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Joshi D, Shah S, Chbib C, Uddin MN. Potential of DPD ((S)-4,5-dihydroxy-2,3-pentanedione) Analogs in Microparticulate Formulation as Vaccine Adjuvants. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2024; 17:184. [PMID: 38399399 PMCID: PMC10891675 DOI: 10.3390/ph17020184] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2023] [Revised: 11/22/2023] [Accepted: 01/25/2024] [Indexed: 02/25/2024] Open
Abstract
The molecule (S)-4,5-dihydroxy-2,3-pentanedione (DPD) is produced by many different species of bacteria and is involved in bacterial communication. DPD is the precursor of signal molecule autoinducer-2 (AI-2) and has high potential to be used as a vaccine adjuvant. Vaccine adjuvants are compounds that enhance the stability and immunogenicity of vaccine antigens, modulate efficacy, and increase the immune response to a particular antigen. Previously, the microparticulate form of (S)-DPD was found to have an adjuvant effect with the gonorrhea vaccine. In this study, we evaluated the immunogenicity and adjuvanticity of several synthetic analogs of the (S)-DPD molecule, including ent-DPD((R)-4,5-dihydroxy-2,3-pentanedione), n-butyl-DPD ((S)-1,2-dihydroxy-3,4-octanedione), isobutyl-DPD ((S)-1,2-dihydroxy-6-methyl-3,4-heptanedione), n-hexyl-DPD ((S)-1,2-dihydroxy-3,4-decanedione), and phenyl-DPD ((S)-3,4-dihydroxy-1-phenyl-1,2-butanedione), in microparticulate formulations. The microparticulate formulations of all analogs of (S)-DPD were found to be noncytotoxic toward dendritic cells. Among these analogs, ent-DPD, n-butyl-DPD, and isobutyl-DPD were found to be immunogenic toward antigens and showed adjuvant efficacy with microparticulate gonorrhea vaccines. It was observed that n-hexyl-DPD and phenyl-DPD did not show any adjuvant effect. This study shows that synthetic analogs of (S)-DPD molecules are capable of eliciting adjuvant effects with vaccines. A future in vivo evaluation will further confirm that these analogs are promising vaccine adjuvants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Devyani Joshi
- Center for Drug Delivery Research, Vaccine Nanotechnology Laboratory, College of Pharmacy, Mercer University, Atlanta, GA 30341, USA; (D.J.); (S.S.)
| | - Sarthak Shah
- Center for Drug Delivery Research, Vaccine Nanotechnology Laboratory, College of Pharmacy, Mercer University, Atlanta, GA 30341, USA; (D.J.); (S.S.)
| | - Christiane Chbib
- College of Pharmacy, Larkin University, 18301 N Miami Ave, Miami, FL 33169, USA;
| | - Mohammad N. Uddin
- Center for Drug Delivery Research, Vaccine Nanotechnology Laboratory, College of Pharmacy, Mercer University, Atlanta, GA 30341, USA; (D.J.); (S.S.)
