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Wallace JM. Competition for nutrients in pregnant adolescents: consequences for maternal, conceptus and offspring endocrine systems. J Endocrinol 2019; 242:T1-T19. [PMID: 30615597 DOI: 10.1530/joe-18-0670] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2019] [Accepted: 01/07/2019] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
The competition for nutrients that arises when pregnancy coincides with continuing or incomplete growth in young adolescent girls increases the risk of preterm delivery and low birthweight with negative after-effects for mother and child extending beyond the perinatal period. Sheep paradigms involving nutritional management of weight and adiposity in young, biologically immature adolescents have allowed the consequences of differential maternal growth status to be explored. Although nutrient reserves at conception play a modest role, it is the dietary manipulation of the maternal growth trajectory thereafter which has the most negative impact on pregnancy outcome. Overnourishing adolescents to promote rapid maternal growth is particularly detrimental as placental growth, uteroplacental blood flows and fetal nutrient delivery are perturbed leading to a high incidence of fetal growth restriction and premature delivery of low birthweight lambs, whereas in undernourished adolescents further maternal growth is prevented, and depletion of the maternal body results in a small reduction in birthweight independent of placental size. Maternal and placental endocrine systems are differentially altered in both paradigms with downstream effects on fetal endocrine systems, organ development and body composition. Approaches to reverse these effects have been explored, predominantly targeting placental growth or function. After birth, growth-restricted offspring born to overnourished adolescents and fed to appetite have an altered metabolic phenotype which persists into adulthood, whereas offspring of undernourished adolescents are largely unaffected. This body of work using ovine paradigms has public health implications for nutritional advice offered to young adolescents before and during pregnancy, and their offspring thereafter.
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A review of fundamental principles for animal models of DOHaD research: an Australian perspective. J Dev Orig Health Dis 2016; 7:449-472. [DOI: 10.1017/s2040174416000477] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Epidemiology formed the basis of ‘the Barker hypothesis’, the concept of ‘developmental programming’ and today’s discipline of the Developmental Origins of Health and Disease (DOHaD). Animal experimentation provided proof of the underlying concepts, and continues to generate knowledge of underlying mechanisms. Interventions in humans, based on DOHaD principles, will be informed by experiments in animals. As knowledge in this discipline has accumulated, from studies of humans and other animals, the complexity of interactions between genome, environment and epigenetics, has been revealed. The vast nature of programming stimuli and breadth of effects is becoming known. As a result of our accumulating knowledge we now appreciate the impact of many variables that contribute to programmed outcomes. To guide further animal research in this field, the Australia and New Zealand DOHaD society (ANZ DOHaD) Animals Models of DOHaD Research Working Group convened at the 2nd Annual ANZ DOHaD Congress in Melbourne, Australia in April 2015. This review summarizes the contributions of animal research to the understanding of DOHaD, and makes recommendations for the design and conduct of animal experiments to maximize relevance, reproducibility and translation of knowledge into improving health and well-being.
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Carr DJ, David AL, Aitken RP, Milne JS, Borowicz PP, Wallace JM, Redmer DA. Placental vascularity and markers of angiogenesis in relation to prenatal growth status in overnourished adolescent ewes. Placenta 2016; 46:79-86. [PMID: 27697225 PMCID: PMC5063007 DOI: 10.1016/j.placenta.2016.08.076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2016] [Revised: 07/15/2016] [Accepted: 08/16/2016] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Introduction Placental vascularity may be important in the development of fetal growth restriction (FGR). The overnourished adolescent ewe is a robust model of the condition, with ∼50% of offspring demonstrating FGR (birthweight >2 standard deviations below optimally-fed control mean). We studied whether placental vascularity, angiogenesis and glucose transport reflect FGR severity. Methods Singleton pregnancies were established in adolescent ewes either overnourished to putatively restrict fetoplacental growth (n = 27) or control-fed (n = 12). At 131d (term = 145d) pregnancies were interrupted and fetuses classified as FGR (n = 17, <4222 g, -2SD below control-fed mean) or non-FGR (n = 10). Placentome capillary area density (CAD), number density (CND), surface density (CSD), and area per capillary (APC) in the fetal cotyledon (COT) and maternal caruncle (CAR) were analysed using immunostaining. COT/CAR mRNA expression of angiogenic ligands/receptors and glucose transporters were measured by qRT-PCR. Results Fetal weight was reduced in FGR vs. Non-FGR/Control groups. Total placentome weight was Control > Non-FGR > FGR and fetal:placental weight ratios were higher in overnourished versus Control groups. COT vascular indices were Non-FGR > FGR > Control. COT-CAD, CSD and APC were significantly greater in Non-FGR overnourished versus Control and intermediate in FGR groups. CAR vascularity did not differ. CAR-VEGFA/FLT1/KDR/ANGPT1/ANGPT2/SLC2A1/SLC2A3 mRNA was lower and COT-ANGPT2 higher in overnourished versus Control groups. Discussion Relative to control-intake pregnancy, overnourished pregnancies are characterised by higher COT vascularity, potentially a compensatory response to reduced nutrient supply, reflected by higher fetal:placental weight ratios. Compared with overnourished pregnancies where fetal growth is relatively preserved, overnourished pregnancies culminating in marked FGR have less placental vascularity, suggesting incomplete adaptation to the prenatal insult. Overnourishment of adolescent sheep dams produces FGR in approximately 50% of cases. Cotyledonary vascularity is increased in overnourished vs. control-intake pregnancy. Cotyledonary vascularity is highest in non-FGR cases, suggesting greater adaptation. Changes in cotyledonary vascularity are mirrored by angiopoietin-2 mRNA expression. Caruncular angiogenic ligands are reduced in FGR without any changes in vascularity.
