cells but differently modulated expression of steroidogenic-related genes. Therefore, it could be concluded that DGAT1 is less efficient than DGAT2 in promoting lipid accumulation in both undifferentiated- and differentiated granulosa cells and that DGAT1 negatively while DGAT2 positively regulates progesterone production in undifferentiated granulosa cells.

AQP7 mediates post-menopausal lipogenesis in adipocytes through FSH-induced transcriptional crosstalk with AP-1 sites

RESEARCH QUESTION

Fat accumulation is present in most post-menopausal women, but the underlying mechanism remains unclear. Aquaporin 7 (AQP7) is the most important glycerol channel facilitating glycerol efflux in adipocytes. High circulating FSH in post-menopausal women may play an independent role in regulation of the lipogenic effect of AQP7 in adipocytes. This study explored the role of AQP7 in the pathophysiology of post-menopausal lipogenesis mediated by high concentrations of circulating FSH.

DESIGN

Primary adipocytes from post-menopausal and childbearing women were analysed. An in-vivo post-menopausal animal model was established. AQP7 expression, lipid accumulation and glycerol concentration in adipocytes were measured. Luciferase reporter assay and chromatin immunoprecipitation were performed to identify transcriptional crosstalk in AQP7 promoter.

RESULTS

It was found that FSH down-regulated AQP7 expression and glycerol efflux function in mature adipocytes of post-menopausal women and ovariectomized (OVX) mice. In vitro, FSH inhibited lipid accumulation in primary cultured mature adipocytes in a dose-dependent manner and the mechanism was down-regulating AQP7 expression via a FSH receptor pathway. The effect of FSH on AQP7 in adipocytes was through activation of cAMP response element-binding (CREB) protein, which could bind to activator protein-1 (AP-1) sites in the AQP7 promoter, and therefore inhibited the transcriptional activation elicited by c-Jun.

CONCLUSIONS

Down-regulation of AQP7 by FSH mediated post-menopausal lipogenesis, and the role of FSH was based on binding competition for AP-1 sites between CREB and c-Jun.

Roles of follicle stimulating hormone and its receptor in human metabolic diseases and cancer

Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and its receptor (FSHR) play an important role in human metabolic diseases and cancer. Evidence showed that FSHR is not only distributed in ovary and testis but also in other cells or organs such as osteoclast, adipocytes, liver, pituitary cancer and so forth. Moreover, FSH is associated with lipogenesis, inflammation, insulin sensitivity, thermogenesis, skeletal metabolism, osteogenesis and ovarian cancer, all of which have been confirmed closely related to metabolic diseases or metabolic-related cancer. Therefore, FSH and FSHR may be potential therapeutic targets for metabolic diseases and metabolic-related cancer. Epidemiological researches revealed close relationship between FSH/FSHR and metabolic diseases or cancer. Experimental studies elucidated the underlying mechanism both in vivo and in vitro. We reviewed the recent researches and present an integrated framework of FSH/FSHR and metabolic diseases and cancer, which provides potential targets for the treatments of metabolic diseases and cancer.

Follicle-stimulating hormone is associated with lipids in postmenopausal women

OBJECTIVE

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the relation between FSH and lipid levels in postmenopausal women from the Kuopio Ischaemic Heart Disease Risk Factor Study.

METHODS

Postmenopausal women (n = 588) aged 53 to 73 years and not using hormone therapy were included. The relation between FSH and total cholesterol (TC), low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C), high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C), and triglycerides (TGs) was evaluated using linear regression, adjusting for estradiol, body mass, smoking, and other hormonal and lifestyle factors. The relation between FSH, dyslipidemia, and abnormal lipid levels were also evaluated.

RESULTS

FSH was positively and linearly associated with TC (P = 0.001) and LDL-C (P = 0.01) in all participants, with stronger relations seen in younger compared with older postmenopausal women. FSH was less strongly associated with HDL-C and TG. FSH was not associated with dyslipidemia; however, higher FSH was associated with increased risk of high TC (P = 0.02) and high LDL-C (P = 0.03).

CONCLUSIONS

These data suggest that higher FSH in postmenopausal women is related to higher levels of both TC and LDL-C.