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2
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Castenmiller C, Nagy NA, Kroon PZ, Auger L, Desgagnés R, Martel C, Mirande L, Morel B, Roberge J, Stordeur V, Tropper G, Vézina LP, van Ree R, Gomord V, de Jong EC. A novel peanut allergy immunotherapy: Plant-based enveloped Ara h 2 Bioparticles activate dendritic cells and polarize T cell responses to Th1. World Allergy Organ J 2023; 16:100839. [PMID: 38020282 PMCID: PMC10679945 DOI: 10.1016/j.waojou.2023.100839] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2023] [Revised: 09/19/2023] [Accepted: 10/17/2023] [Indexed: 12/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction As the only market-authorized allergen immunotherapy (AIT) for peanut allergy is accompanied by a high risk of side effects and mainly induces robust desensitization without sustained efficacy, novel treatment options are required. Peanut-specific plant-derived eBioparticles (eBPs) surface expressing Ara h 2 at high density have been shown to be very hypoallergenic. Here, we assessed the dendritic cell (DC)-activating and T cell polarization capacity of these peanut-specific eBPs. Methods Route and kinetics of eBP uptake were studied by (imaging) flow cytometry using monocyte-derived DCs incubated with fluorescently-labelled Ara h 2 eBPs or natural Ara h 2 (nAra h 2) in the presence or absence of inhibitors that block pathways involved in macropinocytosis, phagocytosis, and/or receptor-mediated uptake. DC activation was monitored by flow cytometry (maturation marker expression) and ELISA (cytokine production). T cell polarization was assessed by co-culturing DCs exposed to Ara h 2 eBPs or nAra h 2 with naïve CD4+ T cells, followed by flow cytometry assessment of intracellular IFNγ+ (Th1) and IL-13+ (Th2), and CD25+CD127-Foxp3+ regulatory T cells (Tregs). The suppressive activity of Tregs was tested using a suppressor assay. Results Ara h 2 eBPs were taken up by DCs through actin-dependent pathways. They activated DCs demonstrated by an induced expression of CD83 and CD86, and production of TNFα, IL-6, and IL-10. eBP-treated DCs polarized naïve CD4+ T cells towards Th1 cells, while reducing Th2 cell development. Furthermore, eBP-treated DCs induced reduced the frequency of Foxp3+ Tregs but did not significantly affect T cell IL-10 production or T cells with suppressive capacity. In contrast, DC activation and Th1 cell polarization were not observed for nAra h 2. Conclusion Ara h 2 eBPs activate DCs that subsequently promote Th1 cell polarization and reduce Th2 cell polarization. These characteristics mark Ara h 2 eBPs as a promising novel candidate for peanut AIT.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charlotte Castenmiller
- Department of Experimental Immunology, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, Amsterdam Institute for Infection & Immunity, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Noémi Anna Nagy
- Department of Experimental Immunology, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, Amsterdam Institute for Infection & Immunity, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Pascal Zion Kroon
- Department of Experimental Immunology, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, Amsterdam Institute for Infection & Immunity, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Ronald van Ree
- Department of Experimental Immunology, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, Amsterdam Institute for Infection & Immunity, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | | | - Esther Christina de Jong
- Department of Experimental Immunology, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, Amsterdam Institute for Infection & Immunity, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
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Areecheewakul S, Adamcakova-Dodd A, Zacharias ZR, Jing X, Meyerholz DK, Legge KL, Houtman JCD, O’Shaughnessy PT, Thorne PS, Salem AK. Immunomodulatory Effects of Subacute Inhalation Exposure to Copper Oxide Nanoparticles in House Dust Mite-Induced Asthma. ACS NANO 2023; 17:14586-14603. [PMID: 37463491 PMCID: PMC10416562 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.3c01668] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2023] [Accepted: 07/11/2023] [Indexed: 07/20/2023]
Abstract