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Affiliation(s)
- David J Carr
- Rowett Institute of Nutrition and Health, University of Aberdeen, Greenburn Road, Bucksburn, Aberdeen, AB21 9SB, UK; UCL Institute for Women's Health, University College London, 86-96 Chenies Mews, London, WC1E 6HX, UK.
| | - Anna L David
- UCL Institute for Women's Health, University College London, 86-96 Chenies Mews, London, WC1E 6HX, UK
| | - Raymond P Aitken
- Rowett Institute of Nutrition and Health, University of Aberdeen, Greenburn Road, Bucksburn, Aberdeen, AB21 9SB, UK
| | - John S Milne
- Rowett Institute of Nutrition and Health, University of Aberdeen, Greenburn Road, Bucksburn, Aberdeen, AB21 9SB, UK
| | - Pawel P Borowicz
- Department of Animal Sciences, North Dakota State University, Fargo, ND, 58108, USA
| | - Jacqueline M Wallace
- Rowett Institute of Nutrition and Health, University of Aberdeen, Greenburn Road, Bucksburn, Aberdeen, AB21 9SB, UK
| | - Dale A Redmer
- Department of Animal Sciences, North Dakota State University, Fargo, ND, 58108, USA
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Swanson AM, Rossi CA, Ofir K, Mehta V, Boyd M, Barker H, Ledwozyw A, Vaughan O, Martin J, Zachary I, Sebire N, Peebles DM, David AL. Maternal Therapy with Ad.VEGF-A 165 Increases Fetal Weight at Term in a Guinea-Pig Model of Fetal Growth Restriction. Hum Gene Ther 2016; 27:997-1007. [PMID: 27530140 DOI: 10.1089/hum.2016.046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
In a model of growth-restricted sheep pregnancy, it was previously demonstrated that transient uterine artery VEGF overexpression can improve fetal growth. This approach was tested in guinea-pig pregnancies, where placental physiology is more similar to humans. Fetal growth restriction (FGR) was attained through peri-conceptual nutrient restriction in virgin guinea pigs. Ad.VEGF-A165 or Ad.LacZ (1 × 1010vp) was applied at mid-gestation via laparotomy, delivered externally to the uterine circulation with thermosensitive gel. At short-term (3-8 days post surgery) or at term gestation, pups were weighed, and tissues were sampled for vector spread analysis, VEGF expression, and its downstream effects. Fetal weight at term was increased (88.01 ± 13.36 g; n = 26) in Ad.VEGF-A165-treated animals compared with Ad.LacZ-treated animals (85.52 ± 13.00 g; n = 19; p = 0.028). The brain, liver, and lung weight and crown rump length were significantly larger in short-term analyses, as well as VEGF expression in transduced tissues. At term, molecular analyses confirmed the presence of VEGF transgene in target tissues but not in fetal samples. Tissue histology analysis and blood biochemistry/hematological examination were comparable with controls. Uterine artery relaxation in Ad.VEGF-A165-treated dams was higher compared with Ad.LacZ-treated dams. Maternal uterine artery Ad.VEGF-A165 increases fetal growth velocity and term fetal weight in growth-restricted guinea-pig pregnancy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna M Swanson
- 1 Prenatal Cell and Gene Therapy Group, Institute for Women's Health , UCL, London, United Kingdom
| | - Carlo A Rossi
- 1 Prenatal Cell and Gene Therapy Group, Institute for Women's Health , UCL, London, United Kingdom
| | - Keren Ofir
- 1 Prenatal Cell and Gene Therapy Group, Institute for Women's Health , UCL, London, United Kingdom
| | - Vedanta Mehta
- 2 Centre for Cardiovascular Biology and Medicine , UCL, London, United Kingdom
| | - Michael Boyd
- 3 Biological Services Unit, Royal Veterinary College, London, United Kingdom
| | - Hannah Barker
- 3 Biological Services Unit, Royal Veterinary College, London, United Kingdom
| | - Agata Ledwozyw
- 1 Prenatal Cell and Gene Therapy Group, Institute for Women's Health , UCL, London, United Kingdom
| | - Owen Vaughan
- 1 Prenatal Cell and Gene Therapy Group, Institute for Women's Health , UCL, London, United Kingdom
| | - John Martin
- 2 Centre for Cardiovascular Biology and Medicine , UCL, London, United Kingdom
| | - Ian Zachary
- 2 Centre for Cardiovascular Biology and Medicine , UCL, London, United Kingdom
| | - Neil Sebire
- 4 Department of Paediatric Pathology, Institute of Child Health , UCL, London, United Kingdom
| | - Donald M Peebles
- 1 Prenatal Cell and Gene Therapy Group, Institute for Women's Health , UCL, London, United Kingdom
| | - Anna L David
- 1 Prenatal Cell and Gene Therapy Group, Institute for Women's Health , UCL, London, United Kingdom
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Kandadi MR, Hua Y, Zhu M, Turdi S, Nathanielsz PW, Ford SP, Nair S, Ren J. Influence of gestational overfeeding on myocardial proinflammatory mediators in fetal sheep heart. J Nutr Biochem 2013; 24:1982-90. [PMID: 24075902 PMCID: PMC3843763 DOI: 10.1016/j.jnutbio.2013.07.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2012] [Revised: 06/18/2013] [Accepted: 07/03/2013] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
