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Si S, Zhang S, Zhang J. DRD2 Taq IA Polymorphism Interacts with Parenting in Predicting Creativity: Evidence of Differential Susceptibility. CREATIVITY RESEARCH JOURNAL 2020. [DOI: 10.1080/10400419.2020.1821550] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Si Si
- Shandong Normal University
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2
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Georgiou NA, Stavrinides P, Georgiou S. Parenting and children’s adjustment problems: the mediating role of self-esteem and peer relations. EMOTIONAL AND BEHAVIOURAL DIFFICULTIES 2016. [DOI: 10.1080/13632752.2016.1236228] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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3
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Belsky J, Bakermans-Kranenburg MJ, van IJzendoorn MH. For Better and For Worse. CURRENT DIRECTIONS IN PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE 2016. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-8721.2007.00525.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 983] [Impact Index Per Article: 122.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Evidence that adverse rearing environments exert negative effects particularly on children presumed “vulnerable” for temperamental or genetic reasons may actually reflect something else: heightened susceptibility to the negative effects of risky environments and to the beneficial effects of supportive environments. Building on Belsky's (1997 , 2005 ) evolutionary-inspired proposition that some children are more affected—both for better and for worse—by their rearing experiences than are others, we consider recent work on child vulnerability, including that involving measured genes, along with evidence showing that putatively vulnerable children are especially susceptible to both positive and negative rearing effects. We also consider methodological issues and unanswered questions in the differential-susceptibility equation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jay Belsky
- Institute for the Study of Children, Families and Social Issues, Birkbeck University of London, London, United Kingdom
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Kim S, Kochanska G. Mothers' power assertion; children's negative, adversarial orientation; and future behavior problems in low-income families: early maternal responsiveness as a moderator of the developmental cascade. JOURNAL OF FAMILY PSYCHOLOGY : JFP : JOURNAL OF THE DIVISION OF FAMILY PSYCHOLOGY OF THE AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION (DIVISION 43) 2015; 29:1-9. [PMID: 25401483 PMCID: PMC4323888 DOI: 10.1037/a0038430] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
Parental power assertion, a key dimension of family environment, generally sets in motion detrimental developmental cascades; however, evidence suggests that other qualities of parenting, such as responsiveness, can significantly moderate those processes. Mechanisms that account for such moderating effects are not fully understood. We propose a conceptual model of processes linking parental power assertion, parental responsiveness, children's negative, adversarial, rejecting orientation toward the parent, and behavior problems. We test that model in a short-term longitudinal design involving 186 low-income, ethnically diverse mothers and their toddlers. When children were 30 months, the dyads were observed in multiple, lengthy, naturalistic laboratory interactions to assess behaviorally mothers' responsiveness and their power-assertive control style. At 33 months, we observed behavioral indicators of children's negative, adversarial, rejecting orientation toward the mothers in several naturalistic and standardized paradigms. At 40 months, mothers rated children's behavior problems. The proposed moderated mediation sequence, tested using a new approach, PROCESS (Hayes, 2013), was supported. The indirect effect from maternal power assertion to children's negative, adversarial orientation to future behavior problems was present when mothers' responsiveness was either low or average but absent when mothers were highly responsive. This study elucidates a potential process that may link parental power assertion with behavior problems and highlights how positive aspects of parenting can moderate this process and defuse maladaptive developmental cascades. It also suggests possible targets for parenting intervention and prevention efforts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sanghag Kim
- Department of Sociology, Hanyang University, Seoul, 133-791, Korea
| | - Grazyna Kochanska
- Department of Psychology, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242-1407
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5
