The Relationship between Trauma and Attachment in Burundi's School-Aged Children

The exposure of children and adolescents to trauma is one of the most important public health challenges. These childhood experiences play a role in children's attachment patterns with their parents and peers. The objective of this study was to examine the relationship between exposure to trauma and the degree of attachment representations in school-aged children in Burundi. One hundred thirteen vulnerable children aged 7 to 12 years were recruited and referred by their teachers. We used an event list including the post-traumatic reaction index to measure their exposure to traumatic events and the People in My Life instrument to measure attachment representations. The results revealed that the children had experienced or witnessed at least one traumatic event. The results indicated that secure attachment representations were highest among children with their parents and lowest among children with their peers. The relationship between trauma experiences and children's attachment representations was significant with their parents and with their peers. Children's attachment representations with their parents and peers predicted their traumatic experiences. Future research should focus on how attachment relationships can facilitate counselors and clinicians in providing preventive psycho-education to adults and children to develop healthier functioning, through better knowledge of the complex interplay between traumas.

Scripted attachment representations of current romantic relationships: measurement and validation

This report describes the development and validation of a new coding system for the Current Relationship Interview (CRI) that assesses individual differences in secure base script knowledge with respect to adult romantic partners. Drawing on data from the Minnesota Longitudinal Study of Risk and Adaptation (N = 116) a coding system was developed to parallel the secure base script coding system for the Adult Attachment Interview. Specifically, CRIs conducted in adulthood were re-coded for the extent to which the interviews reflected script-like expectations that romantic partners are available and provide effective support in times of distress (CRIsbs). CRIsbs was moderately associated with the traditional coding system for the CRI and showed concurrent and/or predictive validity in relation to observed and self-reported romantic relationship quality as well as interview ratings of the effectiveness with which adults engaged in romantic relationships. Theoretical and practical benefits of the CRIsbs coding system are discussed.

Teacher-student interactions and attachment states of mind as predictors of early romantic involvement and risky sexual behaviors

Adolescents' capacities to negotiate sexual behavior in romantic relationships have important implications for their reproductive and health outcomes. This study examined adolescents' interactions with teachers and attachment states of mind as predictors of their romantic involvement and risky sexual behavior in an economically disadvantaged sample. Negative interactions with teachers predicted increased sexual risk-taking behaviors and females' early romantic involvement. Preoccupied states of mind increased risk for early romantic involvement and the likelihood that females would engage in risky sexual behavior. The findings demonstrate how adolescents' school experiences contribute to adaptation in romantic relationships in mid to late adolescence above and beyond representations of parent-child attachment.

Assessing Adolescents' Attachment Hierarchies: Differences Across Developmental Periods and Associations With Individual Adaptation

Adolescents' attachment hierarchies were assessed in a sample of 212 high school and 198 college students. The Important People Interview (IPI) differentiated attachment bonds from other supportive or affiliative relationships and indicated that adolescents show a hierarchical ordering of preferences for multiple attachment figures. Differences in the composition and structure of adolescents' attachment hierarchies were found between the early high school (9(th) and 10(th) grades), later high school (11(th) and 12(th) grades), and college samples. In the college sample, romantic partners were placed in higher positions in adolescents' hierarchies, fathers were placed in lower positions, and the structure of adolescents' hierarchies were less differentiated than in the high school samples. Individual differences in the composition of adolescents' hierarchies were associated with adjustment outcomes. Friends' placement in higher positions and fathers' exclusion from or placement in quaternary positions was associated with increased behavior problems. Findings demonstrate that the IPI provides a measure of adolescents' attachment hierarchies that is sensitive to developmental stage and individual differences.

From Stress to Learning: Attachment Theory Meets Goal Orientation Theory

Few investigators have explored connections between attachment theory and goal orientation theory. Although the theories differ in important ways, we suggest there is a striking similarity in their depiction of an adaptive pathway leading from stress to learning goals and constructive strategies, and a contrasting pathway leading from stress to self-validation goals and defensive strategies. We review evidence from two leading investigators—Mario Mikulincer in adult attachment theory and Carol Dweck in goal orientation theory—to show that, following failure and other setbacks, learning as compared to self-validation goals are more likely to lead to cognitive openness, problem-solving, support-seeking, and adaptive emotion regulation. The theories differ in their understanding of the views underlying learning and self-validation goals, and those differences have led to qualitatively different interventions. We suggest how attachment and goal orientation theory interventions can be integrated to maximize optimal functioning in stressful conditions.