Maternal overnutrition is associated with predisposition of offspring to cardiovascular disease in later life. Since maternal overnutrition may promote fetal and placental inflammatory responses, we hypothesized that maternal overnutrition/obesity increases expression of fetal cardiac proinflammatory mediators and alter cardiac morphometry. Multiparous ewes were fed either 150% of National Research Council (NRC) nutrient recommendations (overfed) or 100% of NRC requirement (control) from 60 days prior to mating to gestation Day 75 (D75), when ewes were euthanized. An additional cohort of overfed and control ewes were necropsied on D135. Cardiac morphometry, histology, mRNA and protein expression of toll-like receptor 4, iNOS, IL-1a, IL-1b, IL-6, IL-18, CD-14, CD-68, M-CSF and protein levels of phosphorylated I-κB and nuclear factor κB (NF-κB) were examined. Immunohistochemistry was performed to assess neutrophil and monocyte infiltration. Crown rump length, left and right ventricular free wall weights as well as left and right ventricular wall thickness were significantly increased in D75 fetuses of overfed mothers. Hematoxylin and eosin staining revealed irregular myofiber orientation and increased interstitial space in fetal ventricular tissues born to overfed mothers. Oil red O staining exhibited marked lipid droplet accumulation in the overfed fetuses. Overfeeding significantly enhanced TLR4, IL-1a, IL-1b IL-6 expression, promoted phosphorylation of IκB, decreased cytoplasmic NF-κB levels and increased neutrophil and monocyte infiltration. Collectively, these data suggest that maternal overfeeding prior to and throughout gestation leads to inflammation in the fetal heart and alters fetal cardiac morphometry.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Yinan Hua
- Division of Pharmaceutical Sciences University of Wyoming, Laramie, WY 82071
| | - Meijun Zhu
- Department of Animal Science University of Wyoming, Laramie, WY 82071
- Center for the Study of Fetal Programming, University of Wyoming, Laramie, WY 82071
| | - Subat Turdi
- Division of Pharmaceutical Sciences University of Wyoming, Laramie, WY 82071
| | - Peter W. Nathanielsz
- Center for the Study of Fetal Programming, University of Wyoming, Laramie, WY 82071
- Center for Pregnancy and Newborn Research, University of Texas Health Sciences Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, 78299
| | - Stephen P. Ford
- Department of Animal Science University of Wyoming, Laramie, WY 82071
- Center for the Study of Fetal Programming, University of Wyoming, Laramie, WY 82071
| | - Sreejayan Nair
- Division of Pharmaceutical Sciences University of Wyoming, Laramie, WY 82071
| | - Jun Ren
- Division of Pharmaceutical Sciences University of Wyoming, Laramie, WY 82071
- Center for the Study of Fetal Programming, University of Wyoming, Laramie, WY 82071
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Grazul-Bilska AT, Johnson ML, Borowicz PP, Baranko L, Redmer DA, Reynolds LP. Placental development during early pregnancy in sheep: effects of embryo origin on fetal and placental growth and global methylation. Theriogenology 2012; 79:94-102. [PMID: 23117132 DOI: 10.1016/j.theriogenology.2012.09.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2012] [Revised: 09/24/2012] [Accepted: 09/24/2012] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
The origin of embryos including those created through assisted reproductive technologies might have profound effects on placental and fetal development, possibly leading to compromised pregnancies associated with poor placental development. To determine the effects of embryo origin on fetal size, and maternal and fetal placental cellular proliferation and global methylation, pregnancies were achieved through natural mating (NAT), or transfer of embryos generated through in vivo (NAT-ET), IVF, or in vitro activation (IVA). On Day 22 of pregnancy, fetuses were measured and placental tissues were collected to immunologically detect Ki67 (a marker of proliferating cells) and 5-methyl cytosine followed by image analysis, and determine mRNA expression for three DNA methyltransferases. Fetal length and labeling index (proportion of proliferating cells) in maternal caruncles (maternal placenta) and fetal membranes (fetal placenta) were less (P < 0.001) in NAT-ET, IVF, and IVA than in NAT. In fetal membranes, expression of 5-methyl cytosine was greater (P < 0.02) in IVF and IVA than in NAT. In maternal caruncles, mRNA expression for DNMT1 was greater (P < 0.01) in IVA compared with the other groups, but DNMT3A expression was less (P < 0.04) in NAT-ET and IVA than in NAT. In fetal membranes, expression of mRNA for DNMT3A was greater (P < 0.01) in IVA compared with the other groups, and was similar in NAT, NAT-ET, and IVF groups. Thus, embryo origin might have specific effects on growth and function of ovine uteroplacental and fetal tissues through regulation of tissue growth, DNA methylation, and likely other mechanisms. These data provide a foundation for determining expression of specific factors regulating placental and fetal tissue growth and function in normal and compromised pregnancies, including those achieved with assisted reproductive technologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna T Grazul-Bilska
- Department of Animal Sciences, Center for Nutrition and Pregnancy, North Dakota State University, Fargo, North Dakota, USA.
