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Trojniak AE, Dang VQ, Czekner KM, Russo RJ, Mather LM, Stahl EL, Cameron MD, Bohn LM, Aubé J. Synthesis and evaluation of 3,4,5-trisubstituted triazoles as G protein-biased kappa opioid receptor agonists. Eur J Med Chem 2024; 276:116627. [PMID: 38971050 PMCID: PMC11316643 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2024.116627] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2024] [Revised: 06/14/2024] [Accepted: 06/24/2024] [Indexed: 07/08/2024]
Abstract
Kappa opioid receptor (KOR) agonists represent promising therapeutics for pain relief due to their analgesic properties along with lower abuse potential than opioids that act at the mu opioid receptor. However, typical KOR agonists produce sedation and dysphoria. Previous studies have shown that G protein signaling-biased KOR agonists may present a means to untangle the desired analgesic properties from undesired side effects. In this paper, we report a new series of G protein signaling-biased KOR agonists entailing -S- → -CH2- replacement in a previously reported KOR agonist, triazole 1.1. With an optimized carbon linker in hand, further development of the scaffold was undertaken to investigate the appendages of the triazole core. The structure-activity relationship study of this series is described, including several analogues that display enhanced potency while maintaining G protein-signaling bias compared to triazole 1.1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ashley E Trojniak
- Division of Chemical Biology and Medicinal Chemistry, UNC Eshelman School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, 27599-7363, USA
| | - Vuong Q Dang
- The Herbert Wertheim UF Scripps Institute for Biomedical Innovation & Technology, 130 Scripps Way, Jupiter, FL, 33458, USA
| | - Kerri M Czekner
- The Herbert Wertheim UF Scripps Institute for Biomedical Innovation & Technology, 130 Scripps Way, Jupiter, FL, 33458, USA; The Skaggs Graduate School of Chemical and Biological Sciences at Scripps Research, Jupiter, FL, 33458, USA
| | - Robin J Russo
- The Herbert Wertheim UF Scripps Institute for Biomedical Innovation & Technology, 130 Scripps Way, Jupiter, FL, 33458, USA; The Skaggs Graduate School of Chemical and Biological Sciences at Scripps Research, Jupiter, FL, 33458, USA
| | - Lilyan M Mather
- Division of Chemical Biology and Medicinal Chemistry, UNC Eshelman School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, 27599-7363, USA
| | - Edward L Stahl
- The Herbert Wertheim UF Scripps Institute for Biomedical Innovation & Technology, 130 Scripps Way, Jupiter, FL, 33458, USA
| | - Michael D Cameron
- The Herbert Wertheim UF Scripps Institute for Biomedical Innovation & Technology, 130 Scripps Way, Jupiter, FL, 33458, USA
| | - Laura M Bohn
- The Herbert Wertheim UF Scripps Institute for Biomedical Innovation & Technology, 130 Scripps Way, Jupiter, FL, 33458, USA; The Skaggs Graduate School of Chemical and Biological Sciences at Scripps Research, Jupiter, FL, 33458, USA
| | - Jeffrey Aubé
- Division of Chemical Biology and Medicinal Chemistry, UNC Eshelman School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, 27599-7363, USA.
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Phillips RA, Wan E, Tuscher JJ, Reid D, Drake OR, Ianov L, Day JJ. Temporally specific gene expression and chromatin remodeling programs regulate a conserved Pdyn enhancer. eLife 2023; 12:RP89993. [PMID: 37938195 PMCID: PMC10631760 DOI: 10.7554/elife.89993] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Neuronal and behavioral adaptations to novel stimuli are regulated by temporally dynamic waves of transcriptional activity, which shape neuronal function and guide enduring plasticity. Neuronal activation promotes expression of an immediate early gene (IEG) program comprised primarily of activity-dependent transcription factors, which are thought to regulate a second set of late response genes (LRGs). However, while the mechanisms governing IEG activation have been well studied, the molecular interplay between IEGs and LRGs remain poorly characterized. Here, we used transcriptomic and chromatin accessibility profiling to define activity-driven responses in rat striatal neurons. As expected, neuronal depolarization generated robust changes in gene expression, with early changes (1 hr) enriched for inducible transcription factors and later changes (4 hr) enriched for neuropeptides, synaptic proteins, and ion channels. Remarkably, while depolarization did not induce chromatin remodeling after 1 hr, we found broad increases in chromatin accessibility at thousands of sites in the genome at 4 hr after neuronal stimulation. These putative regulatory elements were found almost exclusively at non-coding regions of the genome, and harbored consensus motifs for numerous activity-dependent transcription factors such as AP-1. Furthermore, blocking protein synthesis prevented activity-dependent chromatin remodeling, suggesting that IEG proteins are required for this process. Targeted analysis of LRG loci identified a putative enhancer upstream of Pdyn (prodynorphin), a gene encoding an opioid neuropeptide implicated in motivated behavior and neuropsychiatric disease states. CRISPR-based functional assays demonstrated that this enhancer is both necessary and sufficient for Pdyn transcription. This regulatory element is also conserved at the human PDYN locus, where its activation is sufficient to drive PDYN transcription in human cells. These results suggest that IEGs participate in chromatin remodeling at enhancers and identify a conserved enhancer that may act as a therapeutic target for brain disorders involving dysregulation of Pdyn.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert A Phillips
- Department of Neurobiology, University of Alabama at BirminghamBirminghamUnited States
| | - Ethan Wan
- Department of Neurobiology, University of Alabama at BirminghamBirminghamUnited States
| | - Jennifer J Tuscher
- Department of Neurobiology, University of Alabama at BirminghamBirminghamUnited States
| | - David Reid
- Department of Neurobiology, University of Alabama at BirminghamBirminghamUnited States
| | - Olivia R Drake
- Department of Neurobiology, University of Alabama at BirminghamBirminghamUnited States
| | - Lara Ianov
- Department of Neurobiology, University of Alabama at BirminghamBirminghamUnited States
- Civitan International Research Center, University of Alabama at BirminghamBirminghamUnited States
| | - Jeremy J Day
- Department of Neurobiology, University of Alabama at BirminghamBirminghamUnited States
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Phillips RA, Wan E, Tuscher JJ, Reid D, Drake OR, Ianov L, Day JJ. Temporally specific gene expression and chromatin remodeling programs regulate a conserved Pdyn enhancer. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.06.02.543489. [PMID: 37333110 PMCID: PMC10274686 DOI: 10.1101/2023.06.02.543489] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/20/2023]
Abstract
Neuronal and behavioral adaptations to novel stimuli are regulated by temporally dynamic waves of transcriptional activity, which shape neuronal function and guide enduring plasticity. Neuronal activation promotes expression of an immediate early gene (IEG) program comprised primarily of activity-dependent transcription factors, which are thought to regulate a second set of late response genes (LRGs). However, while the mechanisms governing IEG activation have been well studied, the molecular interplay between IEGs and LRGs remain poorly characterized. Here, we used transcriptomic and chromatin accessibility profiling to define activity-driven responses in rat striatal neurons. As expected, neuronal depolarization generated robust changes in gene expression, with early changes (1 h) enriched for inducible transcription factors and later changes (4 h) enriched for neuropeptides, synaptic proteins, and ion channels. Remarkably, while depolarization did not induce chromatin remodeling after 1 h, we found broad increases in chromatin accessibility at thousands of sites in the genome at 4 h after neuronal stimulation. These putative regulatory elements were found almost exclusively at non-coding regions of the genome, and harbored consensus motifs for numerous activity-dependent transcription factors such as AP-1. Furthermore, blocking protein synthesis prevented activity-dependent chromatin remodeling, suggesting that IEG proteins are required for this process. Targeted analysis of LRG loci identified a putative enhancer upstream of Pdyn (prodynorphin), a gene encoding an opioid neuropeptide implicated in motivated behavior and neuropsychiatric disease states. CRISPR-based functional assays demonstrated that this enhancer is both necessary and sufficient for Pdyn transcription. This regulatory element is also conserved at the human PDYN locus, where its activation is sufficient to drive PDYN transcription in human cells. These results suggest that IEGs participate in chromatin remodeling at enhancers and identify a conserved enhancer that may act as a therapeutic target for brain disorders involving dysregulation of Pdyn.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert A. Phillips
- Department of Neurobiology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294, USA
| | - Ethan Wan
- Department of Neurobiology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294, USA
| | - Jennifer J. Tuscher
- Department of Neurobiology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294, USA
| | - David Reid
- Department of Neurobiology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294, USA
| | - Olivia R. Drake
- Department of Neurobiology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294, USA
| | - Lara Ianov
- Department of Neurobiology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294, USA
- Civitan International Research Center, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294, USA
| | - Jeremy J. Day
- Department of Neurobiology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294, USA
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Huskinson SL, Platt DM, Zamarripa CA, Dunaway K, Brasfield M, Prisinzano TE, Blough BE, Freeman KB. The G-protein biased kappa opioid agonists, triazole 1.1 and nalfurafine, produce non-uniform behavioral effects in male rhesus monkeys. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2022; 217:173394. [DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2022.173394] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2021] [Revised: 03/07/2022] [Accepted: 04/28/2022] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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Spasov AA, Smirnova LA, Grechko OI, Eliseeva NV, Lifanova YV, Rashchenko AI, Zhukowskaia ON, Morkovnik AS, Anisimova VA, Syrvacheva OE. Distribution, excretion and metabolic pathways of a single parenteral administration of kappa-opioid receptor agonist RU-1205. RESEARCH RESULTS IN PHARMACOLOGY 2021. [DOI: 10.3897/rrpharmacology.7.67261] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction: The purpose was to study the pharmacokinetic properties of RU-1205 with the previously identified kappa-agonistic and analgesic effects after parenteral administration.
Materials and methods: Pharmacokinetic parameters of RU-1205 after intravenous and subcutaneous administration at doses of 10 mg/kg and 50 mg/kg, respectively, were investigated, using the method of high-performance liquid chromatography with measurement of the compound according to a pre-established calibration curve. The indices of the area under the pharmacokinetic curve, clearance, half-life, residence time of the drug molecule in the body, total (apparent) volume of distribution, as well as the indicator of absolute bioavailability for subcutaneous administration were calculated. Tissue distribution and excretion of RU-1205 were also studied. Evaluation of metabolism of RU-1205 was conducted in silico, using the PALLAS 3.00 software, with the use of specific tests with CYP 450 substrates and by studying the ability of RU-1205 to form conjugates with endogenous acids.