Attachment figures in middle childhood

Previous research has focused on who the primary attachment figures are for children in middle childhood, but there has been relatively little research on other important people who may fulfill attachment needs. The goal of the study was to identify who children use as non-parental attachment figures and to examine whether children's use varies with certain child characteristics. Children 7—12 years of age completed an open-ended interview to identify attachment figures. This study suggests that children may, at times, direct secure base behavior towards peers, siblings, grandparents, and teachers. The study also shows that the identity and use of attachment figures may vary with certain child characteristics such as age, gender, and sibling status. Older siblings were more likely than younger siblings to be used as attachment figures, and older children were more likely than younger children to turn to peers to fulfill attachment needs.

Attachment, social support and well-being in young and older adults

The present study examined the link between attachment, social support and well-being in young and older adults. The results from multi-group path analyses showed significant between-group differences in the links between attachment, perceived support and well-being. Anxious attachment and well-being were inversely associated and this was stronger for the younger group than it was for the older group. Avoidant attachment was negatively related to perceived support satisfaction in the older age group only, and perceived support mediated the effects of avoidant attachment on mental health and loneliness in the older group. Generally, perceived satisfaction with support was more strongly related with well-being in older adults. The results point to differential links of insecure attachment styles with perceived support in different life-stages and to related cognitive, emotional and social processes.

Structure and validity of people in my life: A self-report measure of attachment in late childhood

No self-report measure of attachment is well validated for middle-childhood. This study examined the validity and factor structure of the People in My Life (PIML) measure in 320 urban, fifth and sixth graders. Validity analyses consisted of correlational analyses between PIML subscales and the Child Behavior Checklist, Delinquency Rating Scale for Self and Others, Heath Resources Inventory, and Reynolds Child Depression Scale. Validity correlations were consistent with a-priori hypotheses. Confirmatory factor analyses consisted of comparison of model fit indices between seven models. Two models fit the data well and both models were consistent with the traditionally used PIML scoring protocol. Moreover, both models were consistent with the Inventory of Parent and Peer Attachment (IPPA), on which the PIML is modeled, as well as the theoretical underpinnings of attachment in childhood. The PIML and IPPA provide instruments for obtaining a continuous self-report measure of attachment from middle-childhood through adulthood.

The development of commitment and attachment in dating relationships: attachment security as relationship construct

This study examined attachment security and commitment as predictors of relationship stability in a sample of 51 couples. Attachment and commitment were measured during the Fall and Spring semesters prior to graduation from college and relationship stability was determined by contacting couples approximately one year following graduation from college. Attachment security was measured as a relationship construct (appraisal of the dating partner's availability and responsiveness). Attachment security increased with the length of time in the dating relationship and predicted relationship stability following graduation. We then considered how personality and family of origin factors contributed to positive trajectories within the dating relationship (i.e. the growth of attachment security, commitment and relationship stability). Males' security with their mothers and fathers and reports of open communication between their parents contributed to growth in attachment security and commitment between the Fall and Spring semesters. Attachment styles (assessed as a measure of personality) also predicted relationship stability with both males' and females' security increasing the relationship stability one year after graduation. Implications for understanding attachment as both a personality and relationship construct in adult romantic relationships are discussed.

A comparison of two measures to assess adult attachment

The purpose of this study was to determine the relationship between two different approaches to the assessment of adult attachment. The approaches were C. Hazan and P. R. Shaver's (1987) categorization of three attachment styles and the dimensional system of the Reciprocal Attachment Questionnaire (RAQ; M. West & A. Sheldon-Keller, 1992). Participants were 196 (72 men and 124 women) respondents to a community survey. Multiple regression results showed that the three attachment groups differed significantly on three dimensions of the RAQ: feared loss of the attachment figure, perceived availability of the attachment figure, and use of the attachment figure. In addition, men and women differed significantly on use of the attachment figure, independent of their attachment style. The results indicate that the two approaches to the assessment of adult attachment are interrelated in meaningful ways.