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Carr DJ, Aitken RP, Milne JS, David AL, Wallace JM. Fetoplacental biometry and umbilical artery Doppler velocimetry in the overnourished adolescent model of fetal growth restriction. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2012; 207:141.e6-15. [PMID: 22840729 DOI: 10.1016/j.ajog.2012.05.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2012] [Revised: 05/02/2012] [Accepted: 05/09/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE The purpose of this study was to evaluate ultrasonographically fetal growth trajectories, placental biometry, and umbilical artery (UA) Doppler indices in growth-restricted pregnancies of overnourished adolescent ewes and normally developing pregnancies of control-fed ewes. STUDY DESIGN Singleton pregnancies were established using embryo transfer in 42 adolescent ewes that were overnourished (n = 27) or control-fed (n = 15) and were scanned at weekly intervals from 83-126 days' gestation and necropsied at 131 days' gestation (term = 145 days). RESULTS Ultrasonographic placental measurements were reduced and UA Doppler indices were increased from 83 days' gestation; measurements of fetal abdominal circumference and femur length, renal volume and tibia length, and biparietal diameter were reduced from 98, 105, and 112 days' gestation, respectively, in overnourished vs control-intake pregnancies. CONCLUSION Overnourishment of adolescent sheep dams produced late-onset asymmetric fetal growth restriction that was commensurate with brain sparing. Ultrasonographic placental biometry was already reduced and UA Doppler indices increased by mid gestation in overnourished pregnancies, preceding reduced fetal growth velocity and indicating an early nutritionally mediated insult on placental development.
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Hayward CE, Greenwood SL, Sibley CP, Baker PN, Jones RL. Effect of young maternal age and skeletal growth on placental growth and development. Placenta 2011; 32:990-8. [PMID: 22005108 DOI: 10.1016/j.placenta.2011.09.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2011] [Revised: 09/22/2011] [Accepted: 09/26/2011] [Indexed: 10/16/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Teenagers are susceptible to delivering small-for-gestational-age infants. Previous studies implicate continued skeletal growth as a contributory factor, and impaired placental development was the primary cause of fetal growth restriction in growing adolescent sheep. The aims of this study were to examine the impact of young maternal age and growth on placental development. STUDY DESIGN Placentas were collected from 31 teenagers, of which 12 were growing and 17 non-growing based on knee height measurements. An adult control group (n = 12) was included. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES Placental weight and morphometric measurements of villous, syncytiotrophoblast, fibrin and vessel areas, as well as indices of proliferation and apoptosis, were analysed in relation to maternal growth and age. RESULTS Growing teenagers had a higher birthweight:placental weight ratio than non-growing teenagers (p < 0.05). Villous area, syncytial area, fibrin content, vascularisation and cell turnover did not differ between growing and non-growing teenagers. There were no differences in placental weight or morphometry between adult and teenage pregnancies. Maternal smoking, a potential confounding factor, did not exert a major influence on the placental parameters examined, except for a stimulatory effect on placental proliferation (p < 0.05) and syncytial knot formation (p < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS We were unable to detect any major differences in placental size or composition between growing and non-growing teenagers. Birthweight:placental weight ratio was higher in growing compared to non-growing teenagers. This suggests that maternal growth may affect placental function rather than development, and is consistent with our recent observations that maternal growth was not detrimental to fetal growth.
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Affiliation(s)
- C E Hayward
- Maternal and Fetal Health Research Centre, School of Biomedicine, University of Manchester, Manchester Academic Health Science Centre, St Mary's Hospital, Research, 5th Floor, Oxford Road, Manchester, M13 9WL, UK.