Results and discussion: It was found that after a single intravenous administration, the investigated substance was determined in the blood for 12 h; the half-life was 8.49 hours. The absolute bioavailability after subcutaneous administration is 57.35%. RU-1205 is eliminated within 3–4 days. The main route of excretion is extrarenal. The biotransformation of the substance probably proceeds mainly with the formation of oxidized forms of the initial molecule according to the reactions of the first phase of metabolic transformation, so the chance to observe phase 2 of the metabolism could be very low.
Conclusion: The test substance undergoes a long process of elimination, has the highest tropism to the elimination organs and undergoes active biotransformation processes in the body of animals.
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Wu G, Xu X, Ye F, Shu H. Effects of processed Aconiti tuber on the extinction and reinstatement of morphine-induced conditioned place preference in rats. JOURNAL OF ETHNOPHARMACOLOGY 2021; 267:113524. [PMID: 33129945 DOI: 10.1016/j.jep.2020.113524] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2020] [Revised: 09/10/2020] [Accepted: 10/26/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
AIM OF THE STUDY To investigate the effect of processed Aconiti tuber (PAT) administered during or after the time of conditioned place preference (CPP) training on the extinction and reinstatement of morphine-priming CPP in rats. The dynorphin level in rats' nucleus accumbens (NAc) is detected as a target of the Dynorphin/Kappa Opioid Receptor (KOR) system for the possible mechanism. MATERIALS AND METHODS Eight groups of rats were subcutaneously (s.c.) injected with morphine (10mg/kg) (on days 2,4,6,8) or saline (1ml/kg) (on days 3,5,7,9) alternately for 8 days. Five groups, including groups (Mor + Water, Mor + PAT (1.0/3.0g/kg) (S) and Sal + PAT(1.0/3.0g/kg)), were orally given distilled water or PAT 1.0 or 3.0 g/kg daily on days 1-8 during CPP training while other three groups, including groups (Sal + Water and Mor + PAT (1.0/3.0g/kg)(P), were given distilled water or PAT daily from day 10 until CPP was extinct. Morphine 1mg/kg (s.c.) was used to reinstate the extinct CPP and the CPP scores were recorded. The dynorphin concentration in nucleus accumbens (NAc) was assayed by radioimmunoassay after the last CPP measurement. RESULTS 1) The CPP extinction shortened in Mor + PAT (1.0/3.0 g/kg) (S) groups but extended in Mor + PAT (1.0/3.0 g/kg)(P) groups. 2) Morphine-priming CPP did not change either in Mor + PAT (1.0/3.0 g/kg) (S) or Mor + PAT (1.0/3.0 g/kg)(P) groups. 3) The dynorphin concentration in NAc increased either in Mor + PAT (1.0/3.0 g/kg)(S) or Mor + PAT (1.0/3.0 g/kg)(P) groups. CONCLUSIONS 1) PAT shortened the extinction from morphine induced CPP when administrated before CPP acquisition, whereas it extended the extinction when administrated after CPP formation. 2) PAT administrated during or after CPP training did not affect morphine-priming reinstatement of morphine induced CPP. 3) Dynorphin/KOR system might be a target to regulate morphine-induced CPP extinction but not reinstatement.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guiyun Wu
- Department of Anesthesiology, Affiliated Sun Yat-sen Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Xiaoying Xu
- Department of Anesthesiology, Affiliated Sun Yat-sen Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Fang Ye
- Department of Anesthesiology, First Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Haihua Shu
- Department of Anesthesiology, Guangdong Provincial People's Hospital, Guangdong Academy of Medical Sciences, Guangzhou, Guangdong, PR China; The Second School of Clinical Medicine, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, PR China.
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Vázquez-León P, Arenas-Martínez U, Córdova-Maqueda D, Fregoso-Aguilar T, Juan ERS, Miranda-Páez A. Salvia divinorum increases alcohol intake and tonic immobility whilst decreasing food intake in Wistar rats. Acta Neurobiol Exp (Wars) 2021; 81:34-42. [PMID: 33949161 DOI: 10.21307/ane-2021-005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2020] [Accepted: 01/13/2021] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
The kappa-opioid system (KOP) is the key in drug abuse. Of all the compounds isolated from Salvia divinorum (S. divinorum), salvinorin-A (Sal-A) is predominant. Further, Sal-A is the only compound within S. divinorum which is reported to have psychoactive properties as a powerful kappa-opioid receptor (KOPr) agonist. Based on the key role of the KOP system in the consumption of drugs, S. divinorum extract (SDE) and Sal-A may modify the alcohol intake in Wistar rats. Assessing voluntary alcohol intake as a drug consummatory behavior, food intake as natural reward behavior and tonic immobility as indicative of anxiety-like behavior, the present study sought to identify the role of both SDE and Sal-A in the Wistar rat model. Forty-eight adult male rats were randomly divided into six groups: control, alcohol naive and vehicle, alcohol-naive and SDE, alcohol-naive and Sal-A, alcohol-consumption and vehicle, alcohol-consumption and SDE, and alcohol-consumption and Sal-A. Alcohol and food intake were assessed for two weeks. In the middle of these two weeks, vehicle, SDE (containing ~1 mg/kg of Sal-A) or Sal-A was injected intraperitoneally once a day for a week. Tonic immobility testing was performed once. The administration of SDE produced a significant increase in voluntary alcohol intake especially in rats with a history of forced alcohol consumption from a juvenile age, Sal-A elicited an increase in alcohol intake in animals with or without previous alcohol exposure, SDE and Sal-A prolonged the tonic immobility duration and decreased food intake. In conclusion, S. divinorum or Sal-A stimulated alcohol consumption in rats with a history of alcohol intake and independent of previous exposure respectively, also SDE or Sal-A elicited an anorexigenic effect, and increased tonic immobility as indicative of anxious-like behavior. The kappa-opioid system (KOP) is the key in drug abuse. Of all the compounds isolated from Salvia divinorum (S. divinorum), salvinorin-A (Sal-A) is predominant. Further, Sal-A is the only compound within S. divinorum which is reported to have psychoactive properties as a powerful kappa-opioid receptor (KOPr) agonist. Based on the key role of the KOP system in the consumption of drugs, S. divinorum extract (SDE) and Sal-A may modify the alcohol intake in Wistar rats. Assessing voluntary alcohol intake as a drug consummatory behavior, food intake as natural reward behavior and tonic immobility as indicative of anxiety-like behavior, the present study sought to identify the role of both SDE and Sal-A in the Wistar rat model. Forty-eight adult male rats were randomly divided into six groups: control, alcohol naive and vehicle, alcohol-naive and SDE, alcohol-naive and Sal-A, alcohol-consumption and vehicle, alcohol-consumption and SDE, and alcohol-consumption and Sal-A. Alcohol and food intake were assessed for two weeks. In the middle of these two weeks, vehicle, SDE (containing ~1 mg/kg of Sal-A) or Sal-A was injected intraperitoneally once a day for a week. Tonic immobility testing was performed once. The administration of SDE produced a significant increase in voluntary alcohol intake especially in rats with a history of forced alcohol consumption from a juvenile age, Sal-A elicited an increase in alcohol intake in animals with or without previous alcohol exposure, SDE and Sal-A prolonged the tonic immobility duration and decreased food intake. In conclusion, S. divinorum or Sal-A stimulated alcohol consumption in rats with a history of alcohol intake and independent of previous exposure respectively, also SDE or Sal-A elicited an anorexigenic effect, and increased tonic immobility as indicative of anxious-like behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Priscila Vázquez-León
- Departamento de Fisiología , Escuela Nacional de Ciencias Biológicas , Instituto Politécnico Nacional , Wilfrido Massieu esq. Manuel Stampa s/n , Col. Nueva Industrial Vallejo , Alcaldía Gustavo A. Madero , México City , Mexico ; Departamento de Fisiología y Farmacología , Centro de Ciencias Básicas , Universidad Autónoma de Aguascalientes , Ciudad Universitaria , Aguascalientes, Ags. , Mexico
| | - Ulises Arenas-Martínez
- Departamento de Fisiología , Escuela Nacional de Ciencias Biológicas , Instituto Politécnico Nacional , Wilfrido Massieu esq. Manuel Stampa s/n , Col. Nueva Industrial Vallejo , Alcaldía Gustavo A. Madero , México City , Mexico
| | - Dafne Córdova-Maqueda
- Laboratorio de Palinología , Departamento de Botánica , Escuela Nacional de Ciencias Biológicas , Instituto Politécnico Nacional , Plan de Ayala y Prolongación de Carpio s/n , Alcaldía Miguel Hidalgo , México City , Mexico
| | - Tomás Fregoso-Aguilar
- Departamento de Fisiología , Escuela Nacional de Ciencias Biológicas , Instituto Politécnico Nacional , Wilfrido Massieu esq. Manuel Stampa s/n , Col. Nueva Industrial Vallejo , Alcaldía Gustavo A. Madero , México City , Mexico
| | - Eduardo Ramírez-San Juan
- Departamento de Fisiología , Escuela Nacional de Ciencias Biológicas , Instituto Politécnico Nacional , Wilfrido Massieu esq. Manuel Stampa s/n , Col. Nueva Industrial Vallejo , Alcaldía Gustavo A. Madero , México City , Mexico
| | - Abraham Miranda-Páez
- Departamento de Fisiología , Escuela Nacional de Ciencias Biológicas , Instituto Politécnico Nacional , Wilfrido Massieu esq. Manuel Stampa s/n , Col. Nueva Industrial Vallejo , Alcaldía Gustavo A. Madero , México City , Mexico
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Huskinson SL, Platt DM, Brasfield M, Follett ME, Prisinzano TE, Blough BE, Freeman KB. Quantification of observable behaviors induced by typical and atypical kappa-opioid receptor agonists in male rhesus monkeys. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2020; 237:2075-2087. [PMID: 32372348 PMCID: PMC7308209 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-020-05519-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2019] [Accepted: 04/01/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE Kappa-opioid receptor (KOR) agonists are antinociceptive but have side effects that limit their therapeutic utility. New KOR agonists have been developed that are fully efficacious at the KOR but may produce fewer or reduced side effects that are typical of KOR agonists. OBJECTIVES We determined behavioral profiles for typical and atypical KOR agonists purported to differ in intracellular-signaling profiles as well as a mu-opioid receptor (MOR) agonist, oxycodone, using a behavioral scoring system based on Novak et al. (Am J Primatol 28:124-138, 1992, Am J Primatol 46:213-227, 1998) and modified to quantify drug-induced effects (e.g., Duke et al. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 366:145-157, 2018). METHODS Six adult male rhesus monkeys were administered a range of doses of the typical KOR agonists, U50-488H (0.0032-0.1 mg/kg) and salvinorin A (0.00032-0.01 mg/kg); the atypical KOR agonists, nalfurafine (0.0001-0.001 mg/kg) and triazole 1.1 (0.01-0.32 mg/kg); the MOR agonist, oxycodone (0.0032-0.32 mg/kg); and as controls, cocaine (0.032-0.32 mg/kg) and ketamine (0.32-10 mg/kg). For time-course determinations, the largest dose of each KOR agonist or MOR agonist was administered across timepoints (10-320 min). In mixture conditions, oxycodone (0.1 mg/kg) was followed by KOR-agonist administration. RESULTS Typical KOR agonists produced sedative-like and motor-impairing effects. Nalfurafine was similar to typical KOR agonists on most outcomes, and triazole 1.1 produced no effects on its own except for reducing scratch during time-course determinations. In the mixture, all KOR agonists reduced oxycodone-induced scratching, U50-488H and nalfurafine reduced species-typical activity, and U50-488H increased rest/sleep posture. CONCLUSIONS Atypical "biased" KOR agonists produce side-effect profiles that are relatively benign (triazole 1.1) or reduced (nalfurafine) compared to typical KOR agonists.