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O’Donnell KA, Gaudreau H, Colalillo S, Steiner M, Atkinson L, Moss E, Goldberg S, Karama S, Matthews SG, Lydon JE, Silveira PP, Wazana AD, Levitan RD, Sokolowski MB, Kennedy JL, Fleming A, Meaney MJ. The maternal adversity, vulnerability and neurodevelopment project: theory and methodology. CANADIAN JOURNAL OF PSYCHIATRY. REVUE CANADIENNE DE PSYCHIATRIE 2014; 59:497-508. [PMID: 25565695 PMCID: PMC4168812 DOI: 10.1177/070674371405900906] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2013] [Accepted: 02/01/2014] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To describe the theory and methodology of the multi-wave, prospective Maternal Adversity, Vulnerability and Neurodevelopment (MAVAN) study. The goal of MAVAN is to examine the pre- and postnatal influences, and their interaction, in determining individual differences in mental health. METHOD MAVAN is a community-based, birth cohort study of pregnant Canadian mothers and their offspring. Dyads are assessed longitudinally, with multiple assessments of both mother and child in home and laboratory across the child's development. Study measures, including assessments of cognitive and emotional function, are described. The study uses a candidate gene approach to examine gene-environment interdependence in specific developmental outcomes. Finally, the study includes measures of both brain-based phenotypes and metabolism to explore comorbidities associated with child obesity. One of the unique features of the MAVAN protocol is the extensive measures of the mother-child interaction. The relation between these measures will be discussed. RESULTS Evidence from the MAVAN project shows interesting results about maternal care, families, and child outcomes. In our review, preliminary analyses showing the correlations between measures of maternal care are reported. As predicted, early evidence suggests that maternal care measures are positively correlated, over time. CONCLUSIONS This review provides evidence for the feasibility and value of laboratory-based measures embedded within a longitudinal birth cohort study. Though retention of the samples has been a challenge of MAVAN, they are within a comparable range to other studies of this nature. Indeed, the trade-off of somewhat greater participant burden has allowed for a rich database. The results yielded from the MAVAN project will not only describe typical development but also possible targets for intervention. Understanding certain endophenotypes will shed light on the pathogenesis of various mental and physical disorders, as well as their interrelation.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Hélène Gaudreau
- Study Coordinator, Douglas Mental Health University Institute, Montreal, Quebec
| | - Sara Colalillo
- Student, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia
| | - Meir Steiner
- Professor Emeritus, McMaster University; Founding Director, Women’s Health Concerns Clinic, St Joseph’s Healthcare, Hamilton, Ontario
- Professor, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario
| | | | - Ellen Moss
- Professor, Université du Québec à Montréal, Montreal, Quebec
| | - Susan Goldberg
- Professor [formerly], University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario
| | - Sherif Karama
- Assistant Professor, Douglas Mental Health University Institute, Montreal, Quebec; Researcher, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec
| | | | | | - Patricia P Silveira
- Professor, Departamento de Pediatria, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Ashley D Wazana
- Assistant Professor, McGill University; Director, The Center for Child Development and Mental Health, Jewish General Hospital, Montreal, Quebec
| | - Robert D Levitan
- Professor, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario
- Professor, Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, Toronto, Ontario
| | | | - James L Kennedy
- Professor, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario
- Professor, Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, Toronto, Ontario
| | - Alison Fleming
- Professor, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario
- Professor, Fraser Mustard Institute for Human Development, University of Toronto, Mississauga, Ontario
| | - Michael J Meaney
- Professor, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec
- Associate Director, Douglas Mental Health University Institute, Montreal, Quebec; Adjunct Senior Investigator, Singapore Institute for Clinical Sciences, Singapore, Republic of Singapore
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Abstract
AbstractAlthough considerable research has examined the relations between parental behavior and a range of child developmental outcomes, much of this work has been conducted at a very broad level of behavioral analysis. A developmental psychopathology framework and recent research conducted within this framework point to the need for models of parenting and child psychopathology that offer greater specificity regarding processes that may be implicated in the effects of these relationships. In addition, recent animal work and some human work has focused more on theproximalbiological and social mechanisms through which parenting affects child outcomes. Our conceptualization of parenting effects acknowledges that family and child factors are embedded in a dynamic biological and social context that is key to understanding developmental trajectories of child adjustment. In this paper, we review two areas of research that are illuminating the biological processes underlying links between parenting and child psychopathology: molecular genetics and psychophysiology. We adopt a biopsychosocial perspective on developmental psychopathology that implies that a set of hierarchically organized, but reciprocally interacting, processes, from the genetic to the environmental, provide the essential elements of both normative and nonnormative development (Gottlieb, 2007). New directions stimulated by this general approach are discussed, with an emphasis on the contextual and developmental issues and applications implied by such a perspective.