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Pregnancy and Outcome of Uterine Allotransplantation and Assisted Reproduction in Sheep. J Minim Invasive Gynecol 2011; 18:238-45. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jmig.2010.11.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 90] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2010] [Revised: 11/15/2010] [Accepted: 11/18/2010] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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Luther JS, Redmer DA, Reynolds LP, Wallace JM. Nutritional paradigms of ovine fetal growth restriction: Implications for human pregnancy. HUM FERTIL 2009; 8:179-87. [PMID: 16234203 DOI: 10.1080/14647270500320121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Low birth weight and prematurity are associated with short inter-pregnancy intervals, low pre-pregnancy weights, insufficient maternal weight gains during pregnancy, multifetal pregnancies and a young maternal age. Improvements in maternal nutritional status are arguably imperative for ensuring an appropriate pregnancy outcome in these vulnerable groups, but ethical boundaries limit these investigations. Experimental paradigms using the pregnant sheep have been widely used to identify the nutritionally sensitive periods of conceptus development. In adult sheep, severe undernutrition during the periconceptual period accelerates maturation of the fetal hypothalamic-pituitary adrenal axis and results in pre-term delivery. Low pre-pregnancy weight, followed by undernutrition during mid-pregnancy, results in reduced placental growth and lower birth weights at term. Studies that have restricted nutrients during mid-gestation only reveal variable effects on the placental and fetal growth trajectory, however if undernutrition is prolonged during late-pregnancy, fetal growth is compromised, particularly in twin pregnancies. In contrast, overnourishing the adolescent sheep to promote rapid maternal growth, results in the premature delivery of low birth weight lambs. These effects are mediated by impaired placental growth, uteroplacental blood flows and fetal nutrient uptakes. At the other end of the nutritional spectrum, undernourishing the adolescent sheep to gradually deplete nutrient reserves, results in fetal growth restriction which is independent of alterations in placental mass.
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Redmer DA, Luther JS, Milne JS, Aitken RP, Johnson ML, Borowicz PP, Borowicz MA, Reynolds LP, Wallace JM. Fetoplacental growth and vascular development in overnourished adolescent sheep at day 50, 90 and 130 of gestation. Reproduction 2009; 137:749-57. [DOI: 10.1530/rep-08-0516] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
To establish the basis for altered placental development and function previously observed at late gestation, fetoplacental growth and placental vascular development were measured at three stages of gestation in a nutritional paradigm of compromised pregnancy. Singleton pregnancies to a single sire were established and thereafter adolescent ewes were offered an optimal control (C) or a high (H) dietary intake. At day 50, the H group had elevated maternal insulin and amniotic glucose, whereas mass of the fetus and placenta were unaltered. At day 90, the H group exhibited elevated maternal insulin, IGF1 and glucose; fetal weight and glucose concentrations in H were increased relative to C, but placental weight was independent of nutrition. By day 130, total placentome weight in the H group was reduced by 46% and was associated with lower fetal glucose and a 20% reduction in fetal weight. As pregnancy progressed from day 50 to 130, the parameters of vascular development in the maternal and fetal components of the placenta increased. In the fetal cotyledon, high dietary intakes were associated with impaired vascular development at day 50 and an increase in capillary number at day 90. At day 130, all vascular indices were independent of nutrition. Thus, high dietary intakes to promote rapid maternal growth influence capillary development in the fetal portion of the placenta during early to mid-pregnancy and may underlie the subsequent reduction in placental mass and hence fetal nutrient supply observed during the final third of gestation.
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Caton JS, Reed JJ, Aitken RP, Milne JS, Borowicz PP, Reynolds LP, Redmer DA, Wallace JM. Effects of maternal nutrition and stage of gestation on body weight, visceral organ mass, and indices of jejunal cellularity, proliferation, and vascularity in pregnant ewe lambs1. J Anim Sci 2009; 87:222-35. [DOI: 10.2527/jas.2008-1043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
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Fowler PA, Dorà NJ, McFerran H, Amezaga MR, Miller DW, Lea RG, Cash P, McNeilly AS, Evans NP, Cotinot C, Sharpe RM, Rhind SM. In utero exposure to low doses of environmental pollutants disrupts fetal ovarian development in sheep. Mol Hum Reprod 2008; 14:269-80. [PMID: 18436539 PMCID: PMC2408934 DOI: 10.1093/molehr/gan020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Epidemiological studies of the impact of environmental chemicals on reproductive health demonstrate consequences of exposure but establishing causative links requires animal models using ‘real life’ in utero exposures. We aimed to determine whether prolonged, low-dose, exposure of pregnant sheep to a mixture of environmental chemicals affects fetal ovarian development. Exposure of treated ewes (n = 7) to pollutants was maximized by surface application of processed sewage sludge to pasture. Control ewes (n = 10) were reared on pasture treated with inorganic fertilizer. Ovaries and blood were collected from fetuses (n = 15 control and n = 8 treated) on Day 110 of gestation for investigation of fetal endocrinology, ovarian follicle/oocyte numbers and ovarian proteome. Treated fetuses were 14% lighter than controls but fetal ovary weights were unchanged. Prolactin (48% lower) was the only measured hormone significantly affected by treatment. Treatment reduced numbers of growth differentiation factor (GDF9) and induced myeloid leukaemia cell differentiation protein (MCL1) positive oocytes by 25–26% and increased pro-apoptotic BAX by 65% and 42% of protein spots in the treated ovarian proteome were differently expressed compared with controls. Nineteen spots were identified and included proteins involved in gene expression/transcription, protein synthesis, phosphorylation and receptor activity. Fetal exposure to environmental chemicals, via the mother, significantly perturbs fetal ovarian development. If such effects are replicated in humans, premature menopause could be an outcome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul A Fowler
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Institute of Medical Sciences, CLSM, University of Aberdeen, Foresterhill, Aberdeen AB25 2ZD, UK.