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MESH Headings
- 3,4-Dichloro-N-methyl-N-(2-(1-pyrrolidinyl)-cyclohexyl)-benzeneacetamide, (trans)-Isomer/pharmacology
- Analgesics, Opioid/pharmacology
- Animals
- Behavior, Animal/drug effects
- Behavior, Animal/physiology
- Diterpenes, Clerodane/pharmacology
- Dose-Response Relationship, Drug
- Macaca mulatta
- Male
- Morphinans/pharmacology
- Motor Activity/drug effects
- Motor Activity/physiology
- Oxycodone/pharmacology
- Receptors, Opioid, kappa/agonists
- Receptors, Opioid, kappa/physiology
- Spiro Compounds/pharmacology
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Affiliation(s)
- S L Huskinson
- Division of Neurobiology and Behavior Research, Department of Psychiatry and Human Behavior, University of Mississippi Medical Center, Jackson, MS, 39216, USA.
| | - D M Platt
- Division of Neurobiology and Behavior Research, Department of Psychiatry and Human Behavior, University of Mississippi Medical Center, Jackson, MS, 39216, USA
| | - M Brasfield
- Division of Neurobiology and Behavior Research, Department of Psychiatry and Human Behavior, University of Mississippi Medical Center, Jackson, MS, 39216, USA
| | - M E Follett
- Division of Neurobiology and Behavior Research, Department of Psychiatry and Human Behavior, University of Mississippi Medical Center, Jackson, MS, 39216, USA
| | - T E Prisinzano
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, 40536, USA
| | - B E Blough
- Research Triangle Institute, Research Triangle Park, NC, 27709, USA
| | - K B Freeman
- Division of Neurobiology and Behavior Research, Department of Psychiatry and Human Behavior, University of Mississippi Medical Center, Jackson, MS, 39216, USA
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Kappa opioid agonists reduce oxycodone self-administration in male rhesus monkeys. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2020; 237:1471-1480. [PMID: 32006048 PMCID: PMC7196516 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-020-05473-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2019] [Accepted: 01/21/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE Combinations of mu and kappa opioid receptor (KOR) agonists have been proposed as potential analgesic formulations with reduced abuse liability. The current studies extend previous work by investigating the typical KOR agonist, salvinorin A, and the atypical KOR agonist, nalfurafine, as deterrents of oxycodone self-administration using a progressive ratio (PR) schedule of reinforcement. METHODS In separate experiments, adult male rhesus monkeys (N = 4/experiment) were trained under a PR schedule of reinforcement to self-administer cocaine (0.1 mg/kg/injection) and saline on alternating days. Oxycodone (0.01-0.1 mg/kg/injection) alone and combined with salvinorin A (experiment 1; 0.006, 0.012 mg/kg/injection) or nalfurafine (experiment 2; 0.0001-0.00032 mg/kg/injection) were tested within the alternating cocaine and saline baseline. The mechanism of nalfurafine's effects on oxycodone self-administration was investigated via pretreatment with the KOR antagonist, nor-binaltorphimine (nor-BNI; 10 mg/kg; i.m.). RESULTS All subjects self-administered oxycodone alone above saline levels at sufficiently large doses, and combining salvinorin A or nalfurafine with oxycodone reduced the mean number of injections per session to saline levels (experiment 1) or to levels that were significantly lower than oxycodone alone (experiment 2). The ability of nalfurafine to reduce oxycodone self-administration was reversed by pretreatment with nor-BNI. CONCLUSIONS These results demonstrate that KOR agonists, including the clinically used KOR agonist, nalfurafine, can punish self-administration of a prescription opioid analgesic, oxycodone, in rhesus monkeys and that nalfurafine's punishing effect is KOR-dependent. Combinations of KOR agonists with prescription opioids may have reduced abuse liability.
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Thobois S, Brefel-Courbon C, Le Bars D, Sgambato-Faure V. Molecular Imaging of Opioid System in Idiopathic Parkinson's Disease. INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF NEUROBIOLOGY 2018; 141:275-303. [DOI: 10.1016/bs.irn.2018.07.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
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11
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Karkhanis A, Holleran KM, Jones SR. Dynorphin/Kappa Opioid Receptor Signaling in Preclinical Models of Alcohol, Drug, and Food Addiction. INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF NEUROBIOLOGY 2017; 136:53-88. [PMID: 29056156 DOI: 10.1016/bs.irn.2017.08.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
The dynorphin/kappa opioid receptor (KOR) system is implicated in the "dark side" of addiction, in which stress exacerbates maladaptive responses to drug and alcohol exposure. For example, acute stress and acute ethanol exposure result in an elevation in dynorphin, the KOR endogenous ligand. Activation of KORs results in modulation of several neurotransmitters; however, this chapter will focus on its regulatory effects on dopamine in mesolimbic areas. Specifically, KOR activation has an inhibitory effect on dopamine release, thereby influencing reward processing. Repeated stimulation of KORs, for example, via chronic drug and/or stress exposure, results in increased function of the dynorphin/KOR system. This augmentation in KOR function shifts the homeostatic balance in favor of an overall reduction in dopamine signaling via either by reducing dopamine release or by increasing dopamine transporter function. This chapter examines the effects of chronic ethanol exposure on KOR function and the downstream effects on dopamine transmission. Additionally, the impact of chronic cocaine exposure and its effects on KOR function will be explored. Further, KORs may also be involved in driving excessive consumption of food, contributing to the risk of developing obesity. While some studies have shown that KOR agonists reduce drug intake, other studies have shown that antagonists reduce addiction-like behaviors, demonstrating therapeutic potential. For example, KOR inhibition reduces ethanol intake in dependent animals, motivation to self-administer cocaine in chronic stress-exposed animals, and food consumption in obese animals. This chapter will delve into the mechanisms by which modulation of the dynorphin/KOR system may be therapeutic.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Sara R Jones
- Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, NC, United States.
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12
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Sherwood AM, Crowley RS, Paton KF, Biggerstaff A, Neuenswander B, Day VW, Kivell BM, Prisinzano TE. Addressing Structural Flexibility at the A-Ring on Salvinorin A: Discovery of a Potent Kappa-Opioid Agonist with Enhanced Metabolic Stability. J Med Chem 2017; 60:3866-3878. [PMID: 28376298 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.7b00148] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Previous structure-activity studies on the neoclerodane diterpenoid salvinorin A have demonstrated the importance of the acetoxy functionality on the A-ring in its activity as a κ-opioid receptor agonist. Few studies have focused on understanding the role of conformation in these interactions. Herein we describe the synthesis and evaluation of both flexible and conformationally restricted compounds derived from salvinorin A. One such compound, spirobutyrolactone 14, was synthesized in a single step from salvinorin B and had similar potency and selectivity to salvinorin A (EC50 = 0.6 ± 0.2 nM at κ; >10000 nM at μ and δ). Microsomal stability studies demonstrated that 14 was more metabolically resistant than salvinorin A. Evaluation of analgesic and anti-inflammatory properties revealed similar in vivo effects between 14 and salvinorin A. To our knowledge, this study represents the first example of bioisosteric replacement of an acetate group by a spirobutyrolactone to produce a metabolically resistant derivative.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander M Sherwood
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, The University of Kansas , Lawrence, Kansas 66045, United States
| | - Rachel Saylor Crowley
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, The University of Kansas , Lawrence, Kansas 66045, United States
| | - Kelly F Paton
- School of Biological Sciences, Centre for Biodiscovery, Victoria University of Wellington , Wellington 6012, New Zealand
| | - Andrew Biggerstaff
- School of Biological Sciences, Centre for Biodiscovery, Victoria University of Wellington , Wellington 6012, New Zealand
| | - Benjamin Neuenswander
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, The University of Kansas , Lawrence, Kansas 66045, United States
| | - Victor W Day
- Department of Chemistry, The University of Kansas , Lawrence, Kansas 66045, United States
| | - Bronwyn M Kivell
- School of Biological Sciences, Centre for Biodiscovery, Victoria University of Wellington , Wellington 6012, New Zealand
| | - Thomas E Prisinzano
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, The University of Kansas , Lawrence, Kansas 66045, United States
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13
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Opioid κ Receptors as a Molecular Target for the Creation of a New Generation of Analgesic Drugs. Pharm Chem J 2016. [DOI: 10.1007/s11094-016-1388-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
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14
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Mahendran R, Lim HA, Tan JYS, Chua SM, Winslow M. Salvia divinorum: An overview of the usage, misuse, and addiction processes. Asia Pac Psychiatry 2016; 8:23-31. [PMID: 26617400 DOI: 10.1111/appy.12225] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2015] [Accepted: 11/02/2015] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Salvia divinorum, a sage plant with leaves that can produce a psychoactive high, has been used for hundreds of years for its psycho-mimetic effects in religious rituals in South America. Salvia has now become popular mainly with adolescents and young adults for the short-lived relatively pleasant experiences many consider a "legal high" and its ready availability through Internet purchases. The main (psycho)active compound in salvia is Salvinorin A, a potent κ-opioid agonist and although the short and long-term effects have not been examined in sufficient detail, it is widely believed to have low addictive potential and low toxicity. Recent findings, however, seem to suggest that Salvinorin A can precipitate psychiatric symptoms and negatively affect cognition. Its ready availability and increasingly widespread use requires clinicians to have knowledge and awareness of its effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rathi Mahendran
- Department of Psychological Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore.,Department of Psychological Medicine, National University Hospital, Singapore.,Duke-NUS Graduate Medical School, Singapore
| | - Haikel A Lim
- Department of Psychological Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore
| | - Joyce Y S Tan
- Department of Psychological Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore
| | - Shi Min Chua
- Department of Psychological Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore
| | - Munidasa Winslow
- Department of Psychological Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore
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15
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Cyclic endomorphin analogs in targeting opioid receptors to achieve pain relief. Future Med Chem 2015; 6:2093-101. [PMID: 25531970 DOI: 10.4155/fmc.14.132] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Endomorphins, the endogenous ligands of the µ-opioid receptor, are attractive candidates for opioid-based pain-relieving agents. These tetrapeptides, with their remarkable affinity for the µ-opioid receptor, display favorable antinociceptive activity when injected directly into the brain of experimental animals. However, the application of endomorphins as clinical analgesics has been impeded by their instability in body fluids and inability to reach the brain after systemic administration. Among numerous modifications of the endomorphin structure aimed at improving their pharmacological properties, cyclization can be viewed as an interesting option. Here, we have summarized recent advances in obtaining endomorphin-based cyclic peptide analogs.
