The response of African Americans to the Rorschach: a review of the research

Using the South African Version of the 16PF in a Multicultural Context

The objective of this study was to determine the fairness of the 1992 South African version of the Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire (16PF, SA92) for various groups and to contribute to the knowledge on the profiles of specific career groups. The use of this questionnaire was evaluated on employees of a multicultural South African financial institution. The profiles of males and females were compared. So too were the profiles of individuals tested in their first language (Afrikaans or English) and individuals who indicated that their home language is an African language but who were tested in English. A comparison with the general population showed differences in primary and second-order factors, most of which could be explained in terms of the occupational type. Although there did not seem to be a need for specific norms, some cultural and gender-specific trends were found that should be considered when interpreting results on the 16PF, SA92. The factor structures of the total sample and the various subgroups were essentially the same and justified the use of the formulae for the second-order factors given in the manual. However, group-specific trends were also found in the constructs measured and these should be considered for the interpretation and usage of the scores on the primary and second-order traits.

The association of gender, ethnicity, age, and education with Rorschach scores

We examined the association of gender, ethnicity, age, and education with 60 Rorschach scores using three clinical and nonclinical samples of adults and youths (ns = 640, 249, and 241). As anticipated for our data sets, there were no reliable associations for gender, ethnicity, or adult age. However, in adults years of education was associated with variables indicative of complexity, the articulation of subtlety and nuance, cognitive synthesis, and coping resources. In the clinical sample of youths, increasing age was primarily associated with more conventional perception and less illogical thought processes. Limitations are discussed in conjunction with further research that could address them, along with implications for applied practice.

Racial differences in socially desirable responding in selection contexts: magnitude and consequences

Two studies were conducted to examine the magnitude and consequences of racial differences on social desirability (SD) scales. Study 1 included 1,063 job applicants, and Study 2 included 3 sets of incumbents (total N = 534). In both studies, participants were administered several personality measures and an SD scale. Across all samples, Whites scored lower on the SD scale than Blacks (average d = .37), Hispanics (average d = .47), and Asians (average d = 1.04), but these differences were not observed on the personality scales. The consequence of differences in socially desirable responding (SDR) is that fewer minority group members would be selected if SD scales were used to derive cut scores to eliminate individuals from the applicant pool or if the scales were used to correct personality test scores for SDR. However, applying the SD correction did not affect the validity of the personality test for any of the racial groups. Overall, our findings suggest that researchers and practitioners should consider the use of SD scales very carefully, as their use may have unintended consequences. These studies also demonstrate a need to closely examine the construct validity of SD measures across diverse groups.

Exploring possible ethnic differences and bias in the Rorschach Comprehensive System

In this study I conducted a series of analyses to explore potential ethnic bias in Rorschach Comprehensive System variables using a consecutive series of 432 patients evaluated in 1 setting. The simple association between 188 scores and ethnicity revealed no significant findings after matching on several salient demographic variables. Next, 17 analyses of convergent validity found no evidence for differential validity and no evidence for slope bias. For 13 analyses, there was also no evidence for intercept bias. However, with 4 variables predicting psychotic disorders, regression lines favored minorities and worked against European Americans. These findings are the opposite of what should be seen if the Rorschach was biased against minorities and most likely emerged for statistical reasons related to unmeasured confounds. Finally, principal components analyses revealed no evidence of ethnic bias in the Rorschach's internal structure. Although these findings need to be replicated, the available data support using the Comprehensive System across ethnic groups.

Assessing depression in Russian psychiatric patients: validity of MMPI and Rorschach

We tested the criterion, concurrent, and content validity of depression indicators in 180 Russian psychiatric patients. Indicators from the Exner Rorschach (DEPI, CDI) and the Russian MMPI (Berezin Scale 2, Wiggins depression content) were compared to Hamilton (HRSD) scores and 3 types of diagnosis: traditional Russian, contemporary Western (ICD-10), and a mixed version. The MMPI scales had significant associations with each other and each criterion. The Rorschach indexes were unrelated to all other variables, even when their affective, cognitive, and interpersonal components were analyzed separately, response styles were taken into account, or the 2 indexes were used in combination. Nevertheless, sample means on 107 variables were roughly similar to Exner's norms. The study represents an initial step towards establishing the validity of instruments commonly used in Russia and North America for assessing depression among Russians.

Clinical utility of the Rorschach with African Americans

In this study we sought to identify Rorschach differences between African Americans and White Americans and to understand these differences within a social and cultural framework. Data from the Exner (1993) Comprehensive System normative sample (N = 700) was used to form a group of 44 African Americans and 44 White Americans matched for age, sex, education, and socioeconomic status. Twenty-three Rorschach variables were chosen a priori and group differences were analyzed. The only clinically significant difference found was that African Americans offered significantly less cooperative movement. This lower frequency of cooperative movement may suggest African Americans do not anticipate cooperative interactions with others as a routine event. This may reflect a shared feeling among African Americans that most members of our society are less likely to be sensitive to or responsive to their needs relative to others. However, the study demonstrates a striking similarity between the groups, supporting the clinical use of the Rorschach with African Americans.

Projective techniques and the detection of child sexual abuse

Projective techniques (e.g., the Rorschach, Human Figure Drawings) are sometimes used to detect child sexual abuse. West recently conducted a meta-analysis on this topic, but she systematically excluded nonsignificant results. In this article, a reanalysis of her data is presented. The authors conclude that projective techniques should not be used to detect child sexual abuse. Many of the studies purportedly demonstrating validity are flawed, and none of the projective test scores have been well replicated.

The Rorschach Inkblot Test: a case of overstatement?

In the 1940s, inflated claims were often made regarding the Rorschach Inkblot Test. Over half a century later, overstatements regarding the test are still common. The present article identifies problems with the Rorschach regarding norms, cultural sensitivity, interrater reliability, test-retest reliability, validity, factor structure, and accessibility of supporting studies. Contrary to overstated claims made on behalf of the Rorschach, the test continues to be a highly problematic instrument from a psychometric standpoint.

Research assessment of the clinical utility of the Rorschach

A summary of prior research on the clinical use of the Rorschach Ink Blots is presented.

Use of the Rorschach with Hispanic Americans

The rationale for and overview of research on the performance of Hispanic Americans on the Rorschach was addressed. Recommendations for further research were made.