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Wallace JM, Milne JS, Aitken RP, Hay WW. Sensitivity to metabolic signals in late-gestation growth-restricted fetuses from rapidly growing adolescent sheep. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 2007; 293:E1233-41. [PMID: 17711986 DOI: 10.1152/ajpendo.00294.2007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Fetal sensitivity to insulin and glucose was investigated during fetal hyperinsulinemic-euglycemic (HI-euG, n = 18) and hyperglycemic-euinsulinemic (HG-euI, n = 12) clamps. Singleton bearing adolescent ewes were fed high (H) or control (C) nutrient intakes to induce compromised or normal placental/fetal size, respectively. Catheters were inserted in the umbilical vein (v), fetal artery, (a) and veins, and studies were conducted between day 126 and 133 of gestation. Umbilical blood flow (UmBF) was determined by the steady-state transplacental diffusion technique using (3)H(2)O, and glucose fluxes were quantified by the Fick principle. For the HI-euG study, fetal glucose utilization was measured at spontaneously occurring fetal insulin concentrations and two additional higher levels, whereas fetal glucose was clamped at the initial baseline level. For the HG-euI study, fetal insulin was suppressed by somatostatin infusion, and fetal glucose utilization was determined at baseline (before somatostatin) glucose concentrations, and at 150 and 200% of this value. Placentome weight (219 vs. 395 g), fetal weight (2,965 vs. 4,373 g), and UmBF (519 vs. 794 ml/min) were lower (P < 0.001) in H than in C groups. Relative to control fetuses, glucose extraction (G[v - a]/G[v] x 100) in the nonperturbed state was higher (21.7 vs. 15.9%) in growth-restricted fetuses despite lower glucose (0.78 vs. 1.05 micromol/ml) and insulin (8.5 vs. 16.9 microU/ml) concentrations (all P < 0.001). During the HI-euG study, total fetal glucose utilization rate increased in response to higher insulin concentrations (65 and 64% in H and C groups). Similarly during the HG-euI study, a twofold increase in glucose supply increased fetal glucose utilization by 41 and 44% in H and C groups, respectively. Throughout both studies, absolute total fetal glucose utilization rates were reduced in H vs. C groups (P < 0.01) but were similar when expressed per kilogram fetus (HI-euG: 34.7, 49.5, and 57.5 in H vs. 34.7, 51.2, and 56.1 micromol.min(-1).kg(-1) in C, HG-euI: 28.7, 35.7, and 40.8 in H vs. 32.9, 34.5, and 43.8 micromol.min(-1).kg(-1) in C). These normal body weight-specific metabolic responses to short-term experimental increases in plasma insulin and glucose in response to chronic IUGR indicate maintained mechanisms of insulin action and glucose uptake/utilization capacity, which, if persistent, might predispose such IUGR offspring to excessive energy deposition in later life.
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Lea RG, Wooding P, Stewart I, Hannah LT, Morton S, Wallace K, Aitken RP, Milne JS, Regnault TR, Anthony RV, Wallace JM. The expression of ovine placental lactogen, StAR and progesterone-associated steroidogenic enzymes in placentae of overnourished growing adolescent ewes. Reproduction 2007; 133:785-96. [PMID: 17504922 DOI: 10.1530/rep-06-0294] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Overnourishing pregnant adolescent sheep promotes maternal growth but reduces placental mass, lamb birth weight and circulating progesterone. This study aimed to determine whether altered progesterone reflected transcript abundance for StAR (cholesterol transporter) and the steroidogenic enzymes (Cyp11A1, Hsd3b and Cyp17). Circulating and placental expression of ovine placental lactogen (oPL) was also investigated. Adolescent ewes with singleton pregnancies were fed high (H) or moderate (M) nutrient intake diets to restrict or support placental growth. Experiment 1: peripheral progesterone and oPL concentrations were measured in H (n=7) and M (n=6) animals across gestation (days 7-140). Experiment 2: progesterone was measured to mid- (day 81; M: n=11, H: n=13) or late gestation (day 130; M: n=21, H: n=22), placental oPL, StAR and steroidogenic enzymes were measured by qPCR and oPL protein by immunohistochemistry. Experiment 1: in H vs M animals, term placental (P<0.05), total cotyledon (P<0.01) and foetal size (P<0.05) were reduced. Circulating oPL and progesterone were reduced at mid- (P<0.001, P<0.01) and late gestation (P<0.01, P<0.05) and oPL detection was delayed (P<0.01). Experiment 2: placental oPL was not altered by nutrition. In day 81 H animals, progesterone levels were reduced (P<0.001) but not related to placental or foetal size. Moreover, placental steroidogenic enzymes were unaffected. Day 130 progesterone (P<0.001) and Cyp11A1 (P<0.05) were reduced in H animals with intrauterine growth restriction (H+IUGR). Reduced mid-gestation peripheral oPL and progesterone may reflect altered placental differentiation and/or increased hepatic clearance respectively. Restricted placental growth and reduced biosynthesis may account for reduced progesterone in day 130 H+IUGR ewes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard G Lea
- School of Veterinary Medicine and Science, University of Nottingham, Sutton Bonington Campus, Sutton Bonington LE12 5RD, UK.