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16
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Riley AP, Groer CE, Young D, Ewald AW, Kivell BM, Prisinzano TE. Synthesis and κ-opioid receptor activity of furan-substituted salvinorin A analogues. J Med Chem 2014; 57:10464-75. [PMID: 25426797 PMCID: PMC4281103 DOI: 10.1021/jm501521d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
The neoclerodane diterpene salvinorin A, found in the leaves of Salvia divinorum, is a potent κ-opioid receptor agonist, making it an attractive scaffold for development into a treatment for substance abuse. Although several successful semisynthetic studies have been performed to elucidate structure-activity relationships, the lack of analogues with substitutions to the furan ring of salvinorin A has prevented a thorough understanding of its role in binding to the κ-opioid receptor. Herein we report the synthesis of several salvinorin A derivatives with modified furan rings. Evaluation of these compounds in a functional assay indicated that sterically less demanding substitutions are preferred, suggesting the furan ring is bound in a congested portion of the binding pocket. The most potent of the analogues successfully reduced drug-seeking behavior in an animal model of drug-relapse without producing the sedation observed with other κ-opioid agonists.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew P Riley
- Department of Chemistry and ‡Department of Medicinal Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, The University of Kansas , Lawrence, Kansas 66045, United States
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17
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Freeman KB, Naylor JE, Prisinzano TE, Woolverton WL. Assessment of the kappa opioid agonist, salvinorin A, as a punisher of drug self-administration in monkeys. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2014; 231:2751-8. [PMID: 24481567 PMCID: PMC4074245 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-014-3436-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2013] [Accepted: 01/05/2014] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
RATIONALE Drugs can function as punishers. However, work on the study of drugs as punishers is limited, as is the range of compounds known to function as punishers. Kappa opioid agonists, which have received much experimental attention as potential therapeutics for drug abuse, reportedly produce aversive effects. However, kappa agonists have yet to be tested as punishers of behavior. OBJECTIVE The goal of the current study was to determine if a kappa agonist could function as a punisher of drug self-administration. METHOD In separate experiments, monkeys were allowed to choose in a two-lever choice design between intravenous injections of equal doses of either cocaine (0.1 mg/kg/injection on each lever) or remifentanil (0.1 μg/kg/injection on each lever) when one of the two options was mixed with various doses of the kappa agonist, salvinorin A. RESULTS Choice for the cocaine and remifentanil options that were combined with salvinorin A decreased as a function of salvinorin A dose in all monkeys. However, operant response rates were not systematically affected by salvinorin A administration. CONCLUSION The present findings demonstrate that the kappa agonist, salvinorin A, can punish self-administration of a psychotimulant, cocaine, and a mu opioid, remifentanil. In consideration of these findings, it may be possible to curtail the abuse of some drugs by contingently delivering kappa agonists (e.g., as combination formularies for prescription medications).
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin B Freeman
- Division of Neurobiology and Behavior Research, Department of Psychiatry and Human Behavior, The University of Mississippi Medical Center, Jackson, MS, 39216, USA,
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18
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Bye A. Experiments with cocaine and heroin addicts—are they predictive? Curr Opin Pharmacol 2014; 14:74-80. [DOI: 10.1016/j.coph.2013.11.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2013] [Accepted: 11/27/2013] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
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19
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Kivell BM, Ewald AWM, Prisinzano TE. Salvinorin A analogs and other κ-opioid receptor compounds as treatments for cocaine abuse. ADVANCES IN PHARMACOLOGY (SAN DIEGO, CALIF.) 2014; 69:481-511. [PMID: 24484985 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-420118-7.00012-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Acute activation of kappa-opioid receptors produces anti-addictive effects by regulating dopamine levels in the brain. Unfortunately, classic kappa-opioid agonists have undesired side effects such as sedation, aversion, and depression, which restrict their clinical use. Salvinorin A (Sal A), a novel kappa-opioid receptor agonist extracted from the plant Salvia divinorum, has been identified as a potential therapy for drug abuse and addiction. Here, we review the preclinical effects of Sal A in comparison with traditional kappa-opioid agonists and several new analogs. Sal A retains the anti-addictive properties of traditional kappa-opioid receptor agonists with several improvements including reduced side effects. However, the rapid metabolism of Sal A makes it undesirable for clinical development. In an effort to improve the pharmacokinetics and tolerability of this compound, kappa-opioid receptor agonists based on the structure of Sal A have been synthesized. While work in this field is still in progress, several analogs with improved pharmacokinetic profiles have been shown to have anti-addictive effects. While in its infancy, it is clear that these compounds hold promise for the future development of anti-addictive therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bronwyn M Kivell
- School of Biological Sciences, Centre for Biodiscovery, Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington, New Zealand
| | - Amy W M Ewald
- School of Biological Sciences, Centre for Biodiscovery, Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington, New Zealand
| | - Thomas E Prisinzano
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas, USA.
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20
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Morani AS, Ewald A, Prevatt-Smith KM, Prisinzano TE, Kivell BM. The 2-methoxy methyl analogue of salvinorin A attenuates cocaine-induced drug seeking and sucrose reinforcements in rats. Eur J Pharmacol 2013; 720:69-76. [PMID: 24201308 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2013.10.050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2013] [Revised: 10/21/2013] [Accepted: 10/28/2013] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
κ Opioid receptor activation by traditional arylacetamide agonists and the novel neoclerodane diterpene κ opioid receptor agonist Salvinorin A (Sal A) results in attenuation of cocaine-seeking behavior in pre-clinical models of addiction. However, adverse effects such as sedation, depression and aversion limit their clinical utility. The Sal A analogue, 2-methoxy-methyl salvinorin B (MOM Sal B) is a longer acting Sal A analogue with high affinity for κ opioid receptors. In this study, we tested MOM Sal B for its ability to modulate cocaine-seeking behavior in rats. MOM Sal B (0.3mg/kg) successfully attenuated cocaine-seeking but also attenuated sucrose reinforcement. No change in activity was observed in either cocaine-induced hyperactivity or spontaneous open field activity tests but increased immobility and decreased swimming times in the forced swim test were observed. This study indicates that κ opioid receptor activation by more potent Sal A analogues modulates cocaine-seeking behavior non-selectively without causing sedation, suggesting an improved side effects profile. However, pro-depressive effects are seen, which may limit the therapeutic potential of this compound. Future studies with Sal A analogues having affinities at other opioid receptors are warranted as they have the potential to identify compounds having effective anti-addiction properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aashish S Morani
- School of Biological Science, Victoria University of Wellington, PO Box 600, Wellington, New Zealand
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21
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Abstract
Background Drug addiction is a complex and chronic mental disease, which places a large burden on the American healthcare system due to its negative effects on patients and their families. Recently, network pharmacology is emerging as a promising approach to drug discovery by integrating network biology and polypharmacology, allowing for a deeper understanding of molecular mechanisms of drug actions at the systems level. This study seeks to apply this approach for investigation of illicit drugs and their targets in order to elucidate their interaction patterns and potential secondary drugs that can aid future research and clinical care. Results In this study, we extracted 188 illicit substances and their related information from the DrugBank database. The data process revealed 86 illicit drugs targeting a total of 73 unique human genes, which forms an illicit drug-target network. Compared to the full drug-target network from DrugBank, illicit drugs and their target genes tend to cluster together and form four subnetworks, corresponding to four major medication categories: depressants, stimulants, analgesics, and steroids. External analysis of Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical (ATC) second sublevel classifications confirmed that the illicit drugs have neurological functions or act via mechanisms of stimulants, opioids, and steroids. To further explore other drugs potentially having associations with illicit drugs, we constructed an illicit-extended drug-target network by adding the drugs that have the same target(s) as illicit drugs to the illicit drug-target network. After analyzing the degree and betweenness of the network, we identified hubs and bridge nodes, which might play important roles in the development and treatment of drug addiction. Among them, 49 non-illicit drugs might have potential to be used to treat addiction or have addictive effects, including some results that are supported by previous studies. Conclusions This study presents the first systematic review of the network characteristics of illicit drugs, their targets, and other drugs that share the targets of these illicit drugs. The results, though preliminary, provide some novel insights into the molecular mechanisms of drug addiction. The observation of illicit-related drugs, with partial verification from previous studies, demonstrated that the network-assisted approach is promising for the identification of drug repositioning.