Serum Follicle-Stimulating Hormone Levels Are Associated with Cardiometabolic Risk Factors in Post-Menopausal Korean Women

Menopause compounds many cardiometabolic risk factors through endogenous estrogen withdrawal. This study aimed to find the association between serum follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) levels and cardiometabolic risk factors in post-menopausal Korean women. A total of 608 post-menopausal women from eight randomized double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trials on menopause during the year 2012–2019 were analyzed. Cardiometabolic risk factors such as body mass index, waist circumference, systolic blood pressure, fasting glucose, triglycerides (TG), high density lipoprotein-cholesterol (HDL-C), and TG/HDL-C ratio were significantly improved as the FSH quartiles increased. Metabolic syndrome (MetS) and the number of components of MetS decreased as FSH quartiles increased. In regression analysis, FSH level was negatively associated with cardiometabolic risk factors including body mass index, body weight, waist circumference, fasting glucose and TG, while it was positively associated with HDL-C. The odds ratio of MetS in the first quartile of FSH was 2.682 compared with that in the fourth quartile of FSH in a logistic regression model. Serum FSH levels had a negative correlation with cardiometabolic risk factors in post-menopausal Korean women, suggesting that a low FSH can be a predictor for cardiovascular disease in post-menopausal women.

Variation of urinary follicle-stimulating hormone level after menopause : From the results of Japan Nurses' Health Study

The change in follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) during the menopausal transition and associations of FSH with various diseases have been assessed by using blood samples. We examined cross-sectionally the variation of FSH levels, associations of estrone and estradiol with FSH, and associations of BMI with these hormones by using urinary samples from peri- and postmenopausal women in Japan. Of 4472 participants in the Urinary Isoflavone Concentration Survey of the Japan Nurses' Health Study, we analyzed urinary levels of estrone, estradiol and FSH in 547 women aged from 45 to 54 years. Urinary FSH levels varied widely in postmenopausal women and the pattern of change in urinary FSH levels seems to be similar to that in blood FSH levels in previous studies. There were no significant differences in age, body mass index (BMI), estradiol, estrone and estradiol/estrone ratio among three groups according to the tertile of FSH. In postmenopausal women, there were significant associations of BMI with levels of estrone and estradiol, but there was no significant association of BMI with FSH. Studies using urinary samples will allow us to establish a study project as a large-scale population-based study to determine associations between FSH and various diseases after menopause. J. Med. Invest. 66 : 297-302, August, 2019.

FSH-metabolic circuitry and menopause

FSH has a primary function in procreation, wherein it induces estrogen production in females and regulates spermatogenesis in males. However, in line with our discoveries over the past decade of non-unitary functions of pituitary hormones, we and others have described hitherto uncharacterized functions of FSH. Through high-affinity receptors, some of which are variants of the ovarian FSH receptor (FSHR), FSH regulates bone mass, adipose tissue function, energy metabolism, and cholesterol production in both sexes. These newly described actions of FSH may indeed be relevant to the pathogenesis of bone loss, dysregulated energy homeostasis, and disordered lipid metabolism that accompany the menopause in females and aging in both genders. We are therefore excited about the possibility of modulating circulating FSH levels toward a therapeutic benefit for a host of age-associated diseases, including osteoporosis, obesity and dyslipidemia, among other future possibilities.

Chlorpyrifos Induces Metabolic Disruption by Altering Levels of Reproductive Hormones

Chlorpyrifos (CPF) is a widely used organophosphorus pesticide and detected frequently in fruits, vegetables, as well as in urine and blood in humans. Studies have suggested that CPF can induce metabolic disruption, such as type-2 diabetes mellitus and changed body weight. The main mechanisms are based on oxidative damage, fatty-acid synthesis, and lipid peroxidation. Studies have also shown that CPF can change reproductive hormone (RH) levels. CPF might result in metabolic disorders through altered RH levels. Here, we review the studies showing that CFP causes metabolic disruption. Then, we present the studies showing that CFP changes RH levels. Finally, we discuss a potential pathway of how CPF elicits metabolic disruption.