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Luther J, Milne J, Aitken R, Matsuzaki M, Reynolds L, Redmer D, Wallace J. Placental growth, angiogenic gene expression, and vascular development in undernourished adolescent sheep. Biol Reprod 2007; 77:351-7. [PMID: 17475925 DOI: 10.1095/biolreprod.107.061457] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/01/2022] Open
Abstract
Limiting maternal nutrient intake during ovine adolescent pregnancy progressively depleted maternal body reserves, impaired fetal nutrient supply, and slowed fetal soft tissue growth. The present study examined placental growth, angiogenic gene expression, and vascular development in this undernourished adolescent model at Days 90 and 130 of gestation. Singleton pregnancies were established, and ewes were offered an optimal control (C; n = 14) or low (L [0.7 x C]; n = 21) dietary intake. Seven ewes receiving L intakes were switched to C intakes on Day 90 of gestation (L-C). Fetal body weight (P < 0.01) and glucose concentrations (P < 0.03) were reduced in L versus C pregnancies by Day 130, whereas L-C group values were intermediate. Placental cellular proliferation, gross morphology, and mass were independent of maternal nutrition at both Day 90 and 130. In contrast, capillary area density in the maternal caruncular portion of the placentome was reduced by 20% (P < 0.001) at both stages of gestation in L compared with C groups. Caruncular capillary area density was equivalent in the L and L-C groups at Day 130. Placental mRNA expression of five key angiogenic ligands or receptors increased (P < 0.001) between Days 90 and 130 of gestation. VEGFA mRNA expression was higher (P < 0.04) in L compared with C and L-C pregnancies at Day 130, but otherwise gene expression of the remaining angiogenic factors and receptors analyzed was unaffected by maternal intake. Undernourishing the pregnant adolescent dam restricts fetal growth independently of changes in placental mass. Alterations in maternal placental vascular development may, however, play a role in mediating the previously reported reduction in maternal and hence fetal nutrient supply.
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Affiliation(s)
- Justin Luther
- Rowett Research Institute, Bucksburn, Aberdeen AB21 9SB, United Kingdom
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Luther J, Aitken R, Milne J, Matsuzaki M, Reynolds L, Redmer D, Wallace J. Maternal and fetal growth, body composition, endocrinology, and metabolic status in undernourished adolescent sheep. Biol Reprod 2007; 77:343-50. [PMID: 17475926 DOI: 10.1095/biolreprod.107.061440] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/01/2022] Open
Abstract
The influence of relative maternal undernutrition on growth, endocrinology, and metabolic status in the adolescent ewe and her fetus were investigated at Days 90 and 130 of gestation. Singleton pregnancies to a single sire were established, and thereafter ewes were offered an optimal control (C; n = 14) or low (L [0.7 x C]; n = 21) dietary intake. Seven ewes receiving the L intake were switched to the C intake on Day 90 of gestation (L-C). At Day 90, live weight and adiposity score were reduced (P < 0.001) in L versus C dams. Plasma insulin and IGF1 concentrations were decreased (P < 0.02), whereas glucose concentrations were preserved in L relative to C intake dams. Fetal and placental mass was independent of maternal nutrition at this stage. By Day 130 of gestation, when compared to C and L-C dams, maternal adiposity was further depleted in L intake dams; concentrations of insulin, IGF1, and glucose were reduced; and nonesterified fatty acids increased. At Day 130, placental mass remained independent of maternal nutrition, but body weight was reduced (P < 0.01) in L compared with C fetuses (3555 g vs. 4273 g). Body weight was intermediate (3836 g) in L-C fetuses. Plasma glucose (P < 0.03), insulin (P < 0.07), and total liver glycogen content (P < 0.04) were attenuated in L fetuses. Fetal carcass analyses revealed absolute reductions (P < 0.05) in dry matter, crude protein, and fat, and a relative (g/kg) increase in carcass ash (P < 0.01) in L compared with C fetuses. Thus, limiting maternal intake during adolescent pregnancy gradually depleted maternal body reserves, impaired fetal nutrient supply, and slowed fetal soft tissue growth.
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Affiliation(s)
- Justin Luther
- Rowett Research Institute, Bucksburn, Aberdeen AB21 9SB, United Kingdom
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Fowler PA, Tattum J, Bhattacharya S, Klonisch T, Hombach-Klonisch S, Gazvani R, Lea RG, Miller I, Simpson WG, Cash P. An investigation of the effects of endometriosis on the proteome of human eutopic endometrium: A heterogeneous tissue with a complex disease. Proteomics 2007; 7:130-42. [PMID: 17124717 DOI: 10.1002/pmic.200600469] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
The pathogenesis of endometriosis includes the proliferation of heterogeneous endometrial cells and their invasion into ectopic sites within the peritoneal cavity. This may be due to abnormalities of the eutopic endometrium itself, predisposing the cells to survive and implant ectopically. We investigated the applicability of 2-DE gels and peptide mass mapping to identify candidate endometrial proteins with a role in endometriosis. Despite the heterogeneous nature of endometrium, our results show that combining the analysis of 2-DE gels and peptide mass mapping yields consistent data. We identified dysregulated proteins in women with endometriosis which included: (i) molecular chaperones including heat shock protein 90 and annexin A2, (ii) proteins involved in cellular redox state, such as peroxiredoxin 2, (iii) proteins involved in protein and DNA formation/breakdown, including ribonucleoside-diphosphate reductase, prohibitin and prolyl 4-hydroxylase, and (iv) secreted proteins, such as apolipoprotein A1. These proteins have functions which suggest that they could play a role in the pathogenesis of endometriosis. This study demonstrated that 2-DE gel analysis and mass spectroscopic protein identification are suitable for the identification of proteins with candidate associations with endometriosis. These techniques should be used on a larger scale to identify endometriosis-related proteins, thus improving the understanding of this complex disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul A Fowler
- Department of Obstetrics & Gynaecology, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, UK.