It has been shown that inhalation exposure to copper oxide nanoparticles (CuO NPs) results in pulmonary inflammation. However, immunomodulatory consequences after CuO NP inhalation exposure have been less explored. We tested the effect of CuO NP aerosols on immune responses in healthy, house dust mite (HDM) asthmatic, or allergen immunotherapy (AIT)-treated asthmatic mice (BALB/c, females). The AIT consisted of a vaccine comprising HDM allergens and CpG-loaded nanoparticles (CpG NPs). AIT treatment involved mice being immunized (via subcutaneous (sc) injection; 2 doses) while concomitantly being exposed to CuO NP aerosols (over a 2 week period), starting on the day of the first vaccination. Mice were then sensitized twice by sc injection and subsequently challenged with HDM extract 10 times by intranasal instillation. The asthmatic model followed the same timeline except that no immunizations were administered. All mice were necropsied 24 h after the end of the HDM challenge. CuO NP-exposed healthy mice showed a significant decrease in TH1 and TH2 cells, and an elevation in T-bet+ Treg cells, even 40 days after the last exposure to CuO NPs. Similarly, the CuO NP-exposed HDM asthma model demonstrated decreased TH2 responses and increased T-bet+ Treg cells. Conversely, CuO NP inhalation exposure to AIT-treated asthmatic mice resulted in an increase in TH2 cells. In conclusion, immunomodulatory effects of inhalation exposure to CuO NPs are dependent on immune conditions prior to exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sudartip Areecheewakul
- Department
of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Experimental Therapeutics, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa 52242, United States
| | - Andrea Adamcakova-Dodd
- Department
of Occupational and Environmental Health, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa 52242, United States
| | - Zeb R. Zacharias
- Interdisciplinary
Immunology Graduate Program, Department of Pathology, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa 52242, United States
| | - Xuefang Jing
- Department
of Occupational and Environmental Health, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa 52242, United States
| | - David K. Meyerholz
- Department
of Pathology, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa 52242, United States
| | - Kevin L. Legge
- Interdisciplinary
Immunology Graduate Program, Department of Pathology, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa 52242, United States
- Department
of Microbiology and Immunology, Carver College of Medicine, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa 52242, United States
| | - Jon C. D. Houtman
- Department
of Microbiology and Immunology, Carver College of Medicine, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa 52242, United States
| | - Patrick T. O’Shaughnessy
- Department
of Occupational and Environmental Health, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa 52242, United States
| | - Peter S. Thorne
- Department
of Occupational and Environmental Health, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa 52242, United States
- Human
Toxicology
Program, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa 52242, United States
| | - Aliasger K. Salem
- Department
of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Experimental Therapeutics, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa 52242, United States
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4
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Boboltz A, Kumar S, Duncan GA. Inhaled drug delivery for the targeted treatment of asthma. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2023; 198:114858. [PMID: 37178928 DOI: 10.1016/j.addr.2023.114858] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2023] [Revised: 04/14/2023] [Accepted: 04/29/2023] [Indexed: 05/15/2023]
Abstract
Asthma is a chronic lung disease affecting millions worldwide. While classically acknowledged to result from allergen-driven type 2 inflammatory responses leading to IgE and cytokine production and the influx of immune cells such as mast cells and eosinophils, the wide range in asthmatic pathobiological subtypes lead to highly variable responses to anti-inflammatory therapies. Thus, there is a need to develop patient-specific therapies capable of addressing the full spectrum of asthmatic lung disease. Moreover, delivery of targeted treatments for asthma directly to the lung may help to maximize therapeutic benefit, but challenges remain in design of effective formulations for the inhaled route. In this review, we discuss the current understanding of asthmatic disease progression as well as genetic and epigenetic disease modifiers associated with asthma severity and exacerbation of disease. We also overview the limitations of clinically available treatments for asthma and discuss pre-clinical models of asthma used to evaluate new therapies. Based on the shortcomings of existing treatments, we highlight recent advances and new approaches to treat asthma via inhalation for monoclonal antibody delivery, mucolytic therapy to target airway mucus hypersecretion and gene therapies to address underlying drivers of disease. Finally, we conclude with discussion on the prospects for an inhaled vaccine to prevent asthma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Allison Boboltz
- Fischell Department of Bioengineering, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742, United States
| | - Sahana Kumar
- Biological Sciences Graduate Program, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742, United States
| | - Gregg A Duncan
- Fischell Department of Bioengineering, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742, United States; Biological Sciences Graduate Program, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742, United States.