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22
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Role of κ—Opioid Receptor in Hypoxic Pulmonary Artery Hypertension and Its Underlying Mechanism. Am J Ther 2013; 20:329-36. [DOI: 10.1097/mjt.0b013e318249a08c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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23
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Ranganathan M, Schnakenberg A, Skosnik PD, Cohen B, Pittman B, Sewell RA, D’Souza DC. Dose-related behavioral, subjective, endocrine, and psychophysiological effects of the κ opioid agonist Salvinorin A in humans. Biol Psychiatry 2012; 72:871-9. [PMID: 22817868 PMCID: PMC3638802 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2012.06.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 93] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2012] [Revised: 05/10/2012] [Accepted: 06/07/2012] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Salvia divinorum (Salvia) is an increasingly popular recreational drug amongst adolescents and young adults. Its primary active ingredient, Salvinorin A (SA)-a highly selective agonist at the κ opiate receptor-is believed to be one of the most potent naturally occurring hallucinogens. However, there is little experimental data on the effects of SA in humans. METHODS In a 3-day, double-blind, randomized, crossover, counterbalanced study, the behavioral, subjective, cognitive, psychophysiological, and endocrine effects of 0 mg, 8 mg, and 12 mg of inhaled SA were characterized in 10 healthy individuals who had previously used Salvia. RESULTS SA produced psychotomimetic effects and perceptual alterations, including dissociative and somaesthetic effects, increased plasma cortisol and prolactin, and reduced resting electroencephalogram spectral power. The SA administration was associated with a rapid increase of its levels in the blood. SA did not produce euphoria, cognitive deficits, or changes in vital signs. The effects were transient and not dose-related. SA administration was very well-tolerated without acute or delayed adverse effects. CONCLUSIONS SA produced a wide range of transient effects in healthy subjects. The perceptual altering effects and lack of euphoric effects would explain its intermittent use pattern. Such a profile would also suggest a low addictive potential similar to other hallucinogens and consistent with κ opiate receptor agonism. Further work is warranted to carefully characterize a full spectrum of its effects in humans, to elucidate the underlying mechanisms involved, and to explore the basis for individual variability in its effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohini Ranganathan
- Psychiatry Service, Veterans Affairs Connecticut Healthcare System, West Haven, CT 06516, USA.
| | - Ashley Schnakenberg
- Psychiatry Service, VA Connecticut Healthcare System, West Haven, CT, USA,Abraham Ribicoff Research Facilities, Connecticut Mental Health Center, New Haven, CT, USA,Department of Psychiatry, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Patrick D. Skosnik
- Psychiatry Service, VA Connecticut Healthcare System, West Haven, CT, USA,Abraham Ribicoff Research Facilities, Connecticut Mental Health Center, New Haven, CT, USA,Department of Psychiatry, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Bruce Cohen
- Harvard Medical School, MA, USA,McLean Hospital, Belmont, MA
| | - Brian Pittman
- Abraham Ribicoff Research Facilities, Connecticut Mental Health Center, New Haven, CT, USA,Department of Psychiatry, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - R. Andrew Sewell
- Psychiatry Service, VA Connecticut Healthcare System, West Haven, CT, USA,Abraham Ribicoff Research Facilities, Connecticut Mental Health Center, New Haven, CT, USA,Department of Psychiatry, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Deepak Cyril D’Souza
- Psychiatry Service, VA Connecticut Healthcare System, West Haven, CT, USA,Abraham Ribicoff Research Facilities, Connecticut Mental Health Center, New Haven, CT, USA,Department of Psychiatry, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
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A single injection of a novel κ opioid receptor agonist salvinorin A attenuates the expression of cocaine-induced behavioral sensitization in rats. Behav Pharmacol 2012; 23:162-70. [PMID: 22293826 DOI: 10.1097/fbp.0b013e3283512c1e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Kappa opioid receptor (KOPr) activation antagonizes many cocaine-related behaviors but adverse side-effects such as sedation, dysphoria, and depression limit their therapeutic use. Recently, salvinorin A (Sal A), a naturally occurring KOPr agonist, has been shown to attenuate cocaine-induced drug seeking in a model of relapse in rats. The present study evaluated the effects of acute Sal A exposure on cocaine-induced hyperactivity and cocaine sensitization in rats. Acute treatment with a dose of Sal A that decreased drug seeking in a previous study (0.3 mg/kg) significantly attenuated the expression of cocaine sensitization. This dose of Sal A failed to affect spontaneous locomotion or to produce a conditioned taste aversion to a novel-tasting saccharin solution. However, Sal A decreased climbing and swimming time and increased time spent immobile in the forced swim test. These findings indicate that Sal A, just like traditional KOPr agonists, attenuates cocaine-induced behavioral sensitization but does not produce the adverse effect of conditioned aversion, suggesting improved potential compliance. However, prodepressive effects were also produced and these effects may limit the therapeutic potential.
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Lee J, Kwon YJ, Choi Y, Kim HC, Kim K, Kim J, Park S, Song R. Quantum Dot-Based Screening System for Discovery of G Protein-Coupled Receptor Agonists. Chembiochem 2012; 13:1503-8. [DOI: 10.1002/cbic.201200128] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2012] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
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Frankowski KJ, Hedrick MP, Gosalia P, Li K, Shi S, Whipple D, Ghosh P, Prisinzano TE, Schoenen FJ, Su Y, Vasile S, Sergienko E, Gray W, Hariharan S, Milan L, Heynen-Genel S, Mangravita-Novo A, Vicchiarelli M, Smith LH, Streicher JM, Caron MG, Barak LS, Bohn LM, Chung TDY, Aubé J. Discovery of Small Molecule Kappa Opioid Receptor Agonist and Antagonist Chemotypes through a HTS and Hit Refinement Strategy. ACS Chem Neurosci 2012; 3:221-236. [PMID: 22737280 DOI: 10.1021/cn200128x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Herein we present the outcome of a high throughput screening (HTS) campaign-based strategy for the rapid identification and optimization of selective and general chemotypes for both kappa (κ) opioid receptor (KOR) activation and inhibition. In this program, we have developed potent antagonists (IC(50) < 120 nM) or agonists of high binding affinity (K(i) < 3 nM). In contrast to many important KOR ligands, the compounds presented here are highly modular, readily synthesized and, in most cases, achiral. The four new chemotypes hold promise for further development into chemical tools for studying the KOR or as potential therapeutic lead candidates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin J. Frankowski
- University of Kansas Specialized
Chemistry Center, University of Kansas,
Lawrence, Kansas 66047, United States
| | - Michael P. Hedrick
- Conrad Prebys Center for Chemical Genomics at Sanford-Burnham Medical Research Institute, La Jolla, California 92037, United States
| | - Palak Gosalia
- Conrad Prebys Center for Chemical Genomics at Sanford-Burnham Medical Research Institute, La Jolla, California 92037, United States
| | - Kelin Li
- University of Kansas Specialized
Chemistry Center, University of Kansas,
Lawrence, Kansas 66047, United States
| | - Shenghua Shi
- Conrad Prebys Center for Chemical Genomics at Sanford-Burnham Medical Research Institute, La Jolla, California 92037, United States
| | - David Whipple
- University of Kansas Specialized
Chemistry Center, University of Kansas,
Lawrence, Kansas 66047, United States
| | - Partha Ghosh
- University of Kansas Specialized
Chemistry Center, University of Kansas,
Lawrence, Kansas 66047, United States
| | - Thomas E. Prisinzano
- University of Kansas Specialized
Chemistry Center, University of Kansas,
Lawrence, Kansas 66047, United States
| | - Frank J. Schoenen
- University of Kansas Specialized
Chemistry Center, University of Kansas,
Lawrence, Kansas 66047, United States
| | - Ying Su
- Conrad Prebys Center for Chemical Genomics at Sanford-Burnham Medical Research Institute, La Jolla, California 92037, United States
| | - S. Vasile
- Conrad Prebys Center for Chemical Genomics at Sanford-Burnham Medical Research Institute, La Jolla, California 92037, United States
| | - Eduard Sergienko
- Conrad Prebys Center for Chemical Genomics at Sanford-Burnham Medical Research Institute, La Jolla, California 92037, United States
| | - Wilson Gray
- Conrad Prebys Center for Chemical Genomics at Sanford-Burnham Medical Research Institute, La Jolla, California 92037, United States
| | - Santosh Hariharan
- Conrad Prebys Center for Chemical Genomics at Sanford-Burnham Medical Research Institute, La Jolla, California 92037, United States
| | - Loribelle Milan
- Conrad Prebys Center for Chemical Genomics at Sanford-Burnham Medical Research Institute, La Jolla, California 92037, United States
| | - Susanne Heynen-Genel
- Conrad Prebys Center for Chemical Genomics at Sanford-Burnham Medical Research Institute, La Jolla, California 92037, United States
| | - Arianna Mangravita-Novo
- Conrad Prebys Center for Chemical Genomics at Sanford-Burnham Medical Research Institute at Lake Nona, Orlando, Florida 32827, United States
| | - Michael Vicchiarelli
- Conrad Prebys Center for Chemical Genomics at Sanford-Burnham Medical Research Institute at Lake Nona, Orlando, Florida 32827, United States
| | - Layton H. Smith
- Conrad Prebys Center for Chemical Genomics at Sanford-Burnham Medical Research Institute at Lake Nona, Orlando, Florida 32827, United States
| | - John M. Streicher
- Department of Molecular
Therapeutics, The Scripps Research Institute, Jupiter, Florida 33458,
United States
| | - Marc G. Caron
- Department of Cell Biology, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina 27710, United
States
| | - Lawrence S. Barak
- Department of Cell Biology, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina 27710, United
States
| | - Laura M. Bohn
- Department of Molecular
Therapeutics, The Scripps Research Institute, Jupiter, Florida 33458,
United States
| | - Thomas D. Y. Chung
- Conrad Prebys Center for Chemical Genomics at Sanford-Burnham Medical Research Institute, La Jolla, California 92037, United States
| | - Jeffrey Aubé
- University of Kansas Specialized
Chemistry Center, University of Kansas,
Lawrence, Kansas 66047, United States
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Prevatt-Smith KM, Lovell KM, Simpson DS, Day VW, Douglas JT, Bosch P, Dersch CM, Rothman RB, Kivell B, Prisinzano TE. Potential Drug Abuse Therapeutics Derived from the Hallucinogenic Natural Product Salvinorin A. MEDCHEMCOMM 2011; 2:1217-1222. [PMID: 22442751 PMCID: PMC3307802 DOI: 10.1039/c1md00192b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Previous structure-activity relationship studies of salvinorin A have shown that modification of the acetate functionality off the C-2 position to a methoxy methyl or methoxy ethyl ether moiety leads to increased potency at KOP receptors. However, the reason for this increase remains unclear. Here we report our efforts towards the synthesis and evaluation of C-2 constrained analogs of salvinorin A. These analogs were evaluated at opioid receptors in radioligand binding experiments as well as in the GTP-γ-S functional assay. One compound, 5, was found to have affinity and potency at κ opioid (KOP) receptors comparable to salvinorin A. In further studies, 5 was found to attenuate cocaine-induced drug seeking behavior in rats comparably to salvinorin A. This finding represents the first example of a salvinorin A analog that has demonstrated anti-addictive capabilities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katherine M. Prevatt-Smith
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, University of Kansas, 1251 Wescoe Hall Drive, Malott 4070, Lawrence, KS 66045
| | - Kimberly M. Lovell
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, University of Kansas, 1251 Wescoe Hall Drive, Malott 4070, Lawrence, KS 66045
| | - Denise S. Simpson
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, University of Kansas, 1251 Wescoe Hall Drive, Malott 4070, Lawrence, KS 66045
| | - Victor W. Day
- Small Molecule X-Ray Crystallography Lab, University of Kansas, 1251 Wescoe Hall Drive, Malott 6044, Lawrence, KS 66045
| | - Justin T. Douglas
- Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Laboratory, University of Kansas, 1251 Wescoe Hall Drive, Malott 3002, Lawrence, KS 66045
| | - Peter Bosch
- School of Biological Sciences, Victoria University of Wellington, P.O. Box 600, Wellington, New Zealand
| | - Christina M. Dersch
- Clinical Psychopharmacology Section, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, 333 Cassell Drive, Triad Building, Suite 4400, Baltimore, MD 21224
| | - Richard B. Rothman
- Clinical Psychopharmacology Section, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, 333 Cassell Drive, Triad Building, Suite 4400, Baltimore, MD 21224
| | - Bronwyn Kivell
- School of Biological Sciences, Victoria University of Wellington, P.O. Box 600, Wellington, New Zealand
| | - Thomas E. Prisinzano
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, University of Kansas, 1251 Wescoe Hall Drive, Malott 4070, Lawrence, KS 66045
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Nabulsi NB, Zheng MQ, Ropchan J, Labaree D, Ding YS, Blumberg L, Huang Y. [11C]GR103545: novel one-pot radiosynthesis with high specific activity. Nucl Med Biol 2010; 38:215-21. [PMID: 21315277 DOI: 10.1016/j.nucmedbio.2010.08.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2010] [Revised: 08/03/2010] [Accepted: 08/27/2010] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION GR103545 is a potent and selective kappa-opioid receptor agonist. Previous studies in non-human primates demonstrated favorable properties of [(11)C]GR103545 as a positron emission tomography tracer for in vivo imaging of cerebral kappa-opioid receptor. Nonetheless, advancement of [(11)C]GR103545 to imaging studies in humans was hampered by difficulties of its multiple-step radiosynthesis, which produces a final product with low specific activity (SA), which in turn could induce undesirable physiological side effects resulting from the mass associated with an injected amount of radioactivity. We report herein an alternative radiosynthesis of [(11)C]GR103545 with higher SA and radiochemical yields. METHODS The TRACERLab FXC automated synthesis module was used to carry out the two-step, one-pot procedure. In the first step, the desmethoxycarbonyl precursor was converted to the carbamic acid intermediate desmethyl-GR103545 via transcarboxylation with the zwitterionic carbamic complex, 1,8-diazabicyclo[5.4.0]undec-7-ene-carbon dioxide, in the presence and/or absence of cesium carbonate and tetrabutylammonium triflate. In the second step, the intermediate was radiolabeled at the carboxyl oxygen with [(11)C]methyl trifluoromethanesulfonate to give [(11)C]GR103545. RESULTS This novel synthesis produced [(11)C]GR103545 with ≥90% chemical and radiochemical purities and an SA of 290.45±99.9 MBq/nmol at the end of synthesis (n=26). Injectable radioactivity was 1961±814 GBq/μmol with 43 min of average synthesis time from the end of beam. CONCLUSION We have developed a practical one-pot method for the routine production of [(11)C]GR103545 with reliably high SA and radiochemical yield, thus allowing the advancement of this radiotracer to imaging applications in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nabeel B Nabulsi
- Department of Diagnostic Radiology, PET Center, Yale School of Medicine, PO Box 208048, New Haven, CT 06520-8048, USA.
