Comparing Intelligence Quotient Change After Treatment With Proton Versus Photon Radiation Therapy for Pediatric Brain Tumors

How Cancer Harms the Developing Brain: Long-Term Outcomes in Pediatric Cancer Survivors

Survival rates for pediatric cancer are improving, resulting in a rising need to understand and address long-term sequelae. In this narrative review, we summarize the effects of cancer and its treatment on the developing brain, with a focus on neurocognitive function in leukemia and pediatric brain tumor survivors. We then discuss possible mechanisms of brain injury and management considerations.

Comparing the effects of irradiation with protons or photons on neonatal mouse brain: Apoptosis, oncogenesis and hippocampal alterations

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Medulloblastoma (MB) is a common primary brain cancer in children. Proton therapy in pediatric MB is intensively studied and widely adopted. Compared to photon, proton radiations offer potential for reduced toxicity due to the characteristic Bragg Peak at the end of their path in tissue. The aim of this study was to compare the effects of irradiation with the same dose of protons or photons in Patched1 heterozygous knockout mice, a murine model predisposed to cancer and non-cancer radiogenic pathologies, including MB and lens opacity.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

TOP-IMPLART is a pulsed linear proton accelerator for proton therapy applications. We compared the long-term health effects of 3 Gy of protons or photons in neonatal mice exposed at postnatal day 2, during a peculiarly susceptible developmental phase of the cerebellum, lens, and hippocampus, to genotoxic stress.

RESULTS

Experimental testing of the 5 mm Spread-Out Bragg Peak (SOBP) proton beam, through evaluation of apoptotic response, confirmed that both cerebellum and hippocampus were within the SOBP irradiation field. While no differences in MB induction were observed after irradiation with protons or photons, lens opacity examination confirmed sparing of the lens after proton exposure. Marked differences in expression of neurogenesis-related genes and in neuroinflammation, but not in hippocampal neurogenesis, were observed after irradiation of wild-type mice with both radiation types.

CONCLUSION

In-vivo experiments with radiosensitive mouse models improve our mechanistic understanding of the dependence of brain damage on radiation quality, thus having important implications in translational research.

Neurocognitive Effects and Necrosis in Childhood Cancer Survivors Treated With Radiation Therapy: A PENTEC Comprehensive Review

PURPOSE

A PENTEC review of childhood cancer survivors who received brain radiation therapy (RT) was performed to develop models that aid in developing dose constraints for RT-associated central nervous system (CNS) morbidities.

METHODS AND MATERIALS

A comprehensive literature search, through the PENTEC initiative, was performed to identify published data pertaining to 6 specific CNS toxicities in children treated with brain RT. Treatment and outcome data on survivors were extracted and used to generate normal tissue complication probability (NTCP) models.

RESULTS

The search identified investigations pertaining to 2 of the 6 predefined CNS outcomes: neurocognition and brain necrosis. For neurocognition, models for 2 post-RT outcomes were developed to (1) calculate the risk for a below-average intelligence quotient (IQ) (IQ <85) and (2) estimate the expected IQ value. The models suggest that there is a 5% risk of a subsequent IQ <85 when 10%, 20%, 50%, or 100% of the brain is irradiated to 35.7, 29.1, 22.2, or 18.1 Gy, respectively (all at 2 Gy/fraction and without methotrexate). Methotrexate (MTX) increased the risk for an IQ <85 similar to a generalized uniform brain dose of 5.9 Gy. The model for predicting expected IQ also includes the effect of dose, age, and MTX. Each of these factors has an independent, but probably cumulative effect on IQ. The necrosis model estimates a 5% risk of necrosis for children after 59.8 Gy or 63.6 Gy (2 Gy/fraction) to any part of the brain if delivered as primary RT or reirradiation, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

This PENTEC comprehensive review establishes objective relationships between patient age, RT dose, RT volume, and MTX to subsequent risks of neurocognitive injury and necrosis. A lack of consistent RT data and outcome reporting in the published literature hindered investigation of the other predefined CNS morbidity endpoints.

S, Xing M, Tonning Olsson I, de Blank PMK, Lange KR, Salloum R, Srivastava D, Leisenring WM, Howell RM, Oeffinger KC, Robison LL, Armstrong GT, Krull KR, Brinkman TM. Evolving therapies, neurocognitive outcomes, and functional independence in adult survivors of childhood glioma

BACKGROUND

Treatment of childhood glioma has evolved to reduce radiotherapy exposure with the goal of limiting late toxicity. However, the associations between treatment changes and neurocognition, and the contribution of neurocognition and chronic health conditions to attainment of adult independence, remain unknown.

METHODS

Adult survivors of childhood glioma diagnosed in 1970-1999 in the Childhood Cancer Survivor Study (n = 1284; median [minimum-maximum] 30 [18-51] years of age at assessment; 22 [15-34] years from diagnosis) self-reported neurocognitive impairment and chronic health conditions. Multivariable models evaluated associations between changes in treatment exposures (surgery only, chemotherapy [with or without surgery], cranial radiation [with or without chemotherapy and/or surgery]), and neurocognitive impairment. Latent class analysis with 5 indicators (employment, independent living, assistance with routine and/or personal care needs, driver's license, marital or partner status) identified classes of functional independence. Path analysis tested associations among treatment exposures, neurocognitive impairment, chronic health conditions, and functional independence. Statistical tests were 2-sided.

RESULTS

Cranial radiation exposure decreased over time (51%, 1970s; 46%, 1980s; 27%, 1990s]. However, compared with siblings, survivors with any treatment exposure were at elevated risk for neurocognitive impairment, including surgery only (eg, memory: relative risk = 2.22; task efficiency: relative risk = 1.88; both P < .001). Three classes of functional independence were identified: independent (58%), moderately independent (20%), and nonindependent (22%). Cranial radiation was associated with nonindependence through impaired task efficiency (β = 0.06), sensorimotor (β = 0.06), and endocrine (β = 0.10) chronic health conditions and through the associations between these conditions and task efficiency (each β = 0.04). Sensorimotor and endocrine chronic health conditions were associated with nonindependence through memory.

CONCLUSION

Most long-term glioma survivors achieve adult independence. However, functional nonindependence is associated with treatment-related neurocognitive impairment and chronic health conditions.

A systematic review of pediatric neuropsychological outcomes with proton versus photon radiation therapy: A call for equity in access to treatment

OBJECTIVE

There is increasing interest in the utilization of proton beam radiation therapy (PRT) to treat pediatric brain tumors based upon presumed advantages over traditional photon radiation therapy (XRT). PRT provides more conformal radiation to the tumor with reduced dose to healthy brain parenchyma. Less radiation exposure to brain tissue beyond the tumor is thought to reduce neuropsychological sequelae. This systematic review aimed to provide an overview of published studies comparing neuropsychological outcomes between PRT and XRT.

METHOD

PubMed, PsychINFO, Embase, Web of Science, Scopus, and Cochrane were systematically searched for peer-reviewed published studies that compared neuropsychological outcomes between PRT and XRT in pediatric brain tumor patients.

RESULTS

Eight studies were included. Six of the studies utilized retrospective neuropsychological data; the majority were longitudinal studies (n = 5). XRT was found to result in lower neuropsychological functioning across time. PRT was associated with generally stable neuropsychological functioning across time, with the exception of working memory and processing speed, which showed variable outcomes across studies. However, studies inconsistently included or considered medical and sociodemographic differences between treatment groups, which may have impacted neuropsychological outcomes.

CONCLUSIONS

Despite methodological limitations, including limited baseline neuropsychological evaluations, temporal variability between radiation treatment and first evaluation or initial and follow-up evaluations, and heterogenous samples, there is emerging evidence of sociodemographic inequities in access to PRT. With more institutions dedicating funding towards PRT, there may be the opportunity to objectively evaluate the neuropsychological benefits of patients matched on medical and sociodemographic variables.

Neurocognitive Outcomes in Multiethnic Pediatric Brain Tumor Patients Treated With Proton Versus Photon Radiation

BACKGROUND

We analyzed post-radiation (RT) neurocognitive outcomes in an ethnically diverse pediatric brain tumor population undergoing photon radiotherapy (XRT) and proton radiotherapy (PRT).

PROCEDURE

Post-RT neurocognitive outcomes from 49 pediatric patients (37% Hispanic/Latino) with primary brain tumors were analyzed. Tests included cognitive outcomes, behavioral outcomes, and overall intelligence. For each outcome, proportion of patients with cognitive impairment (scores <1.5 SD) was calculated. The Fisher exact tests compared proportion of patients with impairment and t tests compared T-scores between XRT (n=32) and PRT (n=17) groups. Linear regression assessed associations between radiation modality and outcomes.

RESULTS

Median follow-up was 3.2 and 1.8 years in the XRT and PRT groups, respectively. The median RT dose was 54.0 Gy. We found impairment in 16% to 42% of patients across most neurocognitive domains except executive function. There was no difference in scores between XRT and PRT groups. Regression analyses revealed no association of neurocognitive outcomes with radiation modality. Non-Hispanic patients had better Verbal Comprehension Index and General Ability Index scores than Hispanic patients ( P <0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

Among pediatric patients with brain tumors receiving RT, all cognitive domains were affected except executive function. Radiation modality was not associated with neurocognitive outcomes. Hispanic patients may be more vulnerable to posttreatment cognitive effects that warrant further study.