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5
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Šošić L, Paolucci M, Flory S, Jebbawi F, Kündig TM, Johansen P. Allergen immunotherapy: progress and future outlook. Expert Rev Clin Immunol 2023:1-25. [PMID: 37122076 DOI: 10.1080/1744666x.2023.2209319] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/02/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Allergy, the immunological hypersensitivity to innocuous environmental compounds, is a global health problem. The disease triggers, allergens, are mostly proteins contained in various natural sources such as plant pollen, animal dander, dust mites, foods, fungi and insect venoms. Allergies can manifest with a wide range of symptoms in various organs, and be anything from just tedious to life-threatening. A majority of all allergy patients are self-treated with symptom-relieving medicines, while allergen immunotherapy (AIT) is the only causative treatment option. AREAS COVERED This review will aim to give an overview of the state-of-the-art allergy management, including the use of new biologics and the application of biomarkers, and a special emphasis and discussion on current research trends in the field of AIT. EXPERT OPINION Conventional AIT has proven effective, but the years-long treatment compromises patient compliance. Moreover, AIT is typically not offered in food allergy. Hence, there is a need for new, effective and safe AIT methods. Novel routes of administration (e.g. oral and intralymphatic), hypoallergenic AIT products and more effective adjuvants holds great promise. Most recently, the development of allergen-specific monoclonal antibodies for passive immunotherapy may also allow treatment of patients currently not treated or treatable.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lara Šošić
- Department of Dermatology, University of Zurich, Raemistrasse 100, 8091 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Marta Paolucci
- Department of Dermatology, University of Zurich, Raemistrasse 100, 8091 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Stephan Flory
- Department of Dermatology, University of Zurich, Raemistrasse 100, 8091 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Fadi Jebbawi
- Department of Dermatology, University of Zurich, Raemistrasse 100, 8091 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Thomas M Kündig
- Department of Dermatology, University of Zurich, Raemistrasse 100, 8091 Zurich, Switzerland
- Department of Dermatology, University Hospital Zurich, Raemistrasse 100, 8091 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Pål Johansen
- Department of Dermatology, University of Zurich, Raemistrasse 100, 8091 Zurich, Switzerland
- Department of Dermatology, University Hospital Zurich, Raemistrasse 100, 8091 Zurich, Switzerland
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6
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Horvath D, Basler M. PLGA Particles in Immunotherapy. Pharmaceutics 2023; 15:pharmaceutics15020615. [PMID: 36839937 PMCID: PMC9965784 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics15020615] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2022] [Revised: 02/06/2023] [Accepted: 02/07/2023] [Indexed: 02/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) particles are a widely used and extensively studied drug delivery system. The favorable properties of PLGA such as good bioavailability, controlled release, and an excellent safety profile due to the biodegradable polymer backbone qualified PLGA particles for approval by the authorities for the application as a drug delivery platform in humas. In recent years, immunotherapy has been established as a potent treatment option for a variety of diseases. However, immunomodulating drugs rely on targeted delivery to specific immune cell subsets and are often rapidly eliminated from the system. Loading of PLGA particles with drugs for immunotherapy can protect the therapeutic compounds from premature degradation, direct the drug delivery to specific tissues or cells, and ensure sustained and controlled drug release. These properties present PLGA particles as an ideal platform for immunotherapy. Here, we review recent advances of particulate PLGA delivery systems in the application for immunotherapy in the fields of allergy, autoimmunity, infectious diseases, and cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dennis Horvath
- Division of Immunology, Department of Biology, University of Konstanz, D-78457 Konstanz, Germany
- Centre for the Advanced Study of Collective Behaviour, University of Konstanz, D-78457 Konstanz, Germany
| | - Michael Basler
- Division of Immunology, Department of Biology, University of Konstanz, D-78457 Konstanz, Germany
- Biotechnology Institute Thurgau (BITg) at the University of Konstanz, CH-8280 Kreuzlingen, Switzerland
- Correspondence:
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7
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Recent Advances in Nanomaterials for Asthma Treatment. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms232214427. [PMID: 36430906 PMCID: PMC9696023 DOI: 10.3390/ijms232214427] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2022] [Revised: 11/17/2022] [Accepted: 11/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Asthma is a chronic airway inflammatory disease with complex mechanisms, and these patients often encounter difficulties in their treatment course due to the heterogeneity of the disease. Currently, clinical treatments for asthma are mainly based on glucocorticoid-based combination drug therapy; however, glucocorticoid resistance and multiple side effects, as well as the occurrence of poor drug delivery, require the development of more promising treatments. Nanotechnology is an emerging technology that has been extensively researched in the medical field. Several studies have shown that drug delivery systems could significantly improve the targeting, reduce toxicity and improve the bioavailability of drugs. The use of multiple nanoparticle delivery strategies could improve the therapeutic efficacy of drugs compared to traditional delivery methods. Herein, the authors presented the mechanisms of asthma development and current therapeutic methods. Furthermore, the design and synthesis of different types of nanomaterials and micromaterials for asthma therapy are reviewed, including polymetric nanomaterials, solid lipid nanomaterials, cell membranes-based nanomaterials, and metal nanomaterials. Finally, the challenges and future perspectives of these nanomaterials are discussed to provide guidance for further research directions and hopefully promote the clinical application of nanotherapeutics in asthma treatment.