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Obradović J, Bush NR, Stamperdahl J, Adler NE, Boyce WT. Biological sensitivity to context: the interactive effects of stress reactivity and family adversity on socioemotional behavior and school readiness. Child Dev 2010; 81:270-89. [PMID: 20331667 PMCID: PMC2846098 DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-8624.2009.01394.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 339] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
This study examined the direct and interactive effects of stress reactivity and family adversity on socioemotional and cognitive development in three hundred and thirty-eight 5- to 6-year-old children. Neurobiological stress reactivity was measured as respiratory sinus arrhythmia and salivary cortisol responses to social, cognitive, sensory, and emotional challenges. Adaptation was assessed using child, parent, and teacher reports of externalizing symptoms, prosocial behaviors, school engagement, and academic competence. Results revealed significant interactions between reactivity and adversity. High stress reactivity was associated with more maladaptive outcomes in the context of high adversity but with better adaption in the context of low adversity. The findings corroborate a reconceptualization of stress reactivity as biological sensitivity to context by showing that high reactivity can both hinder and promote adaptive functioning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jelena Obradović
- Stanford University, School of Education, Stanford, CA 94305-3096, USA.
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Yasui M, Dishion TJ. Direct observation of family management: validity and reliability as a function of coder ethnicity and training. Behav Ther 2008; 39:336-47. [PMID: 19027430 DOI: 10.1016/j.beth.2007.10.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2006] [Revised: 09/21/2007] [Accepted: 10/16/2007] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
This study examines the influence of coder ethnicity on the validity and reliability of direct observations of family management. Eight coders, 4 European American (EA) and 4 African American (AA), were randomly assigned to conduct behavior ratings of videotaped family interactions of European American and African American families, under two conditions: untrained and trained. Results indicated statistical differences between EA and AA coder ratings of family management practices across both untrained and trained conditions, suggesting the presence of ethnocentric perceptions of coders. Specifically, EA coders tended to rate AA families as exhibiting poorer family management skills compared with those of EA families. AA coder ratings for EA and for AA families showed no statistical differences. Although not statistically significant, posttraining coding results indicated a trend toward decreased differences among coder perceptions, especially in improving the validity and reliability of EA coder ratings of AA families. These findings are discussed with respect to recommendations for cross-cultural research as well as general theories of ethnic socialization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miwa Yasui
- Child and Family Center, University of Oregon, 195 West 12th Avenue, Eugene, Oregon 97401-3408, USA.
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Moore DR, Florsheim P. Interpartner conflict and child abuse risk among African American and Latino adolescent parenting couples. CHILD ABUSE & NEGLECT 2008; 32:463-475. [PMID: 18455792 DOI: 10.1016/j.chiabu.2007.05.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2006] [Revised: 05/11/2007] [Accepted: 05/17/2007] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE The goal of this study was to identify links between observed conflict interactions and risk for child abuse and harsh parenting among a multiethnic sample of adolescent mothers (14-19 years) and young fathers (14-24 years). METHODS Prior to childbirth (T1), observation-based relationship data were collected from 154 expectant adolescent couples as well as information about physical aggression between partners. Two years after childbirth (T2), data relevant to harsh disciplinary practices and child abuse-prone attitudes were collected from both young mothers and fathers. Multiple regression analyses were run to examine the correspondence between (a) couples' relationship quality prior to childbirth and (b) subsequent risk for harsh and potentially abusive parenting practices. RESULTS Findings indicated that interpartner violence prior to childbirth predicted physically punitive parenting behavior for fathers, but not for mothers. Young mothers and fathers observed to be more warmly engaged with each other during their pre-birth couple interactions (T1) reported lower rates of physically punitive parenting behavior with their children at T2. Couples' hostility at T1 predicted fathers' level of observed hostility toward his child during a structured play activity at T2. CONCLUSIONS Results underscore the importance of addressing the quality of couples' relations as means of preventing dysfunctional parenting practices among adolescent mothers and their partners. Adolescent mothers and their partners are at heightened risk for engaging in dysfunctional parenting, including child abuse. Focusing on pregnant adolescents and their partners, this study sought to identify interpersonal predictors of child abuse risk. Although this study did not involve administering prevention or intervention services, the goal was to test hypotheses that would inform the development of programs for young at-risk couples. PRACTICE IMPLICATIONS The decision to recruit young couples prior to childbirth was based on the presumption that this period of time could provide a window of opportunity to administer couple-based child abuse prevention programs. Consistent with previous research on marital relations and parenting, results of this study support the idea that efforts to develop and administer preventive-intervention programs targeting at-risk couples could help reduce the occurrence of harsh parenting behavior and abuse.