Genetic susceptibility to cognitive decline following craniospinal irradiation for pediatric central nervous system tumors

BACKGROUND

Survivors of pediatric central nervous system (CNS) tumors treated with craniospinal irradiation (CSI) exhibit long-term cognitive difficulties. Goals of this study were to evaluate longitudinal effects of candidate and novel genetic variants on cognitive decline following CSI.

METHODS

Intelligence quotient (IQ), working memory (WM), and processing speed (PS) were longitudinally collected from patients treated with CSI (n = 241). Genotype-by-time interactions were evaluated using mixed-effects linear regression to identify common variants (minor allele frequency > 1%) associated with cognitive performance change. Novel variants associated with cognitive decline (P < 5 × 10-5) in individuals of European ancestry (n = 163) were considered replicated if they demonstrated consistent genotype-by-time interactions (P < .05) in individuals of non-European ancestries (n = 78) and achieved genome-wide statistical significance (P < 5 × 10-8) in a meta-analysis across ancestry groups.

RESULTS

Participants were mostly males (65%) diagnosed with embryonal tumors (98%) at a median age of 8.3 years. Overall, 1150 neurocognitive evaluations were obtained (median = 5, range: 2-10 per participant). One of the five loci previously associated with cognitive outcomes in pediatric CNS tumors survivors demonstrated significant time-dependent IQ declines (PPARA rs6008197, P = .004). Two variants associated with IQ in the general population were associated with declines in IQ after Bonferroni correction (rs9348721, P = 1.7 × 10-5; rs31771, P = 7.8 × 10-4). In genome-wide analyses, we identified novel loci associated with accelerated declines in IQ (rs116595313, meta-P = 9.4 × 10-9), WM (rs17774009, meta-P = 4.2 × 10-9), and PS (rs77467524, meta-P = 1.5 × 10-8; rs17630683, meta-P = 2.0 × 10-8; rs73249323, meta-P = 3.1 × 10-8).

CONCLUSIONS

Inherited genetic variants involved in baseline cognitive functioning and novel susceptibility loci jointly influence the degree of treatment-associated cognitive decline in pediatric CNS tumor survivors.

Proton Therapy in the Adolescent and Young Adult Population

BACKGROUND

Adolescent and young adult cancer patients are at high risk of developing radiation-associated side effects after treatment. Proton beam radiation therapy might reduce the risk of these side effects for this population without compromising treatment efficacy.

METHODS

We review the current literature describing the utility of proton beam radiation therapy in the treatment of central nervous system tumors, sarcomas, breast cancer and Hodgkin lymphoma for the adolescent and young adult cancer population.

RESULTS

Proton beam radiation therapy has utility for the treatment of certain cancers in the young adult population. Preliminary data suggest reduced radiation dose to normal tissues, which might reduce radiation-associated toxicities. Research is ongoing to further establish the role of proton therapy in this population.

CONCLUSION

This report highlights the potential utility of proton beam radiation for certain adolescent young adult cancers, especially with reducing radiation doses to organs at risk and thereby potentially lowering risks of certain treatment-associated toxicities.

Neurocognitive outcomes in pediatric brain tumors after treatment with proton versus photon radiation: a systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Advances in cancer treatments, particularly the development of radiation therapy, have led to improvements in survival outcomes in children with brain tumors. However, radiation therapy is associated with significant long-term neurocognitive morbidity. The present systematic review and meta-analysis aimed to compare the neurocognitive outcomes of children and adolescents with brain tumors treated with photon radiation (XRT) or proton therapy (PBRT).

METHODS

A systematic search was conducted (PubMed, Embase, Cochrane, and Web of Science from inception until 02/01/2022) for studies comparing the neurocognitive outcomes of children and adolescents with brain tumors treated with XRT vs. PBRT. The pooled mean differences (expressed as Z scores) were calculated using a random effects method for those endpoints analyzed by a minimum of three studies.

RESULTS

Totally 10 studies (n = 630 patients, average age range: 1-20 years) met the inclusion criteria. Patients who had received PBRT achieved significantly higher scores (difference in Z scores ranging from 0.29-0.75, all P < 0.05 and significant in sensitivity analyses) after treatment than those who had received XRT for most analyzed neurocognitive outcomes (i.e., intelligence quotient, verbal comprehension and perceptual reasoning indices, visual motor integration, and verbal memory). No robust significant differences (P > 0.05 in main analyses or sensitivity analyses) were found for nonverbal memory, verbal working memory and working memory index, processing speed index, or focused attention.

CONCLUSIONS

Pediatric brain tumor patients who receive PBRT achieve significantly higher scores on most neurocognitive outcomes than those who receive XRT. Larger studies with long-term follow-ups are needed to confirm these results.

Proton therapy and limited surgery for paediatric and adolescent patients with craniopharyngioma (RT2CR): a single-arm, phase 2 study

BACKGROUND

Compared with photon therapy, proton therapy reduces exposure of normal brain tissue in patients with craniopharyngioma, which might reduce cognitive deficits associated with radiotherapy. Because there are known physical differences between the two methods of radiotherapy, we aimed to estimate progression-free survival and overall survival distributions for paediatric and adolescent patients with craniopharyngioma treated with limited surgery and proton therapy, while monitoring for excessive CNS toxicity.

METHODS

In this single-arm, phase 2 study, patients with craniopharyngioma at St Jude Children's Research Hospital (Memphis TN, USA) and University of Florida Health Proton Therapy Institute (Jacksonville, FL, USA) were recruited. Patients were eligible if they were aged 0-21 years at the time of enrolment and had not been treated with previous radiotherapeutic or intracystic therapies. Eligible patients were treated using passively scattered proton beams, 54 Gy (relative biological effect), and a 0·5 cm clinical target volume margin. Surgical treatment was individualised before proton therapy and included no surgery, single procedures with catheter and Ommaya reservoir placement through a burr hole or craniotomy, endoscopic resection, trans-sphenoidal resection, craniotomy, or multiple procedure types. After completing treatment, patients were evaluated clinically and by neuroimaging for tumour progression and evidence of necrosis, vasculopathy, permanent neurological deficits, vision loss, and endocrinopathy. Neurocognitive tests were administered at baseline and once a year for 5 years. Outcomes were compared with a historical cohort treated with surgery and photon therapy. The coprimary endpoints were progression-free survival and overall survival. Progression was defined as an increase in tumour dimensions on successive imaging evaluations more than 2 years after treatment. Survival and safety were also assessed in all patients who received photon therapy and limited surgery. This study is registered with ClinicalTrials.gov, NCT01419067.

FINDINGS

Between Aug 22, 2011, and Jan 19, 2016, 94 patients were enrolled and treated with surgery and proton therapy, of whom 49 (52%) were female, 45 (48%) were male, 62 (66%) were White, 16 (17%) were Black, two (2%) were Asian, and 14 (15%) were other races, and median age was 9·39 years (IQR 6·39-13·38) at the time of radiotherapy. As of data cutoff (Feb 2, 2022), median follow-up was 7·52 years (IQR 6·28-8·53) for patients who did not have progression and 7·62 years (IQR 6·48-8·54) for the full cohort of 94 patients. 3-year progression-free survival was 96·8% (95% CI 90·4-99·0; p=0·89), with progression occurring in three of 94 patients. No deaths occurred at 3 years, such that overall survival was 100%. At 5 years, necrosis had occurred in two (2%) of 94 patients, severe vasculopathy in four (4%), and permanent neurological conditions in three (3%); decline in vision from normal to abnormal occurred in four (7%) of 54 patients with normal vision at baseline. The most common grade 3-4 adverse events were headache (six [6%] of 94 patients), seizure (five [5%]), and vascular disorders (six [6%]). No deaths occurred as of data cutoff.

INTERPRETATION

Proton therapy did not improve survival outcomes in paediatric and adolescent patients with craniopharyngioma compared with a historical cohort, and severe complication rates were similar. However, cognitive outcomes with proton therapy were improved over photon therapy. Children and adolescents treated for craniopharyngioma using limited surgery and post-operative proton therapy have a high rate of tumour control and low rate of severe complications. The outcomes achieved with this treatment represent a new benchmark to which other regimens can be compared.

FUNDING

American Lebanese Syrian Associated Charities, American Cancer Society, the US National Cancer Institute, and Research to Prevent Blindness.

Proton versus photon radiation therapy: A clinical review

While proton radiation therapy offers substantially better dose distribution characteristics than photon radiation therapy in certain clinical applications, data demonstrating a quantifiable clinical advantage is still needed for many treatment sites. Unfortunately, the number of patients treated with proton radiation therapy is still comparatively small, in some part due to the lack of evidence of clear benefits over lower-cost photon-based treatments. This review is designed to present the comparative clinical outcomes between proton and photon therapies, and to provide an overview of the current state of knowledge regarding the effectiveness of proton radiation therapy.