Gonadotropins and Their Association with the Risk of Prediabetes and Type 2 Diabetes in Middle-Aged Postmenopausal Women

Recent studies have suggested that a low concentration of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) is associated with a higher prevalence of metabolic disturbances in postmenopausal women. In this study, we aim to evaluate the association between FSH, luteinizing hormone (LH), and LH/FSH ratio values and the risk of insulin resistance (HOMA-IR >2.0), prediabetes (IFG), and type 2 diabetes in a 5-year prospective study in postmenopausal women. 114 postmenopausal women were divided into 4 groups: group 1 (baseline and follow-up normoglycemic women), group 2 (normoglycemic women at baseline progressing to IFG), group 3 (women with baseline and follow-up IFG), and group 4 (women with baseline IFG progressing to diabetes). Baseline and follow-up anthropometric measurements and blood collections were performed. Serum/plasma was assayed for glucose, HDL-C, TG, C-reactive protein (CRP), 17beta-estradiol, estrone, insulin, thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), FSH, and LH. Homeostatic model assessment of insulin resistance (HOMA-IR) and LH/FSH ratios were calculated. The baseline concentrations of FSH and LH statistically decreased across all four groups (the highest concentrations in group 1 and the lowest in group 4; p < 0.001). A logistic regression analysis showed that a 1 SD decrease in the z-score of FSH concentration is associated with a threefold increased risk of IFG and a fivefold increased risk of HOMA-IR of >2.0 and diabetes. The LH concentration had odds ratio (OR) values about two times lower than the FSH concentration. The ORs of the LH/FSH ratio were only significant for IFG. In conclusion, FSH concentration is strongly associated with insulin resistance, prediabetes, and diabetes in postmenopausal women with normal or impaired fasting glucose. LH and the LH/FSH ratio are also related to metabolic disturbances after menopause, yet to a lesser extent.

Estrogen Deficiency Promotes Hepatic Steatosis via a Glucocorticoid Receptor-Dependent Mechanism in Mice

Glucocorticoids (GCs) are master regulators of systemic metabolism. Intriguingly, Cushing’s syndrome, a disorder of excessive GCs, phenocopies several menopause-induced metabolic pathologies. Here, we show that the glucocorticoid receptor (GR) drives steatosis in hypogonadal female mice because hepatocyte-specific GR knockout mice are refractory to developing ovariectomy-induced steatosis. Intriguingly, transcriptional profiling revealed that ovariectomy elicits hepatic GC hypersensitivity globally. Hypogonadism-induced GC hypersensitivity results from a loss of systemic but not hepatic estrogen (E2) signaling, given that hepatocyte-specific E2 receptor deletion does not confer GC hypersensitivity. Mechanistically, enhanced chromatin recruitment and ligand-dependent hyperphosphorylation of GR underlie ovariectomy-induced glucocorticoid hypersensitivity. The dysregulated glucocorticoid-mediated signaling present in hypogonadal females is a product of increased follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) production because FSH treatment in ovary-intact mice recapitulates glucocorticoid hypersensitivity similar to hypogonadal female mice. Our findings uncover a regulatory axis between estradiol, FSH, and hepatic glucocorticoid receptor signaling that, when disrupted, as in menopause, promotes hepatic steatosis.

Possible link between FSH and RANKL release from adipocytes in men with impaired gonadal function including Klinefelter syndrome

INTRODUCTION

The FSH receptor (FSHR) has been found to be expressed in human bone cells and bone marrow-adipocytes, and highly-debated mouse studies have suggested extra-gonadal effects of gonadotropins on glucose, adipocyte and bone homeostasis. These putative effects could be direct or indirectly mediated by endocrine factors released from bone-cells or adipocytes. Here, we investigated whether gonadotropins are linked with glucose- and lipid-metabolism in hypergonadotropic men.

METHODS

Single centre, cross-sectional study of 307 men with idiopathic infertility and 28 men with Klinefelter syndrome (KS).

OUTCOME

associations between serum LH and FSH with soluble-RANKL (sRANKL), osteoprotegerin (OPG), osteocalcin, fasting glucose and insulin, sex steroids, and body composition. Expression of FSHR was studied in human-derived adipocyte-cell-models (hMADS, TERT-hWA) and FSH stimulation of RANKL expression and secretion in hMADS in vitro.