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Affiliation(s)
- David R Moore
- Department of Psychology, University of Puget Sound, Tacoma, WA, USA
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Abstract
Once considered a legitimate parenting tool, physical punishment is increasingly being redefined as a developmental risk factor by health professionals. Three forces that have contributed to this significant social change are the evolution of pediatric psychology, increasing understanding of the dynamics of parental violence, and growing recognition of children as rights bearers. However, despite the consistency of research findings demonstrating the risks of physical punishment, some practitioners still struggle with the question of whether physical punishment is an appropriate practice among some cultural or ethnic groups. This issue is explored through an analysis of studies examining cultural differences and similarities in physical punishment's effects, as well as legal decisions made throughout the world. Despite practitioners' awareness of the prevalence and impact of parental violence, some still struggle with deciding where to "draw the line" in advising parents about spanking. This issue is addressed through an examination of the role that physical punishment plays in child maltreatment. Finally, the human rights perspective on physical punishment is offered as a new lens through which practitioners may view physical punishment to clarify the fuzzy issues of cultural relativity and the punishment-abuse dichotomy.
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Nijhof KS, Engels RCME. Parenting styles, coping strategies, and the expression of homesickness. J Adolesc 2007; 30:709-20. [PMID: 17258804 DOI: 10.1016/j.adolescence.2006.11.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2005] [Revised: 11/15/2006] [Accepted: 11/18/2006] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The present study examined the role of parenting styles in the experience and expression of homesickness, and the way of coping with the feelings involved. Using a sample of 670 first year college and university students, aged 16 to 25, we tested three hypotheses: (1) authoritarian, permissive as well as uninvolved parenting are associated with the experience of homesickness, contrary to students with authoritative parents who are less likely to have feelings of homesickness; (2) students with authoritarian, permissive or uninvolved parents show their homesickness by internalizing and externalizing problems; and (3) students raised by authoritative or permissive parents use more effective coping strategies to deal with homesickness. Results indicated that students raised by authoritative and permissive parents experienced more homesickness with stronger feelings of homesickness than students raised by authoritarian or uninvolved parents. However, they hardly express homesickness by internalizing or externalizing problems when they use effective ways of coping, namely support-seeking and/or problem-solving. Students with parents endorsing an authoritarian or uninvolved parenting style, on the other hand, showed more internalizing and externalizing problems in reaction to feelings of homesickness. They also use less effective coping strategies. The results revealed the importance of a loving and accepting home environment for the development and expression of homesickness, as well as the importance of the way in which students learn to cope with their problems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karin S Nijhof
- Behavioural Science Institute, Radboud University Nijmegen, P.O. Box 9104, 6500 HE Nijmegen, The Netherlands.
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Vazsonyi AT, Keiley MK. Normative developmental trajectories of aggressive behaviors in African American, American Indian, Asian American, Caucasian, and Hispanic children and early adolescents. JOURNAL OF ABNORMAL CHILD PSYCHOLOGY 2007; 35:1047-62. [PMID: 17643190 DOI: 10.1007/s10802-007-9154-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2006] [Accepted: 06/12/2007] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The current 5-year accelerated longitudinal investigation modeled the developmental trajectories of aggressive behaviors in 10,107 predominantly minority (>70%; African American, American Indian, Asian American, and Hispanic) children and early adolescents (Kindergarten through 8th grade, 49% female youth) from lower to lower-middle socioeconomic strata. Based on a two-part latent growth model, findings suggest that the probability and frequency of aggressive behavior use decreases slightly (linear) through the elementary school years and then increases as children move into middle school (quadratic). Though mean level differences were found across ethnic and racial groups, socioeconomic strata, and particularly by sex at initial status, rates of change over time across all groups were invariant. Findings suggest that potential socialization differences, if any, occur pre-Kindergarten in all groups.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander T Vazsonyi
- Department of Human Development and Family Studies, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, USA.