Cognitive Sparing in Proton versus Photon Radiotherapy for Pediatric Brain Tumor Is Associated with White Matter Integrity: An Exploratory Study

Radiotherapy for pediatric brain tumors is associated with reduced white matter structural integrity and neurocognitive decline. Superior cognitive outcomes have been reported following proton radiotherapy (PRT) compared to photon radiotherapy (XRT), presumably due to improved sparing of normal brain tissue. This exploratory study examined the relationship between white matter change and late cognitive effects in pediatric brain tumor survivors treated with XRT versus PRT. Pediatric brain tumor survivors treated with XRT (n = 10) or PRT (n = 12) underwent neuropsychological testing and diffusion weighted imaging >7 years post-radiotherapy. A healthy comparison group (n = 23) was also recruited. Participants completed age-appropriate measures of intellectual functioning, visual-motor integration, and motor coordination. Tractography was conducted using automated fiber quantification (AFQ). Fractional anisotropy (FA), axial diffusivity (AD), and radial diffusivity (RD) were extracted from 12 tracts of interest. Overall, both white matter integrity (FA) and neuropsychological performance were lower in XRT patients while PRT patients were similar to healthy control participants with respect to both FA and cognitive functioning. These findings support improved long-term outcomes in PRT versus XRT. This exploratory study is the first to directly support for white matter integrity as a mechanism of cognitive sparing in PRT.

Spectroscopic MRI-Guided Proton Therapy in Non-Enhancing Pediatric High-Grade Glioma

Radiation therapy (RT) is a critical part of definitive therapy for pediatric high-grade glioma (pHGG). RT is designed to treat residual tumor defined on conventional MRI (cMRI), though pHGG lesions may be ill-characterized on standard imaging. Spectroscopic MRI (sMRI) measures endogenous metabolite concentrations in the brain, and Choline (Cho)/N-acetylaspartate (NAA) ratio is a highly sensitive biomarker for metabolically active tumor. We provide a preliminary report of our study introducing a novel treatment approach of whole brain sMRI-guided proton therapy for pHGG. An observational cohort (c1 = 10 patients) receives standard of care RT; a therapeutic cohort (c2 = 15 patients) receives sMRI-guided proton RT. All patients undergo cMRI and sMRI, a high-resolution 3D whole-brain echo-planar spectroscopic imaging (EPSI) sequence (interpolated resolution of 12 µL) prior to RT and at several follow-up timepoints integrated into diagnostic scans. Treatment volumes are defined by cMRI for c1 and by cMRI and Cho/NAA ≥ 2x for c2. A longitudinal imaging database is used to quantify changes in lesion and metabolite volumes. Four subjects have been enrolled (c1 = 1/c2 = 3) with sMRI imaging follow-up of 4-18 months. Preliminary data suggest sMRI improves identification of pHGG infiltration based on abnormal metabolic activity, and using proton therapy to target sMRI-defined high-risk regions is safe and feasible.

The risk of radiation-induced neurocognitive impairment and the impact of sparing the hippocampus during pediatric proton cranial irradiation

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Hippocampus is a central component for neurocognitive function and memory. We investigated the predicted risk of neurocognitive impairment of craniospinal irradiation (CSI) and the deliverability and effects of hippocampal sparing. The risk estimates were derived from published NTCP models. Specifically, we leveraged the estimated benefit of reduced neurocognitive impairment with the risk of reduced tumor control.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

For this dose planning study, a total of 504 hippocampal sparing intensity modulated proton therapy (HS-IMPT) plans were generated for 24 pediatric patients whom had previously received CSI. Plans were evaluated with respect to target coverage and homogeneity index to target volumes, maximum and mean dose to OARs. Paired t-tests were used to compare hippocampal mean doses and normal tissue complication probability estimates.

RESULTS

The median mean dose to the hippocampus could be reduced from 31.3 Gy_RBE to 7.3 Gy_RBE (p < .001), though 20% of these plans were not considered clinically acceptable as they failed one or more acceptance criterion. Reducing the median mean hippocampus dose to 10.6 Gy_RBE was possible with all plans considered as clinically acceptable treatment plans. By sparing the hippocampus to the lowest dose level, the risk estimation of neurocognitive impairment could be reduced from 89.6%, 62.1% and 51.1% to 41.0% (p < .001), 20.1% (p < .001) and 29.9% (p < .001) for task efficiency, organization and memory, respectively. Estimated tumor control probability was not adversely affected by HS-IMPT, ranging from 78.5 to 80.5% for all plans.

CONCLUSIONS

We present estimates of potential clinical benefit in terms of neurocognitive impairment and demonstrate the possibility of considerably reducing neurocognitive adverse effects, minimally compromising target coverage locally using HS-IMPT.

[Medulloblastoma: The latest major advances]

Medulloblastoma (MB) is a malignant brain tumor that mainly affects children. It is rarely found in adults. Among the four groups of MB defined today according to molecular characteristics, group 3 is the least favorable with an overall survival rate of 50 %. Current treatments, based on surgery, radiotherapy, and chemotherapy, are not sufficiently adapted to the different characteristics of the four MB groups. However, the use of new cellular and animal models has opened new doors to interesting therapeutic avenues. In this review, we detail recent advances in MB research, with a focus on the genes and pathways that drive tumorigenesis, with particular emphasis on the animal models that have been developed to study tumor biology, as well as advances in new targeted therapies.

Superior verbal learning and memory in pediatric brain tumor survivors treated with proton versus photon radiotherapy

OBJECTIVE

Radiotherapy for pediatric brain tumor has been associated with late cognitive effects. Compared to conventional photon radiotherapy (XRT), proton radiotherapy (PRT) delivers lower doses of radiation to healthy brain tissue. PRT has been associated with improved long-term cognitive outcomes compared to XRT. However, there is limited research comparing the effects of XRT and PRT on verbal memory.

METHOD

Survivors of pediatric brain tumor treated with either XRT (n = 29) or PRT (n = 51) completed neuropsychological testing > 1 year following radiotherapy. Performance on neuropsychological measures was compared between treatment groups using analysis of covariance. Chi-squared tests of independence were used to compare the frequency of encoding, retrieval, and intact memory profiles between treatment groups. Associations between memory performance and other neurobehavioral measures were examined using Pearson correlation.

RESULTS

Overall, patients receiving PRT demonstrated superior verbal learning and recall compared to those treated with XRT. Encoding and retrieval deficits were more common in the XRT group than the PRT group, with encoding problems being most prevalent. The PRT group was more likely to engage in semantic clustering strategies, which predicted better encoding and retrieval. Encoding ability was associated with higher intellectual and adaptive functioning, and fewer parent-reported concerns about day-to-day attention and cognitive regulation.

CONCLUSION

Results suggest that PRT is associated with verbal memory sparing, driven by effective encoding and use of learning strategies. Future work may help to clarify underlying neural mechanisms associated with verbal memory decline, which will better inform treatment approaches. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Endogenous and imposed determinants of apoptotic vulnerabilities in cancer

The intrinsic apoptosis pathway is controlled by the BCL-2 family of proteins. Although the pro-survival members of this family can help cancer cells evade apoptosis, they may also produce apoptotic vulnerabilities that can potentially be exploited therapeutically. Apoptotic vulnerabilities can be driven by endogenous factors including altered genetics, signaling, metabolism, structure and lineage or differentiation state as well as imposed factors, the most prominent being exposure to anti-cancer agents. The recent development of BH3 mimetics that inhibit pro-survival BCL-2 family proteins has allowed these apoptotic vulnerabilities to be targeted with demonstrable clinical success. Here, we review the key concepts that are vital for understanding, uncovering, and exploiting apoptotic vulnerabilities in cancer for the potential improvement of patient outcomes.

Auto-segmentation of important centers of growth in the pediatric skeleton to consider during radiation therapy based on deep learning

BACKGROUND

Routinely delineating of important skeletal growth centers is imperative to mitigate radiation-induced growth abnormalities for pediatric cancer patients treated with radiotherapy. However, it is hindered by several practical problems, including difficult identification, time consumption, and inter-practitioner variability.

PURPOSE

The goal of this study was to construct and evaluate a novel Triplet-Attention U-Net (TAU-Net)-based auto-segmentation model for important skeletal growth centers in childhood cancer radiotherapy, concentrating on the accuracy and time efficiency.

METHODS

A total of 107 childhood cancer patients fulfilled the eligibility criteria were enrolled in the training cohort (N = 80) and test cohort (N = 27). The craniofacial growth plates, shoulder growth centers, and pelvic ossification centers, with a total of 19 structures in the three groups, were manually delineated by two experienced radiation oncologists on axial, coronal, and sagittal computed tomography images. Modified from U-Net, the proposed TAU-Net has one main branch and two bypass branches, receiving semantic information of three adjacent slices to predict the target structure. With supervised deep learning, the skeletal growth centers contouring of each group was generated by three different auto-segmentation models: U-Net, V-Net, and the proposed TAU-Net. Dice similarity coefficient (DSC) and Hausdorff distance 95% (HD95) were used to evaluate the accuracy of three auto-segmentation models. The time spent on performing manual tasks and manually correcting auto-contouring generated by TAU-Net was recorded. The paired t-test was used to compare the statistical differences in delineation quality and time efficiency.