RESULTS

Serum FSH was not directly linked with glucose- and lipid-metabolism. However, FSH was inversely associated with sRANKL in both infertile men and KS men (p = .023 and p = .012). Infertile men with elevated FSH (>11 U/L) had significantly lower sRANKL (p = .015). sRANKL was positively associated with fat percentage, fasting insulin, and glucose (all p < .05). Men with prediabetes had higher sRANKL (p = .021), but lower testosterone (p < .0001) and Inhibin B (p = .005). The FSHR was expressed in the investigated human derived adipocytes, and 3-6 h treatment with FSH markedly increased RANKL release (p < .05).

CONCLUSION

KS and infertile men with prediabetes have low Inhibin B, and testosterone but elevated RANKL compared with non-prediabetic men despite comparable levels of serum gonadotropins. Serum FSH and sRANKL was inversely associated in both infertile and KS men, but the increased release of RANKL from FSH treated adipocytes suggest a direct effect of FSH on RANKL production in some tissues. Further studies are required to clarify whether FSH targets RANKL in the skeleton. ClinicalTrial_ID:NCT01304927.

FSH Beyond Fertility

The traditional view of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) as a reproductive hormone is changing. It has been shown that FSH receptors (FSHRs) are expressed in various extra-gonadal tissues and mediate the biological effects of FSH at those sites. Molecular, animal, epidemiologic, and clinical data suggest that elevated serum FSH may play a significant role in the evolution of bone loss and obesity, as well as contributing to cardiovascular and cancer risk. This review summarizes recent data on FSH action beyond reproduction.

Modulation of Gonadotropins Activity by Antibodies

Gonadotropins are essential for reproduction control in humans as well as in animals. They are widely used all over the world for ovarian stimulation in women, spermatogenesis stimulation in men, and ovulation induction and superovulation in animals. Despite the availability of many different preparations, all are made of the native hormones. Having different ligands with a wide activity range for a given receptor helps better understand its molecular and cellular signaling mechanisms as well as its physiological functions, and thus helps the development of more specific and adapted medicines. One way to control the gonadotropins' activity could be the use of modulating antibodies. Antibodies are powerful tools that were largely used to decipher gonadotropins' actions and they have shown their utility as therapeutics in several other indications such as cancer. In this review, we summarize the inhibitory and potentiating antibodies to gonadotropins, and their potential therapeutic applications.

Follicle-stimulating hormone inhibits cervical cancer via NF-κB pathway

Background

Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) has multiple biological functions. It is currently considered that FSH can inhibit cervical cancer, and our aim was to explore the underlying molecular mechanisms.

Materials and methods

An in vivo experiment using nude mice injected with HeLa cells was performed. Flow cytometry, western blotting, and real-time quantitative PCR analyses were done.

Results

Twenty one days after injection of HeLa cells, the subcutaneous tumor mass was significantly lower (P<0.01) in mice treated with 20 mIU/mL FSH, but did not disappear. In vitro observations indicated that FSH might inhibit cell proliferation and activate cell apoptosis to induce the reduction of HeLa cells. The mRNA and protein levels of Cyclin D1, Cyclin E1, and Caspase 3 changed accordingly as expected in vivo and in vitro. Moreover, FSH inactivated the nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) pathway in subcutaneous tumors; the NF-κB(p65) activity in HeLa cells was significantly decreased using 20 mIU/mL FSH and was increased when FSH was administered along with lipopolysaccharide, accompanied by the same change of cell number. Further, FSH accelerated protein kinase A (PKA) activity, but inactivated glycogen synthase kinase 3 beta (GSK-3β) activity. Specific inhibition of PKA and/or GSK-3β provided in vitro evidence that directly supported the FSH-mediated inhibition of GSK-3β to inactivate NF-κB via the promotion of PKA activity.

Conclusion

Our data are the first description of the molecular regulatory mechanisms of FSH-mediated inhibition of the development of cervical cancer by decreasing the cell cycle and activating cell apoptosis via the PKA/GSK-3β/NF-κB pathway.