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Frankowski KJ, Ghosh P, Setola V, Tran TB, Roth BL, Aubé J. N-Alkyl-octahydroisoquinolin-1-one-8-carboxamides: a Novel Class of Selective, Nonbasic, Nitrogen-Containing κ-Opioid Receptor Ligands. ACS Med Chem Lett 2010; 1:189-193. [PMID: 20729985 DOI: 10.1021/ml100040t] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Herein we report that N-alkyl-octahydroisoquinolin-1-one-8-carboxamides are a novel class of readily-synthesized, selective ϰ-opioid receptor (KOR) ligands. A striking feature of this class of compounds is the absence of any basic nitrogen atoms. Many of these compounds have demonstrated exclusive affinity for the KOR over not only the δ-opioid receptor (DOR) and the μ-opioid receptor (MOR), but 38 other GPCR targets as well. The general binding affinity of this class of compounds for the KOR combined with a streamlined route for analog synthesis provide strong motivation for pursuing this interesting new scaffold as a basis toward new probes targeting the KOR.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin J. Frankowski
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, University of Kansas, 2121 Simons Drive, Lawrence, Kansas 66047
| | - Partha Ghosh
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, University of Kansas, 2121 Simons Drive, Lawrence, Kansas 66047
| | - Vincent Setola
- Department of Pharmacology School of Medicine and NIMH Psychoactive Drug Screening Program CB 7365, University of North Carolina Chapel Hill, 4072 Genetic Medicine Building, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27514
| | - Thuy B. Tran
- Department of Pharmacology School of Medicine and NIMH Psychoactive Drug Screening Program CB 7365, University of North Carolina Chapel Hill, 4072 Genetic Medicine Building, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27514
| | - Bryan L. Roth
- Department of Pharmacology School of Medicine and NIMH Psychoactive Drug Screening Program CB 7365, University of North Carolina Chapel Hill, 4072 Genetic Medicine Building, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27514
| | - Jeffrey Aubé
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, University of Kansas, 2121 Simons Drive, Lawrence, Kansas 66047
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The role of the dynorphin-kappa opioid system in the reinforcing effects of drugs of abuse. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2010; 210:121-35. [PMID: 20352414 PMCID: PMC2879894 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-010-1825-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 297] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2009] [Accepted: 03/06/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Initial hypotheses regarding the role of the kappa opioid system in drug addiction suggested that kappa receptor stimulation had anti-addictive effects. However, recent research suggests that kappa receptor antagonists may reverse motivational aspects of dependence. In the present review, we revisit the studies that measured the effects of kappa receptor ligands on the reinforcing and rewarding effects of drugs and postulate underlying neurobiological mechanisms for these effects to elaborate a more complex view of the role of kappa receptor ligands in drug addiction. RESULTS The review of studies indicates that kappa receptor stimulation generally antagonizes the acute reinforcing/rewarding effects of drugs whereas kappa receptor blockade has no consistent effect. However, in a drug dependent-like state, kappa receptor blockade was effective in reducing increased drug intake. In animal models of reinstatement, kappa receptor stimulation can induce reinstatement via a stress-like mechanism. Results in conditioned place preference/aversion and intracranial self-stimulation indicate that kappa receptor agonists produce, respectively, aversive-like and dysphoric-like effects. Additionally, preclinical and postmortem studies show that administration or self-administration of cocaine, ethanol, and heroin activate the kappa opioid system. CONCLUSION kappa receptor agonists antagonize the reinforcing/rewarding effects of drugs possibly through punishing/aversive-like effects and reinstate drug seeking through stress-like effects. Evidence suggests that abused drugs activate the kappa opioid system, which may play a key role in motivational aspects of dependence. Kappa opioid systems may have an important role in driving compulsive drug intake.
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Yamaotsu N, Hirono S. 3D-Pharmacophore Identification for κ-Opioid Agonists Using Ligand-Based Drug-Design Techniques. Top Curr Chem (Cham) 2010; 299:277-307. [DOI: 10.1007/128_2010_84] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
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Lozama A, Prisinzano TE. Chemical methods for the synthesis and modification of neoclerodane diterpenes. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2009; 19:5490-5. [PMID: 19679471 PMCID: PMC2977960 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2009.07.069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2009] [Revised: 07/09/2009] [Accepted: 07/14/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Diterpenes are a structural class of molecules that are derived from four isoprene subunits and are widespread throughout nature. A number of neoclerodane diterpenes have been found to have biological activity but a limited number of chemical investigations have been conducted. Recently, the neoclerodane diterpene, salvinorin A (12) has been investigated due to its unique pharmacological profile. This review will discuss the chemical methods used to chemically modify and synthesize 12.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anthony Lozama
- Division of Medicinal & Natural Products Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, The University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52240, USA
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33
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Morani AS, Kivell B, Prisinzano TE, Schenk S. Effect of kappa-opioid receptor agonists U69593, U50488H, spiradoline and salvinorin A on cocaine-induced drug-seeking in rats. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2009; 94:244-9. [PMID: 19747933 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2009.09.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2009] [Revised: 07/29/2009] [Accepted: 09/01/2009] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Our previous work indicated that pretreatment with the selective kappa-opioid receptor (KOPr) agonist, U69593, attenuated the ability of priming injections of cocaine to reinstate extinguished cocaine-seeking behavior. The present study expanded these initial tests to include other traditional KOPr agonists, U50488H, spiradoline (SPR), and salvinorin A (Sal A), an active constituent of the plant Salvia divinorum. Following acquisition and stabilization of cocaine self-administration, cocaine-produced drug-seeking was measured. This test was conducted in a single day and comprised an initial phase of self-administration, followed by a phase of extinguished responding. The final phase examined reinstatement of extinguished cocaine self-administration followed by a priming injection of cocaine (20.0mg/kg, intraperitoneal (I.P.)) in combination with the various KOPr agonists. Cocaine-induced drug-seeking was attenuated by pretreatment with U69593 (0.3mg/kg, subcutaneous (S.C.)), U50488H (30.0mg/kg, I.P.), SPR (1.0, 3.0mg/kg, I.P.) and Sal A (0.3, 1.0mg/kg, I.P.). Sal A (0.3, 1.0mg/kg, I.P.) had no effect on operant responding to obtain sucrose reinforcement or on cocaine-induced hyperactivity. These findings show that Sal A, like other traditional KOPr agonists attenuates cocaine-induced drug-seeking behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aashish S Morani
- School of Biological Sciences, Victoria University of Wellington, P.O. Box 600, Wellington, New Zealand.