RESULTS

Among the three groups, including craniofacial growth plates, shoulder growth centers, and pelvic ossification centers groups, TAU-Net had demonstrated highly acceptable performance (the average DSC = 0.77, 0.87, and 0.83 for each group; the average HD95 = 2.28, 2.07, and 2.86 mm for each group). In the overall evaluation of 19 regions of interest (ROIs) in the test cohort, TAU-Net had an overwhelming advantage over U-Net (63.2% ROIs in DSC and 31.6% ROIs in HD95, p = 0.001-0.042) and V-Net (94.7% ROIs in DSC and 36.8% ROIs in HD95, p = 0.001-0.040). With an average time of 52.2 min for manual delineation, the average time saved to adjust TAU-Net-generated contours was 37.6 min (p < 0.001), a 72% reduction.

CONCLUSIONS

Deep learning-based models have presented enormous potential for the auto-segmentation of important growth centers in pediatric skeleton, where the proposed TAU-Net outperformed the U-Net and V-Net in geometrical precision for the majority status.

Functional network alterations in young brain tumor patients with radiotherapy-induced memory impairments and vascular injury

Background

Cognitive impairment and cerebral microbleeds (CMBs) are long-term side-effects of cranial radiation therapy (RT). Previously we showed that memory function is disrupted in young patients and that the rate of cognitive decline correlates with CMB development. However, vascular injury alone cannot explain RT-induced cognitive decline. Here we use resting-state functional MRI (rsfMRI) to further investigate the complex mechanisms underlying memory impairment after RT.

Methods

Nineteen young patients previously treated with or without focal or whole-brain RT for a brain tumor underwent cognitive testing followed by 7T rsfMRI and susceptibility-weighted imaging for CMB detection. Global brain modularity and efficiency, and rsfMRI signal variability within the dorsal attention, salience, and frontoparietal networks were computed. We evaluated whether MR metrics could distinguish age- and sex-matched controls (N = 19) from patients and differentiate patients based on RT exposure and aggressiveness. We also related MR metrics with memory performance, CMB burden, and risk factors for cognitive decline after RT.

Results

Compared to controls, patients exhibited widespread hyperconnectivity, similar modularity, and significantly increased efficiency (p < 0.001) and network variability (p < 0.001). The most abnormal values were detected in patients treated with high dose whole-brain RT, having supratentorial tumors, and who did not undergo RT but had hydrocephalus. MR metrics and memory performance were correlated (R = 0.34–0.53), though MR metrics were more strongly related to risk factors for cognitive worsening and CMB burden with evidence of functional recovery.

Conclusions

MR metrics describing brain connectivity and variability represent promising candidate imaging biomarkers for monitoring of long-term cognitive side-effects after RT.

Predicting neurocognitive function in pediatric brain tumor early survivorship: The neurological predictor scale and the incremental validity of tumor size

BACKGROUND

The Neurological Predictor Scale (NPS) quantifies cumulative exposure to conventional treatment-related neurological risks but does not capture potential risks posed by tumors themselves. This study evaluated the predictive validity of the NPS, and the incremental value of tumor location and size, for neurocognitive outcomes in early survivorship following contemporary therapies for pediatric brain tumors.

PROCEDURE

Survivors (N = 69) diagnosed from 2010 to 2016 were administered age-appropriate versions of the Wechsler Intelligence Scales. Hierarchical multiple regressions examined the predictive and incremental validity of NPS score, tumor location, and tumor size.

RESULTS

Participants (51% female) aged 6-20 years (M = 13.22, SD = 4.09) completed neurocognitive evaluations 5.16 years (SD = 1.29) postdiagnosis. The NPS significantly predicted Full-Scale Intelligence Quotient (FSIQ; ΔR2  = .079), Verbal Comprehension Index (VCI; ΔR2  = 0.051), Perceptual Reasoning Index (PRI; ΔR2  = 0.065), and Processing Speed Index (PSI; ΔR2  = 0.049) performance after controlling for sex, age at diagnosis, and maternal education. Tumor size alone accounted for a significant amount of unique variance in FSIQ (ΔR2  = 0.065), PRI (ΔR2  = 0.076), and PSI (ΔR2  = 0.080), beyond that captured by the NPS and relevant covariates. Within the full model, the NPS remained a significant independent predictor of FSIQ (β = -0.249, P = 0.016), VCI (β = -0.223, P = 0.048), and PRI (β = -0.229, P = 0.037).

CONCLUSIONS

Tumor size emerged as an independent predictor of neurocognitive functioning and added incrementally to the predictive utility of the NPS. Pretreatment disease burden may provide one of the earliest markers of neurocognitive risk following contemporary treatments. With perpetual treatment advances, measures quantifying treatment-related risk may need to be updated and revalidated to maintain their clinical utility.

Neurocognitive Functions Before and After Radiotherapy in Pediatric Brain Tumor Survivors

BACKGROUND

The numbers of pediatric brain tumor survivors are increasing due to improved treatment protocols and multimodal treatments. Many survivors have neurocognitive sequelae, especially after radiotherapy. Neuropsychologic assessment is therefore essential to interpret clinical outcome, evaluate treatments protocol, and implement rehabilitation interventions. The overall aim of this study was to describe neurocognitive functions before and after radiotherapy. We also aimed to explore potential confounding risk factors that could affect the interpretation of radiotherapy-induced neurocognitive decline.

METHODS

Fifty pediatric brain tumor survivors who had received radiotherapy (five years or more ago) were included. Clinical characteristics, potential confounding risk factors, radiotherapy plans, and neurocognitive functions on intelligence quotient (IQ) and neuropsychologic measurements were analyzed before and after radiotherapy.

RESULTS

Neurocognitive functions were affected before radiotherapy and were progressively aggravated thereafter. The last neuropsychologic assessment after radiotherapy varied between two and 139 months. Nineteen patients were tested five years after radiotherapy, and 90% of them performed ≥1 S.D. below the normative mean on IQ measurements. Several potential confounding risk factors including those induced by radiotherapy were associated with lower performance on perceptual function, working memory, and processing speed. Longer time after radiotherapy was particularly associated with lower performance on working memory and processing speed. Importantly, the neuropsychologic assessments revealed more comprehensive problems than could be inferred from IQ measurements alone.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study underpins the importance of systematic and structured neuropsychologic assessment before and after radiotherapy. The timing of the assessment is important, and potential confounding risk factors need to be identified to better evaluate radiotherapy-induced neurocognitive decline.

The Current State of Radiotherapy for Pediatric Brain Tumors: An Overview of Post-Radiotherapy Neurocognitive Decline and Outcomes

Tumors of the central nervous system are the most common solid malignancies diagnosed in children. While common, they are also found to have some of the lowest survival rates of all malignancies. Treatment of childhood brain tumors often consists of operative gross total resection with adjuvant chemotherapy or radiotherapy. The current body of literature is largely inconclusive regarding the overall benefit of adjuvant chemo- or radiotherapy. However, it is known that both are associated with conditions that lower the quality of life in children who undergo those treatments. Chemotherapy is often associated with nausea, emesis, significant fatigue, immunosuppression, and alopecia. While radiotherapy can be effective for achieving local control, it is associated with late effects such as endocrine dysfunction, secondary malignancy, and neurocognitive decline. Advancements in radiotherapy grant both an increase in lifetime survival and an increased lifetime for survivors to contend with these late effects. In this review, the authors examined all the published literature, analyzing the results of clinical trials, case series, and technical notes on patients undergoing radiotherapy for the treatment of tumors of the central nervous system with a focus on neurocognitive decline and survival outcomes.

Toxicity and Clinical Results after Proton Therapy for Pediatric Medulloblastoma: A Multi-Centric Retrospective Study

Medulloblastoma is the most common malignant brain tumor in children. Even if current treatment dramatically improves the prognosis, survivors often develop long-term treatment-related sequelae. The current radiotherapy standard for medulloblastoma is craniospinal irradiation with a boost to the primary tumor site and to any metastatic sites. Proton therapy (PT) has similar efficacy compared to traditional photon-based radiotherapy but might achieve lower toxicity rates. We report on our multi-centric experience with 43 children with medulloblastoma (median age at diagnosis 8.7 years, IQR 6.6, M/F 23/20; 26 high-risk, 14 standard-risk, 3 ex-infant), who received active scanning PT between 2015 and 2021, with a focus on PT-related acute-subacute toxicity, as well as some preliminary data on late toxicity. Most acute toxicities were mild and manageable with supportive therapy. Hematological toxicity was limited, even among HR patients who underwent hematopoietic stem-cell transplantation before PT. Preliminary data on late sequelae were also encouraging, although a longer follow-up is needed.

Cognitive predictors of social adjustment in pediatric brain tumor survivors treated with photon versus proton radiation therapy

BACKGROUND

Pediatric brain tumor survivors are at risk for poor social outcomes. It remains unknown whether cognitive sparing with proton radiotherapy (PRT) supports better social outcomes relative to photon radiotherapy (XRT). We hypothesized that survivors treated with PRT would outperform those treated with XRT on measures of cognitive and social outcomes. Further, we hypothesized that cognitive performance would predict survivor social outcomes.

PROCEDURE

Survivors who underwent PRT (n = 38) or XRT (n = 20) participated in a neurocognitive evaluation >1 year post radiotherapy. Group differences in cognitive and social functioning were assessed using analysis of covariance (ANCOVA). Regression analyses examined predictors of peer relations and social skills.