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Moffitt TE. The new look of behavioral genetics in developmental psychopathology: gene-environment interplay in antisocial behaviors. Psychol Bull 2005; 131:533-54. [PMID: 16060801 DOI: 10.1037/0033-2909.131.4.533] [Citation(s) in RCA: 317] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
This article reviews behavioral-genetic research to show how it can help address questions of causation in developmental psychopathology. The article focuses on studies of antisocial behavior, because these have been leading the way in investigating environmental as well as genetic influences on psychopathology. First, the article illustrates how behavioral-genetic methods are being newly applied to detect the best candidates for genuine environmental causes among the many risk factors for antisocial behavior. Second, the article examines findings of interaction between genes and environments (G x E) associated with antisocial behavior, outlining steps for testing hypotheses of measured G x E. Third, the article envisages future work on gene-environment interplay, arguing that it is an interesting and profitable way forward for psychopathology research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Terrie E Moffitt
- Social, Genetic and Developmental Psychiatry Centre, Institute of Psychiatry, King's College London, London, United Kingdom.
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Boyce WT, Ellis BJ. Biological sensitivity to context: I. An evolutionary–developmental theory of the origins and functions of stress reactivity. Dev Psychopathol 2005; 17:271-301. [PMID: 16761546 DOI: 10.1017/s0954579405050145] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1206] [Impact Index Per Article: 63.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Biological reactivity to psychological stressors comprises a complex, integrated, and highly conserved repertoire of central neural and peripheral neuroendocrine responses designed to prepare the organism for challenge or threat. Developmental experience plays a role, along with heritable, polygenic variation, in calibrating the response dynamics of these systems, with early adversity biasing their combined effects toward a profile of heightened or prolonged reactivity. Conventional views of such high reactivity suggest that it is an atavistic and pathogenic legacy of an evolutionary past in which threats to survival were more prevalent and severe. Recent evidence, however, indicates that (a) stress reactivity is not a unitary process, but rather incorporates counterregulatory circuits serving to modify or temper physiological arousal, and (b) the effects of high reactivity phenotypes on psychiatric and biomedical outcomes are bivalent, rather than univalent, in character, exerting both risk-augmenting and risk-protective effects in a context-dependent manner. These observations suggest that heightened stress reactivity may reflect, not simply exaggerated arousal under challenge, but rather an increased biological sensitivity to context, with potential for negative health effects under conditions of adversity and positive effects under conditions of support and protection. From an evolutionary perspective, the developmental plasticity of the stress response systems, along with their structured, context-dependent effects, suggests that these systems may constitute conditional adaptations: evolved psychobiological mechanisms that monitor specific features of childhood environments as a basis for calibrating the development of stress response systems to adaptively match those environments. Taken together, these theoretical perspectives generate a novel hypothesis: that there is a curvilinear, U-shaped relation between early exposures to adversity and the development of stress-reactive profiles, with high reactivity phenotypes disproportionately emerging within both highly stressful and highly protected early social environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- W Thomas Boyce
- Institute of Human Development, School of Public Health, Public Health CHHD (U90), 570 University Hall, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720-1190, USA.
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Belsky J. Why the “Transmission Gap” in Attachment Research: Differential Susceptibilitiy to Rearing Influence. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2002. [DOI: 10.1080/15289168.2002.10486426] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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Abstract
There is clear evidence that parents can and do influence children. There is equally clear evidence that children's genetic makeup affects their own behavioral characteristics, and also influences the way they are treated by their parents. Twin and adoption studies provide a sound basis for estimating the strength of genetic effects, although heritability estimates for a given trait vary widely across samples, and no one estimate can be considered definitive. This chapter argues that knowing only the strength of genetic factors, however, is not a sufficient basis for estimating environmental ones and indeed, that attempts to do so can systematically underestimate parenting effects. Children's genetic predispositions and their parents' childrearing regimes are seen to be closely interwoven, and the ways in which they function jointly to affect children's development are explored.
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Affiliation(s)
- E E Maccoby
- Department of Psychology, Stanford University, California 94305-2130, USA.
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Belsky J. Theory Testing, Effect-Size Evaluation, and Differential Susceptibility to Rearing Influence: The Case of Mothering and Attachment. Child Dev 1997. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-8624.1997.tb04221.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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