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Lea RG, Andrade LP, Rae MT, Hannah LT, Kyle CE, Murray JF, Rhind SM, Miller DW. Effects of maternal undernutrition during early pregnancy on apoptosis regulators in the ovine fetal ovary. Reproduction 2006; 131:113-24. [PMID: 16388015 DOI: 10.1530/rep.1.00844] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
This study aimed to determine whether reduced fetal ovary folliculogenesis in ewes undernourished during early/midpregnancy is associated with altered ovarian cell proliferation and/or the expression of apoptosis-regulating genes. Groups of ewes (n= 11–19) were fed either 100% (high; H) or 50% (low; L) of metabolisable energy requirements for live-weight maintenance during selected windows of gestation. All animals were killed at days 50, 65 or 110 of gestation. Between mating and slaughter, control animals were fed the H ration, while animals of other subgroups were fed the L ration from (a) mating to slaughter at 50, 65 or 110 days; (b) 0 to 30 days; (c) 31 to 50 or 65 days; or (d), in the day 110 slaughter group only, from 66 to 110 days. Bouin’s-fixed fetal ovaries were examined for (a) Ki67 immunoexpression (proliferation) and (b) Bax and Mcl-1 (apoptosis-regulating genes) expression byin situhybridisation (day 110) and immunohistochemistry (days 50, 65 and 110). At day 50, maternal nutrition had no effect on Ki67, predominant in germ cells, or Bax and Mcl-1, predominant in the oocytes. Restricted maternal food intake from 0 to 30 days significantly reduced staining for Ki67 in germ cells at day 65 (P< 0.05) but increased staining in granulosa cells at day 110 (P< 0.05). In animals fed the L ration for 110 days, primordial follicle Bax and Mcl-1 were significantly increased (Bax:P< 0.01; Mcl-1:P< 0.05). Granulosa cell Bax was also increased (P< 0.05). When the L ration was fed from 66 to 110 days, granulosa cell Bax (P< 0.05) and primordial follicle Mcl-1 (P< 0.01) were also significantly increased. In the fetal ovarian vasculature, animals underfed for 0–110 days had significantly elevated perivascular Mcl-1 (P< 0.001) and endothelial Bax expression (P< 0.05). Moreover, at day 110, endothelial Mcl-1 was increased by underfeeding from 0 to 30 days (P< 0.05). These data indicate that maternal undernutrition alters proliferation and the expression of apoptosis-regulating genes in the developing fetal ovary. The precise mechanism depends on the window of maternal food restriction.
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Affiliation(s)
- R G Lea
- Rowett Research Institute, Greenburn Road, Bucksburn, Aberdeen, AB21 9SB, UK.
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Wallace JM, Regnault TRH, Limesand SW, Hay WW, Anthony RV. Investigating the causes of low birth weight in contrasting ovine paradigms. J Physiol 2005; 565:19-26. [PMID: 15774527 PMCID: PMC1464509 DOI: 10.1113/jphysiol.2004.082032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR) still accounts for a large incidence of infant mortality and morbidity worldwide. Many of the circulatory and transport properties of the sheep placenta are similar to those of the human placenta and as such, the pregnant sheep offers an excellent model in which to study the development of IUGR. Two natural models of ovine IUGR are those of hyperthermic exposure during pregnancy, and adolescent overfeeding, also during pregnancy. Both models yield significantly reduced placental weights and an asymmetrically growth-restricted fetus, and display altered maternal hormone concentrations, indicative of an impaired trophoblast capacity. Additionally, impaired placental angiogenesis and uteroplacental blood flow appears to be an early defect in both the hyperthermic and adolescent paradigms. The effects of these alterations in placental functional development appear to be irreversible. IUGR fetuses are both hypoxic and hypoglycaemic, and have reduced insulin and insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1), and elevated concentrations of lactate. However, fetal utilization of oxygen and glucose, on a weight basis, remain constant compared with control pregnancies. Maintained utilization of these substrates, in a substrate-deficient environment, suggests increased sensitivities to metabolic signals, which may play a role in the development of metabolic diseases in later adult life.
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Affiliation(s)
- J M Wallace
- Rowett Research Institute, Bucksburn, Aberdeen AB21 9SB, UK.
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