RESULTS

Age at evaluation, radiation dose, tumor diameter, and sex did not differ between groups (all p > .05). XRT participants were younger at diagnosis (XRT M = 5.0 years, PRT M = 7.6 years) and further out from radiotherapy (XRT M = 8.7 years, PRT M = 4.6 years). The XRT group performed worse than the PRT group on measures of processing speed (p = .01) and verbal memory (p < .01); however, social outcomes did not differ by radiation type. The proportion of survivors with impairment in peer relations and social skills exceeded expectation; χ² (1) = 38.67, p < .001; χ² (1) = 5.63, p < .05. Household poverty predicted peer relation difficulties (t = 2.18, p < .05), and verbal memory approached significance (t = -1.99, p = .05). Tumor diameter predicted social skills (t = -2.07, p < .05).

CONCLUSIONS

Regardless of radiation modality, survivors are at risk for social challenges. Deficits in verbal memory may place survivors at particular risk. Results support monitoring of cognitive and social functioning throughout survivorship, as well as consideration of sociodemographic risk factors.

Quantifying the risk and dosimetric variables of symptomatic brainstem injury after proton beam radiation in pediatric brain tumors

BACKGROUND

Brainstem toxicity after radiation therapy (RT) is a devastating complication and a particular concern with proton radiation (PBT). We investigated the incidence and clinical correlates of brainstem injury in pediatric brain tumors treated with PBT.

METHODS

All patients <21 years with brain tumors treated with PBT at our institution from 2007-2019, with a brainstem Dmean >30 Gy and/or Dmax >50.4 Gy were included. Symptomatic brainstem injury (SBI) was defined as any new or progressive cranial neuropathy, ataxia, and/or motor weakness with corresponding radiographic abnormality within brainstem.

RESULTS

A total of 595 patients were reviewed and 468 (medulloblastoma = 200, gliomas = 114, ependymoma = 87, ATRT = 43) met our inclusion criteria. Median age at RT was 6.3 years and median prescribed RT dose was 54Gy [RBE]. Fifteen patients (3.2%) developed SBI, at a median of 4 months after RT. Grades 2, 3, 4, and 5 brainstem injuries were seen in 7, 5, 1, and 2 patients respectively. Asymptomatic radiographic changes were seen in 51 patients (10.9%). SBI was significantly higher in patients with age ≤3 years, female gender, ATRT histology, patients receiving high-dose chemotherapy with stem cell rescue, and those not receiving craniospinal irradiation. Patients with SBI had a significantly higher V50-52. In 2014, our institution started using strict brainstem dose constraints (Dmax ≤57 Gy, Dmean ≤52.4 Gy, and V54≤10%). There was a trend towards decrease in SBI from 4.4% (2007-2013) to 1.5% (2014-2019) (P = .089) without affecting survival.

CONCLUSION

Our results suggest a low risk of SBI after PBT for pediatric brain tumors, comparable to photon therapy. A lower risk was seen after adopting strict brainstem dose constraints.

Comparison of neuropsychological functioning in pediatric posterior fossa tumor survivors: Medulloblastoma, low-grade astrocytoma, and healthy controls

BACKGROUND

Neuropsychological comparison of medulloblastoma (MB) and cerebellar low-grade astrocytoma (LGA) survivors to controls can clarify treatment-related neurocognitive late effects. While both brain tumor groups undergo surgery to the posterior fossa, children with MB additionally receive craniospinal irradiation with boost and chemotherapy. This study provides an updated comparison of neuropsychological functioning in these two groups and examines effects of demographic risk factors upon outcomes.

PROCEDURE

Forty-two children (16 MB, nine LGA, and 17 controls) completed measures of intellectual functioning, verbal learning/memory, visual-motor integration, and fine-motor functioning. The effects of age at diagnosis, time since diagnosis, gender, fatigue, and social status on neuropsychological functioning were examined.

RESULTS

MB survivors demonstrated the worst neurocognitive late effects, but they were less severe and extensive than in prior studies. LGA survivors' mean scores were below normative expectations in working memory, processing speed, and fine-motor functioning. In this overall sample, processing speed difficulties were independent of fine-motor functioning and fatigue. Higher parental education was associated with better intellectual functioning, working memory, delayed recall, and visual-motor integration. Neuropsychological function was not associated with gender, age at diagnosis, or time since diagnosis.

CONCLUSION

The results support that contemporary treatment approaches with craniospinal irradiation plus boost and chemotherapy confer the greatest risk for late effects, while surgical resection is associated with subtle but important neurocognitive difficulties. Ultimately, this study furthers our understanding of factors impacting neuropsychological function in pediatric MB and LGA survivors and contributes to empirical support for close monitoring and targeted interventions into survivorship.

Factors Associated with Acute Toxicity in Pediatric Patients Treated with Proton Radiotherapy: A Report from the Pediatric Proton Consortium Registry

PURPOSE/OBJECTIVES

Limited prospective information regarding acute toxicity in pediatric patients receiving proton therapy (PT) exists. In this study, Pediatric Proton Consortium Registry (PPCR) data was analyzed for factors associated with development of acute toxicity in children receiving passively scattered or pencil beam scanning PT.

MATERIALS/METHODS

Pediatric patients treated with PT and enrolled on the PPCR from 2016-2017 at seven institutions were included. Data was entered on presence versus absence of acute general, cardiac, endocrine, eye, gastrointestinal (GI), genitourinary, hematologic, mouth, musculoskeletal, neurologic, psychologic, respiratory, and skin toxicities prior to (baseline) and at the end of PT (acute). Associations between patient and treatment variables with development of acute toxicity were assessed with multivariable modelling.

RESULTS

Of 422 patients included, PT technique was passively scattered in 241 (57%), pencil beam scanning in 180 (43%), and missing in 1 (<1%) patient. Median age was 9.9 years. Daily anesthesia for treatment was used in 169 (40%). Treatments were categorized as craniospinal irradiation (CSI) (n=100, 24%), focal CNS PT (n=157, 38%), or body PT (n=158, 38%). Passively scattered PT was associated with increased risk of hematologic toxicity compared to pencil beam scanning PT (OR: 3.03, 95% CI: 1.38-6.70, p=0.006). There were no other differences toxicities between PT techniques. Uninsured patients had increased risk of GI (OR: 2.71, 1.12-6.58, p=0.027) and hematologic toxicity (OR: 10.67, 2.68-42.46, p<0.001). Patients receiving concurrent chemotherapy were more likely to experience skin (OR: 2.45, 1.23-4.88, p=0.011), hematologic (OR: 2.87, 1.31-6.25, p=0.008), GI (OR: 2.37, 1.33-4.21, p=0.003), and mouth toxicities (OR: 2.03, 1.10-3.73, p=0.024). Patients receiving 49-55 Gy were more likely to experience skin (OR: 2.18, 1.06-4.44, p=0.033) toxicity than those receiving <49 Gy.

CONCLUSION

The PPCR registry highlights broad differences in acute toxicity rates in children receiving PT, and identifies opportunities for improvements in prevention, monitoring, and treatment of toxicities.

Cognitive Functions of Pediatric Brain Tumor Survivors Treated With Proton Beam Therapy: A Case Series

Pediatric brain tumor survivors who received proton beam therapy at the University of Tsukuba Hospital from 2004 to 2011 were retrospectively evaluated for cognitive function. Five patients were included. The median age of diagnosis was 5.4 years (range: 1.5 to 12.5 y) and the median follow-up time was 5.8 years (range: 3.1 to 8.1 y). IQ scores at follow-up were decreased in 2 of 5 patients; 1 underwent whole-brain irradiation and the other was examined just after surgical removal of recurrent tumors. Local proton beam therapy may preserve cognitive function in survivors of pediatric brain tumors.

Neuropsychological assessment of paediatric brain tumour survivors: Factors associated with assessment

AIM

Paediatric brain tumour survivors are at increased risk of neurocognitive deficits that affect their education. The aim of this study was to assess the proportion of brain tumour survivors who historically received a neuropsychological assessment and examine the demographic and treatment-related variables associated with neuropsychological assessment. A further aim was to determine the number and treatment profile of brain tumour survivors who would benefit from neuropsychological assessment.

METHODS

Data from the New Zealand Children's Cancer Registry including treatments received, was used to identify children treated for a brain tumour at Starship Children's Hospital between January 2009 and December 2015. Clinical records were examined for evidence of a neuropsychological assessment in the form of a written report. Logistic regression models were used to determine factors associated with receipt of an assessment.

RESULTS

Of the 132 brain tumour survivors, 37 (28.0%) had evidence of a neuropsychological assessment in their clinical records. In adjusted analysis, children who were treated with all three of surgery, chemotherapy and radiotherapy (n = 38) were more likely to have had an assessment (odds ratio: 12.90; 95% confidence interval: 4.76-34.93) than children who had either no treatment, chemotherapy alone, surgery alone or chemotherapy and surgery (n = 73). Treatment with radiotherapy alone or with either chemotherapy or surgery (n = 21) was not significantly associated with receipt of assessment (odds ratio = 2.40; 95% confidence interval: 0.69-8.37).

CONCLUSIONS

It is important to identify the number of children who might benefit from neuropsychological assessment to inform prioritisation within existing resource and plan for additional resource if required. With a focus on reducing late effects, it is imperative that neuropsychological assessment is an integral component of a paediatric brain tumour programme.