FSH, Bone Mass, Body Fat, and Biological Aging

The Study of Women's Health Across the Nation has taught us that impending ovarian failure during late perimenopause is associated with a sharp rise in serum FSH, which coincides with the most rapid rate of bone loss and the onset of visceral adiposity. At this time in a woman's life, serum estrogen levels are largely unaltered, so the hypothesis that hypoestrogenemia is the sole cause of bone loss and visceral obesity does not offer a full explanation. An alternative explanation, arising from animal models and human data, is that both physiologic aberrations, obesity and osteoporosis, arise at least in part from rising FSH levels. Here, we discuss recent findings on the mechanism through which FSH exerts biological actions on bone and fat and review clinical data that support a role for FSH in causing osteoporosis and obesity. We will also provide a conceptual framework for using a single anti-FSH agent to prevent and treat both osteoporosis and obesity in women across the menopausal transition.

Extragonadal Effects of Follicle-Stimulating Hormone on Osteoporosis and Cardiovascular Disease in Women during Menopausal Transition

The risk of osteoporosis and cardiovascular disease increases significantly in postmenopausal women. Until recently, the underlying mechanisms have been primarily attributed to estrogen decline following menopause. However, follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) levels rise sharply during menopausal transition and are maintained at elevated levels for many years. FSH receptor has been detected in various extragonadal sites, including osteoclasts and endothelial cells. Recent advances suggest FSH may contribute to postmenopausal osteoporosis and cardiovascular disease. Here, we review the key actions through which FSH contributes to the risk of osteoporosis and cardiovascular disease in women as they transition through menopause. Advancing our understanding of the precise mechanisms through which FSH promotes osteoporosis and cardiovascular disease may provide new opportunities for improving health-span for postmenopausal women.

Actions of pituitary hormones beyond traditional targets

Studies over the past decade have challenged the long-held belief that pituitary hormones have singular functions in regulating specific target tissues, including master hormone secretion. Our discovery of the action of thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) on bone provided the first glimpse into the non-traditional functions of pituitary hormones. Here we discuss evolving experimental and clinical evidence that growth hormone (GH), follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH), prolactin, oxytocin and arginine vasopressin (AVP) regulate bone and other target tissues, such as fat. Notably, genetic and pharmacologic FSH suppression increases bone mass and reduces body fat, laying the framework for targeting the FSH axis for treating obesity and osteoporosis simultaneously with a single agent. Certain 'pituitary' hormones, such as TSH and oxytocin, are also expressed in bone cells, providing local paracrine and autocrine networks for the regulation of bone mass. Overall, the continuing identification of new roles for pituitary hormones in biology provides an entirely new layer of physiologic circuitry, while unmasking new therapeutic targets.

Dwarf chickens with low monocytes/macrophages phagocytic activity show low antibody titers but greater performance

Monocytes/macrophages phagocytosis has key roles in inflammatory responses. However, systematic research on the effects of monocytes/macrophages phagocytosis on production and reproductive performance in dwarf chickens is lacking. In this study, we developed the HCT-8-MTT method to detect monocytes/macrophages phagocytosis product (PP) which was accuracy, flexible, and saving time. Based on PP in 990 dwarf chickens (890 hens and 100 cocks), chickens were divided into high phagocytosis product group (HPPG) and low phagocytosis product group (LPPG). In production performance, chickens in LPPG have higher laying rate at 24 wk and 71 wk and higher average egg weight at 23 wk and 24 wk than in HPPG (P < 0.05). The levels of follicle-stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone were higher in LPPG than in HPPG at 58 wk (P < 0.01). In the reproductive performance, the fertilization rate in LPPG was higher than that in HPPG at 45 wk, 49 wk, and 53 wk (P < 0.05). Chickens in LPPG have higher hatchability than HPPG at 45 wk and 49 wk (P < 0.05). In LPPG, the mRNA expression levels of follicle-stimulating hormone receptor and CD9 in the follicle were higher than HPPG (P < 0.05). In the immune response, chickens with higher PP levels showed higher antibody titers for the avian influenza virus H9 inactivated vaccine (P < 0.01). Therefore, monocytes/macrophages PP was positively associated with antibody titers and negatively related to production and reproductive performance, and these findings have practical applications for the optimization of production in the poultry industry.