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Todtenkopf MS, O'Neill KS, Kriksciukaite K, Turncliff RZ, Dean RL, Ostrovsky-Day I, Deaver DR. Route of administration affects the ability of naltrexone to reduce amphetamine-potentiated brain stimulation reward in rats. Addict Biol 2009; 14:408-18. [PMID: 19489752 DOI: 10.1111/j.1369-1600.2009.00161.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Opioid receptor antagonism has been shown to attenuate behavioral and neurochemical effects of amphetamine in humans and rodents. The effects of acute (oral or subcutaneous) or extended-release naltrexone (XR-NTX) were tested on the reward-enhancing effects of amphetamine using the intracranial self-stimulation (ICSS) paradigm. Acute exposure to drugs of abuse reduces the locus of rise (LOR) in the ICSS procedure, reflecting enhanced brain stimulation reward (BSR). Rats were treated once a day with naltrexone orally (PO; 5.0 mg/kg) or subcutaneously (SC; 0.5 mg/kg) for four consecutive days and tested with D-amphetamine (0.5 mg/kg, intraperitoneal) in the ICSS paradigm 30 minutes later on days 1 and 4. Separate groups of rats received XR-NTX (50 mg/kg, SC) or placebo microspheres (similar mass to XR-NTX, SC) on day 0 and tested with D-amphetamine in the ICSS paradigm on days 4, 14, 21, 28 and 41 after administration. Naltrexone plasma concentrations were determined for each amphetamine testing session using liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry/mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). In rats pretreated with naltrexone acutely, amphetamine-potentiated BSR did not differ from vehicle-pretreated rats on either day 1 or day 4 (25-30% decrease in LOR). In XR-NTX-pretreated rats, amphetamine-potentiated BSR was reduced by 64 and 70% on days 4 and 14, respectively, compared to placebo microsphere-treated controls. This effect dissipated by day 21. Naltrexone plasma concentrations were comparable across all treatment groups (14-30 ng/ml) on days 1, 4 and 14. In summary, an extended-release formulation of naltrexone results in significant attenuation of psychostimulant-enhanced BSR that is not observed with acute naltrexone.
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Xi ZX, Gardner EL. Hypothesis-driven medication discovery for the treatment of psychostimulant addiction. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2009; 1:303-27. [PMID: 19430578 DOI: 10.2174/1874473710801030303] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Psychostimulant abuse is a serious social and health problem, for which no effective treatments currently exist. A number of review articles have described predominantly 'clinic'-based pharmacotherapies for the treatment of psychostimulant addiction, but none have yet been shown to be definitively effective for use in humans. In the present article, we review various 'hypothesis'- or 'mechanism'-based pharmacological agents that have been studied at the preclinical level and evaluate their potential use in the treatment of psychostimulant addiction in humans. These compounds target brain neurotransmitter or neuromodulator systems, including dopamine (DA), gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), endocannabinoid, glutamate, opioid and serotonin, which have been shown to be critically involved in drug reward and addiction. For drugs in each category, we first briefly review the role of each neurotransmitter system in psychostimulant actions, and then discuss the mechanistic rationale for each drug's potential anti-addiction efficacy, major findings with each drug in animal models of psychostimulant addiction, abuse liability and potential problems, and future research directions. We conclude that hypothesis-based medication development strategies could significantly promote medication discovery for the effective treatment of psychostimulant addiction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zheng-Xiong Xi
- National Institute on Drug Abuse, Intramural Research Program, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA.
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36
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Simpson DS, Lovell KM, Lozama A, Han N, Day VW, Dersch CM, Rothman RB, Prisinzano TE. Synthetic studies of neoclerodane diterpenes from Salvia divinorum: role of the furan in affinity for opioid receptors. Org Biomol Chem 2009; 7:3748-56. [PMID: 19707679 DOI: 10.1039/b905148a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Further synthetic modification of the furan ring of salvinorin A (1), the major active component of Salvia divinorum, has resulted in novel neoclerodane diterpenes with opioid receptor affinity and activity. A computational study has predicted 1 to be a reproductive toxicant in mammals and is suggestive that use of 1 may be associated with adverse effects. We report in this study that piperidine 21 and thiomorpholine 23 have been identified as selective partial agonists at kappa opioid receptors. This indicates that additional structural modifications of 1 may provide ligands with good selectivity for opioid receptors but with reduced potential for toxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Denise S Simpson
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, The University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS 66045-7582, USA
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37
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Aldrich JV, McLaughlin JP. Peptide kappa opioid receptor ligands: potential for drug development. AAPS JOURNAL 2009; 11:312-22. [PMID: 19430912 DOI: 10.1208/s12248-009-9105-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 94] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2009] [Accepted: 03/26/2009] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
While narcotic analgesics such as morphine, which act preferentially through mu opioid receptors, remain the gold standard in the treatment of severe pain, their use is limited by detrimental liabilities such as respiratory depression and drug dependence. Thus, there has been considerable interest in developing ligands for kappa opioid receptors (KOR) as potential analgesics and for the treatment of a variety of other disorders. These include effects mediated both by central receptors, such as antidepressant activity and a reduction in cocaine-seeking behavior, and activity resulting from the activation of peripheral receptors, such as analgesic and anti-inflammatory effects. While the vast majority of opioid receptor ligands that have progressed in preclinical development have been small molecules, significant advances have been made in recent years in identifying opioid peptide analogs that exhibit promising in vivo activity. This review will focus on possible therapeutic applications of ligands for KOR and specifically on the potential development of peptide ligands for these receptors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jane V Aldrich
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, University of Kansas, 1251 Wescoe Hall Dr., 4050 Malott Hall, Lawrence, Kansas 66045, USA.
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Baker LE, Panos JJ, Killinger BA, Peet MM, Bell LM, Haliw LA, Walker SL. Comparison of the discriminative stimulus effects of salvinorin A and its derivatives to U69,593 and U50,488 in rats. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2009; 203:203-11. [PMID: 19153716 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-008-1458-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2008] [Accepted: 12/28/2008] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND RATIONALE Research interests regarding the psychopharmacology of salvinorin A have been motivated by the recreational use and widespread media focus on the hallucinogenic plant, Salvia divinorum. Additionally, kappa opioid (KOP) receptor ligands may have therapeutic potential in the treatment of some neuropsychiatric conditions, including drug dependence and mood disorders. Salvinorin A is a selective KOP agonist, but only a few studies have explored the discriminative stimulus effects of this compound. OBJECTIVE This study compared the discriminative stimulus effects of salvinorin A and two synthetic derivatives of salvinorin B to the KOP agonists, U69,593 and U50,488. MATERIALS AND METHODS Sixteen male Sprague-Dawley rats trained to discriminate U69,593 (0.13 mg/kg, s.c., N = 8) or U50,488 (3.0 mg/kg, i.p., N = 8) under a fixed-ratio 20 schedule of food reinforcement were administered substitution tests with salvinorin A (0.125-3.0 mg/kg, i.p.). The animals trained to discriminate U69,593 were also administered substitution tests with salvinorin B ethoxymethyl ether (0.005-0.10 mg/kg, i.p.) and salvinorin B methoxymethyl ether (0.03-0.10 mg/kg, i.p.). Another eight rats were trained to discriminate 2.0 mg/kg salvinorin A and tested with U69,593 (0.04-0.32 mg/kg) and U50,488 (0.4-3.2 mg/kg). RESULTS Salvinorin A and both synthetic derivatives of salvinorin B substituted completely for U69,593. Additionally, cross-generalization was observed between salvinorin A and both KOP agonists. CONCLUSION These findings support previous reports indicating that the discriminative stimulus effects of salvinorin A are mediated by kappa receptors. Future studies may assist in the development and screening of salvinorin A analogs for potential pharmacotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisa E Baker
- Department of Psychology, Western Michigan University, Kalamazoo, MI, 49008, USA.
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39
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Prisinzano TE. Natural products as tools for neuroscience: discovery and development of novel agents to treat drug abuse. JOURNAL OF NATURAL PRODUCTS 2009; 72:581-7. [PMID: 19099466 PMCID: PMC2788013 DOI: 10.1021/np8005748] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Much of what we know about the neurosciences is the direct result of studying psychoactive natural products. Unfortunately, there are many gaps in our understanding of the basic biological processes that contribute to the etiology of many CNS disorders. The investigation of psychoactive natural products offers an excellent approach to identify novel agents to treat CNS disorders and to find new chemical tools to better elucidate their biological mechanisms. This review will detail recent progress in a program directed toward investigating psychoactive natural products with the goal of treating drug abuse by targeting kappa opioid receptors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas E Prisinzano
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas 66045, USA.
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40
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Zhu J, Reith MEA. Role of the dopamine transporter in the action of psychostimulants, nicotine, and other drugs of abuse. CNS & NEUROLOGICAL DISORDERS-DRUG TARGETS 2009; 7:393-409. [PMID: 19128199 DOI: 10.2174/187152708786927877] [Citation(s) in RCA: 100] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
A number of studies over the last two decades have demonstrated the critical importance of dopamine (DA) in the behavioral pharmacology and addictive properties of abused drugs. The DA transporter (DAT) is a major target for drugs of abuse in the category of psychostimulants, and for methylphenidate (MPH), a drug used for treating attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), which can also be a psychostimulant drug of abuse. Other drugs of abuse such as nicotine, ethanol, heroin and morphine interact with the DAT in more indirect ways. Despite the different ways in which drugs of abuse can affect DAT function, one evolving theme in all cases is regulation of the DAT at the level of surface expression. DAT function is dynamically regulated by multiple intracellular and extracellular signaling pathways and several protein-protein interactions. In addition, DAT expression is regulated through the removal (internalization) and recycling of the protein from the cell surface. Furthermore, recent studies have demonstrated that individual differences in response to novel environments and psychostimulants can be predicted based on individual basal functional DAT expression. Although current knowledge of multiple factors regulating DAT activity has greatly expanded, many aspects of this regulation remain to be elucidated; these data will enable efforts to identify drugs that might be used therapeutically for drug dependence therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Zhu
- Department of Psychology, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC 29208, USA.