Cognitive and Imaging Differences After Proton and Photon Whole Brain Irradiation in a Preclinical Model

Purpose:

Compared with photon cranial radiation therapy (X-CRT), proton cranial radiation therapy (P-CRT) offers potential advantages in limiting radiation-induced sequalae in the treatment of pediatric brain tumors. This study aims to identify cognitive, functional magnetic resonance and positron emission tomography imaging markers and molecular differences between the radiation modalities.

Methods and Materials:

Juvenile rats received a single faction of 10 Gy (relative biological effectiveness−weighted dose) delivered with 6 MV X-CRT or at the midspread out Bragg peak of a 100 MeV P-CRT beam. At 3, 6, and 12 months post-CRT, executive function was measured using 5-choice serial reaction time task. At ~12 months post-CRT, animals were imaged with ¹⁸F-Flurodeoxy-glucose positron emission tomography imaging followed by functional ex vivo magnetic resonance imaging and stained for markers of neuroinflammation.

Results:

Irradiated animals had cognitive impairment with a higher number of omissions and lower incorrect and premature responses compared with sham (P ≤ .05). The accuracy of the animals’ X-CRT was less than that of sham (P ≤ .001). No significant difference in rates of cognitive change were found between the radiation modalities. At 12 months post-CRT, glucose metabolism was significantly higher than sham in X-CRT (P = .04) but not P-CRT. Using diffusion tensor imaging, P-CRT brains were found to have higher white matter volume and fiber lengths compared with sham (P < .03). Only X-CRT animals had higher apparent diffusion coefficient values compared with sham (P = .04). P-CRT animals had more connectomic changes compared with X-CRT. Correlative analysis identified several imaging features with cognitive performance. Further-more, microgliosis (P < .05), astrogliosis (P < .01), and myelin thinning (P <.05) were observed in both radiation modalities, with X-CRT showing slightly more inflammation.

Conclusions:

Both P-CRT and X-CRT lead to neurocognitive changes compared with sham. Although no significant difference was observed in neuroinflammation between the irradiated groups, differences were found in late-term glucose metabolism and brain connectome. Our results indicate that despite relative biological effectiveness weighting of the proton dose there are still differential effects which warrants further investigation.

Long-term cognitive and academic outcomes among pediatric brain tumor survivors treated with proton versus photon radiotherapy

BACKGROUND

Proton radiotherapy (PRT) may be associated with less neurocognitive risk than photon RT (XRT) for pediatric brain tumor survivors. We compared neurocognitive and academic outcomes in long-term survivors treated with XRT versus PRT.

METHODS

Survivors underwent neurocognitive evaluation >1 year after craniospinal (CSI) or focal PRT or XRT. Groups were compared using separate one-way analyses of covariance for the CSI and focal groups.

RESULTS

PRT (n = 58) and XRT (n = 30) subgroups were similar on gender (66% male), age at RT (median = 6.5 years), age at follow-up (median = 14.6 years), and government assistance status (32%). PRT and XRT focal groups differed on follow-up interval, shunt history, and total RT dose (all p < .05), whereas PRT and XRT CSI groups differed on follow-up interval, baseline neurocognitive performance score, boost volume, and CSI dose (all p < .05). The PRT focal group outperformed the XRT focal group on inhibition/switching (p = .04). The PRT CSI group outperformed the XRT CSI group on inattention/impulsivity (both p < .05). Several clinical variables (i.e., RT dose, boost field, baseline performance) predicted neurocognitive outcomes (all p < .05). The PRT focal group performed comparably to population means on most neurocognitive measures, while both CSI groups performed below expectation on multiple measures. The XRT CSI group was most impaired. All groups fell below expectation on processing speed, fine motor, and academic fluency (most p < .01).

CONCLUSIONS

Findings suggest generally favorable neurocognitive and academic long-term outcomes following focal PRT. Impairment was greatest following CSI regardless of modality. Dosimetry and baseline characteristics are important determinants of outcome alone or in combination with modality.

Assessment of the impact of CT calibration procedures for proton therapy planning on pediatric treatments

PURPOSE

Relative stopping powers (RSPs) for proton therapy are estimated using single-energy computed tomography (SECT), calibrated with standardized tissues of the adult male. It is assumed that those tissues are representative of tissues of all age and sex. Female, male, and pediatric tissues differ from one another in density and composition. In this study, we use tabulated pediatric tissues and computational phantoms to investigate the impact of this assumption on pediatric proton therapy. The potential of dual-energy CT (DECT) to improve the accuracy of these calculations is explored.

METHODS

We study 51 human body tissues, categorized into male/female for the age groups newborn, 1-, 5-, 10-, and 15-year-old children, and adult, with given compositions and densities. CT numbers are simulated and RSPs are estimated using SECT and DECT methods. Estimated tissue RSPs from each method are compared to theoretical RSPs. The dose and range errors of each approach are evaluated on three computational phantoms (Ewing's sarcoma, salivary sarcoma, and glioma) derived from pediatric proton therapy patients.

RESULTS

With SECT, soft tissues have mean estimation errors and standard deviation up to (1.96 ± 4.18)% observed in newborns, compared to (0.20 ± 1.15)% in adult males. Mean estimation errors for bones are up to (-3.35 ± 4.76)% in pediatrics as opposed to (0.10 ± 0.66)% in adult males. With DECT, mean errors reduce to (0.17 ± 0.13)% and (0.23 ± 0.22)% in newborns (soft tissues/bones). With SECT, dose errors in a Ewing's sarcoma phantom are exceeding 5 Gy (10% of prescribed dose) at the distal end of the treatment field, with volumes of dose errors >5 Gy ofV diff > 5 = 4630.7  mm3 . Similar observations are made in the head and neck phantoms, with overdoses to healthy tissue exceeding 2 Gy (4%). A systematic Bragg peak shift resulting in either over- or underdosage of healthy tissues and target volumes depending on the crossed tissues RSP prediction errors is observed. Water equivalent range errors of single beams are between -1.53 and 5.50 mm (min, max) (Ewing's sarcoma phantom), -0.78 and 3.62 mm (salivary sarcoma phantom), and -0.43 and 1.41 mm (glioma phantom). DECT can reduce dose errors to <1 Gy and range errors to <1 mm.

CONCLUSION

Single-energy computed tomography estimates RSPs for pediatric tissues with systematic shifts. DECT improves the accuracy of RSPs and dose distributions in pediatric tissues compared to the SECT calibration curve based on adult male tissues.

Postsurgical geometrical variations of tumor bed and brainstem during photon and proton therapy for pediatric tumors of the posterior fossa: dosimetric impact and predictive factors

PURPOSE

Brainstem radionecrosis is an important issue during the irradiation of tumors of the posterior fossa. The aim of the present study is to analyze postsurgical geometrical variations of tumor bed (TB) and brainstem (BS) and their impact on dosimetry.

METHODS

Retrospective collection of data from pediatric patients treated at a single institution. Availability of presurgical magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) was verified; availability of at least two postsurgical MRIs was considered a further inclusion criterion. The following metrics were analyzed: total volume, Dice similarity coefficient (DSC), and Haudsdorff distances (HD).

RESULTS

Fourteen patients were available for the quantification of major postsurgical geometrical variations of TB. DSC, HD max, and HD average values were 0.47 (range: 0.08;0.76), 11.3 mm (7.7;24.5), and 2.6 mm (0.7;6.7) between the first and the second postoperative MRI, respectively. Postsurgical geometrical variations of the BS were also observed. Coverage to the TB was reduced in one patient (D95: -2.9 Gy), while D2 to the BS was increased for the majority of patients. Overall, predictive factors for significant geometrical changes were presurgical gross tumor volume (GTV) > 33 mL, hydrocephaly at diagnosis, Luschka foramen involvement, and younger age (≤ 8 years).

CONCLUSION

Major volume changes were observed in this cohort, with some dosimetric impact. The use of a recent co-registration MRI is advised. The 2-3 mm HD average observed should be considered in the planning target volume/planning organ at risk volume (PTV/PRV) margin and/or robust optimization planning. Results from wider efforts are needed to verify our findings.

Pediatric brain tumors: the era of molecular diagnostics, targeted and immune-based therapeutics, and a focus on long term neurologic sequelae

Pediatric brain tumors are the second most common malignancy of childhood after acute leukemia and the number one cause of cancer-related mortality¹. Over the past decade, advanced molecular diagnostics have led to the discovery of new molecularly-defined tumor types with prognostic and therapeutic implications. Methylation profiles, whole genome sequencing, and transcriptomics have defined subgroups and revealed heterogeneity within commonly defined tumor entities^2,3. These findings have also revealed important differences between adult and pediatric brain tumors of similar histology. The majority of pediatric low grade gliomas (pLGG) are defined by alterations in the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway including BRAFV600E point mutation, K1AA1549-BRAF fusion, and FGFR1 alterations as opposed to IDH1/2 mutations and 1p/19q co-deletion seen more frequently in adult low grade gliomas⁴. These findings have led to targeted therapies, namely BRAF and MEK inhibitors, which are currently being evaluated in phase III clinical trials and may soon supplant chemotherapy as standard of care for pLGG's. While targeted therapy trials for pediatric brain tumors have had significant success, immunotherapy remains a challenge in a group of tumors with generally lower mutational burden compared to adult tumors and relatively "cold" immune microenvironment. Despite this, a wide array of immunotherapy trials including vaccine therapies, immune checkpoint blockade, chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T cells, and viral therapies are on-going. Unique to pediatrics, multiple clinical trials have sought to answer the question of whether the most malignant pediatric brain tumors in the youngest patients can be successfully treated with high dose chemotherapy in lieu of radiation to avoid devastating long-term neurocognitive deficits. Due to the collaborative work of multiple pediatric neuro-oncology consortiums, the recent history of pediatric brain tumor research is one of efficient translation from bench to bedside in a rare group of tumors resulting in significant progress in the field. Here, advances in the areas of molecular characterization, targeted and immune-based therapies, and reduction in long term co-morbidities will be reviewed.