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41
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Neighbors JD, Buller MJ, Boss KD, Wiemer DF. A concise synthesis of pawhuskin A. JOURNAL OF NATURAL PRODUCTS 2008; 71:1949-1952. [PMID: 18922035 PMCID: PMC6679901 DOI: 10.1021/np800351c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
Pawhuskin A is an isoprenylated stilbene that was isolated from Dalea purpurea and reported to have affinity for the opioid receptor in vitro. It has been synthesized through a convergent sequence that joins a prenylated aldehyde with a geranylated phosphonate in a stereoselective Horner-Wadsworth-Emmons condensation to afford the target E olefin isomer. This synthesis confirms the structure assigned to the natural product and establishes a route that may be used to explore its biological activity and to prepare more active analogues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeffery D. Neighbors
- Department of Chemistry, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa 52242-1294
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa 52242-1294
| | - Matthew J. Buller
- Department of Chemistry, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa 52242-1294
| | - Kelly D. Boss
- Department of Chemistry, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa 52242-1294
| | - David F. Wiemer
- Department of Chemistry, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa 52242-1294
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa 52242-1294
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Luo X, Zuo L, Kranzler H, Zhang H, Wang S, Gelernter J. Multiple OPR genes influence personality traits in substance dependent and healthy subjects in two American populations. Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet 2008; 147B:1028-39. [PMID: 18213616 PMCID: PMC3162230 DOI: 10.1002/ajmg.b.30701] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Personality traits are among the most complex quantitative traits. Certain personality traits are associated with substance dependence (SD); genetic factors may influence both. Associations between opioid receptor (OPR) genes and SD have been reported. This study investigated the relationship between OPR genes and personality traits in a case-control sample. We assessed dimensions of the five-factor model of personality in 556 subjects: 250 with SD [181 European-Americans (EAs) and 69 African-Americans (AAs)] and 306 healthy subjects (266 EAs and 40 AAs). We genotyped 20 OPRM1 markers, 8 OPRD1 markers, and 7 OPRK1 markers, and 38 unlinked ancestry-informative markers in these subjects. The relationships between OPR genes and personality traits were examined using MANCOVA, controlling for gene-gene interaction effects and potential confounders. Associations were decomposed by Roy-Bargmann Stepdown ANCOVA. We found that personality traits were associated as main or interaction effects with the haplotypes, diplotypes, alleles and genotypes at the three OPR genes (0.002 < P < 0.046 from MANCOVA; 0.0004 < P < 0.049 from ANCOVA). Diplotype TTAGGA/TTCAGA at OPRM1 had main effects on Extraversion (P = 0.008), and diplotypes OPRM1(insertion mark)TTCAGA/TTCAGA and OPRD1(insertion mark)CAC/TAC had interaction effects on Openness (P = 0.010) after conservative correction for multiple testing. The present study demonstrates that the genes encoding the mu-, delta-, and kappa-opioid receptors may contribute to variation in personality traits. Further, the three OPR genes have significant interaction effects on personality traits. This work provides additional evidence that personality traits and SD have a partially overlapping genetic basis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xingguang Luo
- Department of Psychiatry, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT
- VA Connecticut Healthcare System, West Haven Campus, CT
| | - Lingjun Zuo
- Department of Psychiatry, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT
- VA Connecticut Healthcare System, West Haven Campus, CT
| | - Henry Kranzler
- University of Connecticut School of Medicine, Alcohol Research Center, Department of Psychiatry, Farmington, CT
| | - Huiping Zhang
- Department of Psychiatry, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT
- VA Connecticut Healthcare System, West Haven Campus, CT
| | - Shuang Wang
- Department of Biostatistics, Mailman School of Public Health, Columbia University, New York, NY
| | - Joel Gelernter
- Department of Psychiatry, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT
- VA Connecticut Healthcare System, West Haven Campus, CT
- Department of Genetics, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT
- Department of Neurobiology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT
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Abstract
Recent discoveries about the effects of drugs of abuse on the brain and the mechanisms of their addictions; new chemical compounds, including immunotherapies; and new actions of available medications are offering many opportunities for the discovery and development of novel medications to treat addictive disorders. Furthermore, advancements in the understanding of the genetic and epigenetic basis of drug addiction and the pharmacogenetics of the safety and/or efficacy of the medications are providing opportunities for more individualized pharmacotherapy approaches. Although multiple medications have been investigated for treating addictions, only a handful have shown acceptable safety and efficacy and are approved by the US Food and Drug Administration. This article reviews the current medications that are medically safe and have shown promising results for treating opioid, cocaine, methamphetamine, and cannabis addictions.
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[11C]-MeJDTic: a novel radioligand for κ-opioid receptor positron emission tomography imaging. Nucl Med Biol 2008; 35:561-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.nucmedbio.2008.02.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2007] [Revised: 02/12/2008] [Accepted: 02/16/2008] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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46
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Cai TB, Zou Z, Thomas JB, Brieaddy L, Navarro HA, Carroll FI. Synthesis and in vitro opioid receptor functional antagonism of analogues of the selective kappa opioid receptor antagonist (3R)-7-hydroxy-N-((1S)-1-{[(3R,4R)-4-(3-hydroxyphenyl)-3,4-dimethyl-1-piperidinyl]methyl}-2-methylpropyl)-1,2,3,4-tetrahydro-3-isoquinolinecarboxamide (JDTic). J Med Chem 2008; 51:1849-60. [PMID: 18307295 DOI: 10.1021/jm701344b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
In previous structure-activity relationship (SAR) studies, we identified (3 R)-7-hydroxy- N-((1 S)-1-{[(3 R,4 R)-4-(3-hydroxyphenyl)-3,4-dimethyl-1-piperidinyl]methyl}-2-methylpropyl)-1,2,3,4-tetrahydro-3-isoquinolinecarboxamide (JDTic, 1) as the first potent and selective kappa opioid receptor antagonist from the trans-3,4-dimethyl-4-(3-hydroxyphenyl)piperidine class of opioid antagonist. In the present study, we report the synthesis and in vitro opioid receptor functional antagonism of a number of analogues of 1 using a [ (35) S]GTPgammaS binding assay. The results from the studies better define the pharmacophore for this class of kappa opioid receptor antagonist and has identified new potent and selective kappa antagonist. (3 R)-7-Hydroxy- N-[(1 S,2 S)-1-{[(3 R,4 R)-4-(3-hydroxyphenyl)-3,4-dimethylpiperidin-1-yl]methyl}-2-methylbutyl]-1,2,3,4-tetrahydroisoquinoline-3-carboxamide ( 3) with a K e value of 0.03 nM at the kappa receptor and 100- and 793-fold selectivity relative to the mu and delta receptors was the most potent and selective kappa opioid receptor antagonist identified.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tingwei Bill Cai
- Organic and Medicinal Chemistry, Research Triangle Institute, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, USA
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47
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Béguin C, Potter DN, Dinieri JA, Munro TA, Richards MR, Paine TA, Berry L, Zhao Z, Roth BL, Xu W, Liu-Chen LY, Carlezon WA, Cohen BM. N-methylacetamide analog of salvinorin A: a highly potent and selective kappa-opioid receptor agonist with oral efficacy. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2007; 324:188-95. [PMID: 17951511 DOI: 10.1124/jpet.107.129023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Several preclinical studies indicate that selective kappa-opioid receptor (KOR) antagonists have antidepressant-like effects, whereas KOR agonists have opposite effects, suggesting that each might be useful in the treatment of mood abnormalities. Salvinorin A (salvA) is a valuable KOR agonist for further study due to its high potency and receptor selectivity. However, it has short lasting effects in vivo and limited oral bioavailability, probably due to acetate metabolism. We compared the in vitro receptor binding selectivity of salvA and four analogs containing an ethyl ether (EE), isopropylamine (IPA), N-methylacetamide (NMA), or N-methylpropionamide (NMP) at C-2. All compounds showed high binding affinity for the KOR (K(i) = 0.11-6.3 nM), although only salvA, EE, and NMA exhibited KOR selectivity. In a liver microsomal assay, salvA was least stable, whereas NMA and IPA displayed slower metabolic transformations. Intraperitoneal (i.p.) administration of salvA, NMA, and NMP dose-dependently elevated brain reward thresholds in the intracranial self-administration (ICSS) test, consistent with prodepressive-like KOR agonist effects. NMA and NMP were equipotent to salvA but displayed longer lasting effects (6- and 10-fold, respectively). A dose of salvA with prominent effects in the ICSS test after i.p. administration (2.0 mg/kg) was inactive after oral administration, whereas the same oral dose of NMA elevated ICSS thresholds. These studies suggest that, although salvA and NMA are similar in potency and selectivity as KOR agonists in vitro, NMA has improved stability and longer lasting actions that might make it more useful for studies of KOR agonist effects in animals and humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cécile Béguin
- Department of Psychiatry, McLean Hospital, MRC 322A, 115 Mill Street, Belmont, MA 02478, USA.
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Henriksen G, Willoch F, Talbot PS, Wester HJ. Recent development and potential use of µ- and κ-opioid receptor ligands in positron emission tomography studies. Drug Dev Res 2007. [DOI: 10.1002/ddr.20161] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
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Fuentealba JA, Gysling K, Andrés ME. Increased locomotor response to amphetamine induced by the repeated administration of the selective kappa-opioid receptor agonist U-69593. Synapse 2007; 61:771-7. [PMID: 17568430 DOI: 10.1002/syn.20424] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
Acute administration of kappa opioid receptor (KOR) agonists decreases both dopamine (DA) extracellular levels in the nucleus accumbens (NAc) and locomotor activity. Opposing to its acute effects, recent studies show that chronic administration of KOR agonists potentiates both stimulated DA release and induced locomotor activity. Since KOR agonists have been considered as potential treatment for stimulant dependence, the effects of their repeated administration on psychostimulant actions are of major concern. The present study was undertaken to investigate the in vivo effect of repeated administration of the KOR agonist U-69593 on DA extracellular levels in the NAc and on the locomotor activity challenged with amphetamine. Rats were injected once daily with the selective KOR agonist U-69593 or vehicle for four consecutive days. One-day after the last U-69593 injection, microdialysis studies assessing extracellular DA levels in the NAc and locomotor activity challenged with amphetamine were conducted. Microdialysis studies revealed that preexposure to U-69593 had no effect on basal DA levels but significantly augmented amphetamine-induced DA extracellular levels. Accordingly, amphetamine-induced locomotor activity was also significantly potentiated in U-69593 preexposed rats. These results suggest that long-term effect of KOR activation results in facilitation of amphetamine-induced DA extracellular levels in the NAc accompanied by sensitization of amphetamine-induced increase in locomotor activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- José Antonio Fuentealba
- Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Chemistry, Pontificia Universidad Catolica de Chile, Alameda, Santiago, Chile
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Abstract
This paper is the 28th consecutive installment of the annual review of research concerning the endogenous opioid system, now spanning over a quarter-century of research. It summarizes papers published during 2005 that studied the behavioral effects of molecular, pharmacological and genetic manipulation of opioid peptides, opioid receptors, opioid agonists and opioid antagonists. The particular topics that continue to be covered include the molecular-biochemical effects and neurochemical localization studies of endogenous opioids and their receptors related to behavior (Section 2), and the roles of these opioid peptides and receptors in pain and analgesia (Section 3); stress and social status (Section 4); tolerance and dependence (Section 5); learning and memory (Section 6); eating and drinking (Section 7); alcohol and drugs of abuse (Section 8); sexual activity and hormones, pregnancy, development and endocrinology (Section 9); mental illness and mood (Section 10); seizures and neurologic disorders (Section 11); electrical-related activity, neurophysiology and transmitter release (Section 12); general activity and locomotion (Section 13); gastrointestinal, renal and hepatic functions (Section 14); cardiovascular responses (Section 15); respiration and thermoregulation (Section 16); immunological responses (Section 17).
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard J Bodnar
- Department of Psychology and Neuropsychology Doctoral Sub-Program, Queens College, City University of New York, 65-30 Kissena Blvd., Flushing, NY 11367, USA.
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