Neurocognitive Outcomes in Pediatric Patients Following Brain Irradiation

Advanced radiation techniques can reduce the severity of neurocognitive sequelae in young brain tumor patients. In the present analysis, we sought to compare neurocognitive outcomes after proton irradiation with patients who underwent photon radiotherapy (RT) and surgery. Neurocognitive outcomes were evaluated in 103 pediatric brain tumor patients (proton RT n = 26, photon RT n = 30, surgery n = 47) before and after treatment. Comparison of neurocognitive outcomes following different treatment modalities were analyzed over four years after treatment completion. Longitudinal analyses included 42 months of follow-up after proton RT and 55 months after photon RT and surgery. Neurocognitive assessment included standardized tests examining seven domains. A comparison of neurocognitive outcomes after RT (proton and photon with >90% additional surgery) and surgery showed no significant differences in any neurocognitive domain. Neurocognitive functioning tests after proton RT failed to identify alterations compared to baseline testing. Long-term follow up over four years after photon RT showed a decrease in non-verbal intelligence (-9.6%; p = 0.01) and visuospatial construction (-14.9%; p = 0.02). After surgery, there was a decline in non-verbal intelligence (-10.7%; p = 0.01) and processing speed (14.9%; p = 0.002). Differences in neurocognitive outcomes between RT and surgical cohorts in direct intermodal comparison at long-term follow-up were not identified in our study, suggesting that modern radiation therapy does not affect cognition as much as in the past. There were no alterations in long-term neurocognitive abilities after proton RT, whereas decline of processing speed, non-verbal intelligence, and visuospatial abilities were observed after both photon RT and surgery. Domains dependent on intact white matter structures appear particularly vulnerable to brain tumor treatment irrespective of treatment approach.

Intellectual functioning among case-matched cohorts of children treated with proton or photon radiation for standard-risk medulloblastoma

BACKGROUND

Proton therapy may reduce cognitive deficits after radiotherapy among brain tumor survivors, although current data are limited to retrospective comparisons between historical cohorts. The authors compared intelligence quotient scores within a case-matched cohort of children with medulloblastoma treated with proton radiation (PRT) or photon radiation (XRT) over the same time period.

METHODS

Among 88 consecutive patients with standard-risk medulloblastoma treated with PRT or XRT at 2 institutions from 2000 to 2009, 50 were matched 1:1 (25 with PRT and 25 with XRT) according to age, gender, date of diagnosis, histology, radiation boost, and craniospinal irradiation dose. One-way analyses of variance were performed to compare the Full-Scale Intelligence Quotient (FSIQ) and associated index scores between the 2 cohorts.

RESULTS

Neurocognitive data were available for 37 survivors (17 with PRT and 20 with XRT) from the matched cohort. The mean age was 8.5 years (SD, 4.14 years). The median follow-up was 5.3 years (range, 1.0-11.4 years) and 4.6 years (range, 1.1-11.2 years) for the PRT and XRT cohorts, respectively (P = .193). Patients treated with PRT had significantly higher mean FSIQ (99.6 vs 86.2; P = .021), verbal (105.2 vs 88.6; P = .010), and nonverbal scores (103.1 vs 88.9; P = .011) than the XRT-treated cohort. Differences in processing speed (82.9 vs 77.2; P = .331) and working memory (97.0 vs 92.7; P = .388) were not statistically significant.

CONCLUSIONS

Radiotherapy-associated cognitive effects appear to be more attenuated after proton therapy. Comprehensive prospective studies are needed to appropriately evaluate the neurocognitive advantages of proton therapy.

Normal tissue tolerance amongst paediatric brain tumour patients- current evidence in proton radiotherapy

BACKGROUND

Proton radiotherapy (PT) is used increasingly for paediatric brain cancer patients. However, as demonstrated here, the knowledge on normal tissue dose constraints, to minimize side-effects, for this cohort is limited.

METHODS

A search strategy was systematically conducted on MEDLINE® database. 65 papers were evaluated ranging from 2013 to 2021.

RESULTS

Large variations in normal tissue tolerance and toxicity reporting across PT studies makes estimation of normal tissue dose constraints difficult, with the potential for significant late effects to go unmeasured. Mean dose delivered to the pituitary gland varies from 20 to 30 Gy across literature. Similarly, the hypothalamic dose delivery ranges from 20 to 54.6 Gy for paediatric patients.

CONCLUSION

There is a significant lack of radiobiological data for paediatric brain cancer patients undergoing proton therapy, often using data from x-ray radiotherapy and adult populations. The way forward is through standardisation of reporting in order to validate relevant dose constraints.

Predictors of Cognitive Performance Among Infants Treated for Brain Tumors: Findings From a Multisite, Prospective, Longitudinal Trial

PURPOSE

Infants treated for CNS malignancies experience a significantly poorer response to treatment and are particularly at risk for neuropsychological deficits. The literature is limited and inconsistent regarding cognitive outcomes among this group. We investigated predictors of cognitive outcomes in children treated for brain tumors during infancy as part of a large, prospective, multisite, longitudinal trial.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

One hundred thirty-nine infants with a newly diagnosed CNS tumor were treated with chemotherapy, with or without focal proton or photon radiation therapy (RT). Cognitive assessments were conducted at baseline, 6 months, 1 year, and then annually for 5 years. The median length of follow-up was 816 days (26.8 months). Neurocognitive testing included assessment of intellectual functioning (intellectual quotient [IQ]), parent ratings of executive functioning and emotional and behavioral functioning, and socioeconomic status.

RESULTS

At baseline, IQ, parent-reported working memory, and parent-reported adaptive functioning were worse than normative expectations. Baseline cognitive difficulties were associated with younger age at diagnosis and lower socioeconomic status. Linear mixed models did not demonstrate a decline in IQ over time. There were increased parent-reported attention and executive problems over time. Increased concerns were related to supratentorial tumor location and CSF diversion. There were no differences in cognitive outcomes based on treatment exposure (chemotherapy-only v chemotherapy with RT and proton v photon focal RT).

CONCLUSION

Even before adjuvant therapy, young children with brain tumors experience cognitive difficulties that can affect quality of life. Changes in cognitive functioning over time were dependent on tumor location and surgical factors rather than adjuvant therapy. These findings may serve to guide treatment planning and indicate targets for cognitive monitoring and intervention.

Gliomas, germ cell tumors, and craniopharyngioma

This report summarizes the current multimodality treatment approaches for children with low- and high-grade gliomas, germinoma, and nongerminomatous germ cell tumors, and craniopharyngiomas used in the Children's Oncology Group (COG) and the International Society of Pediatric Oncology (SIOP). Treatment recommendations are provided in the context of historical approaches regarding the roles of surgery, radiation, and chemotherapy. Future research strategies for these tumors in both COG and SIOP are also discussed.

Late effects of radiation therapy in pediatric patients and survivorship

Advances in multimodality therapy have led to childhood cancer cure rates over 80%. However, surgery, chemotherapy, and radiotherapy may lead to debilitating or even fatal long-term effects among childhood survivors beyond those inflicted by the primary disease process. It is critical to understand, mitigate, and prevent these late effects of cancer therapy to improve the quality of life of childhood cancer survivors. This review summarizes the various late effects of radiotherapy and acknowledges the Pediatric Normal Tissue Effects in the Clinic (PENTEC), an international collaboration that is systematically analyzing the association between radiation treatment dose/volume and consequential organ toxicities, in developing children as a basis to formulate recommendations for clinical practice of pediatric radiation oncology. We also summarize initiatives for survivorship and surveillance of late normal tissue effects related to radiation therapy among long-term survivors of childhood cancer treated in the past.

The ROCOCO performance scoring system translates dosimetric differences into clinically relevant endpoints: Comparing IMPT to VMAT in an example pilocytic astrocytoma dataset

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Proton therapy is expected to outperform photon-based treatment regarding organs at risk (OAR) sparing but to date there is no method to practically measure clinical benefit. Here, we introduce the novel ROCOCO Performance Scoring System (RPSS) translating dose differences into clinically relevant endpoints and apply this to a treatment plan comparison of volumetric modulated arc therapy (VMAT) and intensity modulated proton therapy (IMPT) in 20 pilocytic astrocytoma patients.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The RPSS was developed on the basis of expert-based weighting factors and toxicity scores per OAR. The imaging datasets of 20 pilocytic astrocytoma patients having undergone radiotherapy were included in this in silico dosimetric comparison trial as proof of principle. For each of these patients, treatment plans to a total dose of 54 Gy (RBE) were generated for VMAT and IMPT and these were compared regarding radiation dose to the clinical target volume (CTV) and OARs. The RPSS was calculated for each treatment plan comparing VMAT and IMPT.

RESULTS

In 40 analysed treatment plans, the average and low dose volumes to various OARs were significantly reduced when using IMPT compared to VMAT (p < 0.05). Using the RPSS, a significant difference between both treatment modalities was found, with 85% of the patients having a lower RPSS in favour of the IMPT plan.

CONCLUSION

There are dosimetric differences between IMPT and VMAT in pilocytic astrocytoma patients. In absence of clinically validated NTCP models we introduce the RPSS model in order to objectively compare treatment modalities by translating dosimetric differences in potential clinical differences.

1-[(4-Nitrophenyl)sulfonyl]-4-phenylpiperazine treatment after brain irradiation preserves cognitive function in mice

BACKGROUND

Normal tissue toxicity is an inevitable consequence of primary or secondary brain tumor radiotherapy. Cranial irradiation commonly leads to neurocognitive deficits that manifest months or years after treatment. Mechanistically, radiation-induced loss of neural stem/progenitor cells, neuroinflammation, and demyelination are contributing factors that lead to progressive cognitive decline.

METHODS

The effects of 1-[(4-nitrophenyl)sulfonyl]-4-phenylpiperazine (NSPP) on irradiated murine neurospheres, microglia cells, and patient-derived gliomaspheres were assessed by sphere-formation assays, flow cytometry, and interleukin (IL)-6 enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Activation of the hedgehog pathway was studied by quantitative reverse transcription PCR. The in vivo effects of NSPP were analyzed using flow cytometry, sphere-formation assays, immunohistochemistry, behavioral testing, and an intracranial mouse model of glioblastoma.

RESULTS

We report that NSPP mitigates radiation-induced normal tissue toxicity in the brains of mice. NSPP treatment significantly increased the number of neural stem/progenitor cells after brain irradiation in female animals, and inhibited radiation-induced microglia activation and expression of the pro-inflammatory cytokine IL-6. Behavioral testing revealed that treatment with NSPP after radiotherapy was able to successfully mitigate radiation-induced decline in memory function of the brain. In mouse models of glioblastoma, NSPP showed no toxicity and did not interfere with the growth-delaying effects of radiation.

CONCLUSIONS

We conclude that NSPP has the potential to mitigate cognitive decline in patients undergoing partial or whole brain irradiation without promoting tumor growth and that the use of this compound as a radiation mitigator of radiation late effects on the central nervous system warrants further investigation.

Feasibility of Proton Beam Therapy for Infants with Brain Tumours: Experiences from the Prospective KiProReg Registry Study

AIMS

Proton beam therapy (PBT) has increasingly been applied for the treatment of young children when radiotherapy is needed. The treatment requires intensive multimodality care and is logistically demanding. In this analysis, we evaluated our experiences in treating infants with tumours of the central nervous system with PBT.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Children younger than 2 years of age treated with PBT for central nervous system tumours enrolled in the prospective registry study KiProReg were retrospectively analysed. Information on patient characteristics, treatment, toxicities and outcome were evaluated. Adverse events were classified according to the National Cancer Institute Common Terminology Criteria for Adverse Events (CTCAE V4.0) before, during and after PBT.

RESULTS

Between September 2013 and June 2018, 51 infants were eligible. The median age was 19 months (range 11-23 months) at the time of PBT. Tumour entities were ependymoma (51.0%), atypical teratoid rhabdoid tumour (39.0%), high-grade glioma (6.0%), pineoblastoma (2.0%) and medulloblastoma (2.0%). The prescribed median total dose was 54.0 Gy (range 45.0-59.4 Gy). Most received local radiotherapy. In four patients, craniospinal irradiation followed by a boost to the local tumour bed was applied. The median follow-up time was 42.0 months (range 7.3-86.2 months). The estimated 3-year local control, progression-free survival and overall survival rates for all patients were 62.7, 47.1 and 76.5%, respectively. During radiotherapy, 24 events of higher-grade (CTCAE ≥ °III) toxicities were reported. Interruption of radiotherapy for more than 2 days was due to infection (n = 3) or shunt complication (n = 2). Unexpected hospitalisation during radiotherapy affected 12 patients. Late adverse events attributable to radiotherapy included endocrinopathy (CTCAE °II; 7.8%), new onset of hearing loss (CTCAE °III; 5.8%) and visual impairment (CTCAE °IV; 1.9%). Transient radiation-induced imaging changes occurred in five patients (9.8%).

CONCLUSIONS

Our study indicates that PBT is feasible for very young children with central nervous system tumours, at least in the short term. However, it requires challenging interdisciplinary medical care and high logistical effort. For evaluation of late effects, longer follow-up and evaluation of neurocognitive outcome are desirable. More data have to be gathered to further define the role of radiotherapy in infants over time.

Diffusion Tensor Imaging-Based Analysis of Baseline Neurocognitive Function and Posttreatment White Matter Changes in Pediatric Patients With Craniopharyngioma Treated With Surgery and Proton Therapy

PURPOSE

To determine the preirradiation baseline association of white matter integrity with neurocognitive function and to assess posttreatment changes in pediatric patients with craniopharyngioma treated with proton therapy.

METHODS AND MATERIALS

Ninety children and adolescents (2-20 years old) with craniopharyngioma were treated with proton therapy (54 Gy[RBE]) in a prospective therapeutic trial. Neurocognitive performance at the postoperative baseline before proton therapy and diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) data acquired at baseline and at annual follow-up were analyzed. Tract-based spatial statistics and structural connectomics were used to derive global and local white matter features from DTI. Baseline DTI features were compared for patients with average and below-average neurocognitive performance. Longitudinal DTI data were analyzed to determine the proton dose effect on white matter structures in relation to the irradiated brain volume and baseline age.

RESULTS

Before proton therapy, patients with below-average working memory, processing speed, verbal fluency, verbal learning, or fine motor dexterity exhibited more globally degraded white matter structures compared with their counterparts with average performance, as indicated by lower mean fractional anisotropy, decreased global efficiency, or higher modularity. Surgery, obstructive hydrocephalus, and preoperative hypothalamic involvement appeared to be related to this degradation. In local analyses, tract-based spatial statistics revealed left-lateralized associations with verbal and motor functions, which supported surgical approaches to midline tumors via the right hemisphere. The mean fractional anisotropy of the brain and the global efficiency derived from DTI increased over the 5 years after proton therapy. The rate of increase was lower with larger irradiated brain volumes and in older children.

CONCLUSIONS

Below-average baseline neurocognitive performance in patients with craniopharyngioma before proton therapy appeared to be related to structural degradation of white matter tracts. Posttherapy longitudinal DTI showed improving trends in global integrity and efficiency measures, particularly in children in whom a smaller brain volume was irradiated.

Neurocognitive impairment, employment, and social status in radiotherapy-treated adult survivors of childhood brain tumors

Background

Little is known of the cognitive functions, employment, and social status in adult survivors of childhood brain tumor (BT). We aimed to determine the long-term neurocognitive profile of radiotherapy-treated adult survivors of childhood BT and the relationship between cognitive functions and employment and social status.

Methods

Neurocognitive profiles of survivors were assessed in a Finnish national cohort of 71 radiotherapy-treated survivors of childhood BT (median follow-up time: 21 years [range: 5-33 years]) using a cross-sectional design. Neurocognitive outcomes were compared to control (n = 45) and normative values. Tumor- and treatment-related data were collected from the patient files. Information on employment and social status was gathered.

Results

Survivors’ (median age: 27 years [range: 16-43 years]) median verbal and performance intelligence quotient (IQ) was 90 (range: 49-121) and 87 (range: 43-119), respectively. The cognitive domains with the greatest impairment were executive functions (median z score, −3.5 SD [range: −25.0 to 1.3 SD]), and processing speed and attention (median z score, −2.5 SD [range: −24.9 to 0.5 SD]). Executive functions were associated with employment, educational level, living independently, having an intimate relationship, and having a driving license. Processing speed and attention were related to educational level, living independently, having an intimate relationship, and having a driving license. Performance IQ was associated with educational level and employment status. Working memory was associated with educational level and living independently.

Conclusions

Radiotherapy-treated adult survivors of childhood BT experience significant neurocognitive impairment, which is associated with difficulties related to employment and social status.

Psychological Outcomes, Health-Related Quality of Life, and Neurocognitive Functioning in Survivors of Childhood Cancer and Their Parents

Childhood cancer disrupts the lives of patients and their families and affects acute and long-term psychological health. This article summarizes (1) psychological challenges, including depression, anxiety, worries, and posttraumatic stress, as well as positive outcomes such as benefit finding and posttraumatic growth in young survivors and parents; (2) health-related quality of life; (3) interventions to support survivors and parents with psychological difficulties; and (4) neurocognitive problems and interventions to help alleviate them. Although many survivors and parents fare well in the long term, many survivors may benefit from interventions. Interventions should be further evaluated and integrated into routine clinical care.