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8
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Loo CY, Lee WH. Nanotechnology-based therapeutics for targeting inflammatory lung diseases. Nanomedicine (Lond) 2022; 17:865-879. [PMID: 35315290 DOI: 10.2217/nnm-2021-0447] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The physiochemical properties of drugs used in treating inflammation-associated lung diseases (i.e., asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, pulmonary fibrosis) play an important role in determining the effectiveness of formulations. Most commonly used drugs are associated with low solubility, low stability and rapid clearance, thus resulting in low bioavailability and therapeutic index. This review focuses on current trends and development of drugs (i.e., corticosteroids, long-acting β-agonists and biomacromolecules such as DNA, siRNA and mRNA) employed to treat inflammatory lung diseases. In addition, this review includes the current challenges of and future perspective with regard to nanotechnology in the treatment of inflammatory lung diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ching-Yee Loo
- Faculty of Pharmacy and Health Sciences, Royal College of Medicine Perak, Universiti Kuala Lumpur, Ipoh, Perak, 30450, Malaysia
| | - Wing-Hin Lee
- Faculty of Pharmacy and Health Sciences, Royal College of Medicine Perak, Universiti Kuala Lumpur, Ipoh, Perak, 30450, Malaysia
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9
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Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW Allergen immunotherapy is the only recognized causal treatment for allergic disease that modulates the immune system toward a tolerogenic or desensitized state. Allergens or their derivative preparations are formulated with adjuvants of different origin and having diverse immunological functions, such as prolonged tissue release and specific immunomodulatory properties. In the last 2 decades, thanks to developments in the field of nanotechnology, more biosafe nanoscale materials have become available for use as pharmaceutical adjuvants in medical research. RECENT FINDINGS Nanomaterials possess unique and versatile properties which can be employed to develop drug carriers with safer profiles, better stability in physiological conditions and immunomodulatory properties. Nanoparticles can have an adjuvant effect per se or also when they are packed in structures whose physical-chemical properties can be handled in a way that also influences its release dynamics. In particular, it has been suggested that nanoparticle preparations can be put in complexes or loaded with allergens or allergenic extracts, opening the way to innovative paradigms. SUMMARY In this review, we analyze allergen/nanoparticle properties in terms of cytotoxicity, stability and immunogenic reaction in in-vitro and animal systems.
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10
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Qin L, Zhang H, Zhou Y, Umeshappa CS, Gao H. Nanovaccine-Based Strategies to Overcome Challenges in the Whole Vaccination Cascade for Tumor Immunotherapy. SMALL (WEINHEIM AN DER BERGSTRASSE, GERMANY) 2021; 17:e2006000. [PMID: 33768693 DOI: 10.1002/smll.202006000] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2020] [Revised: 12/26/2020] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Nanovaccine-based immunotherapy (NBI) has received greater attention recently for its potential to prime tumor-specific immunity and establish a long-term immune memory that prevents tumor recurrence. Despite encouraging results in the recent studies, there are still numerous challenges to be tackled for eliciting potent antitumor immunity using NBI strategies. Based on the principles that govern immune response, here it is proposed that these challenges need to be addressed at the five critical cascading events: Loading tumor-specific antigens by nanoscale drug delivery systems (L); Draining tumor antigens to lymph nodes (D); Internalization by dendritic cells (DCs) (I); Maturation of DCs by costimulatory signaling (M); and Presenting tumor-peptide-major histocompatibility complexes to T cells (P) (LDIMP cascade in short). This review provides a detailed and objective overview of emerging NBI strategies to improve the efficacy of nanovaccines in each step of the LDIMP cascade. It is concluded that the balance between each step must be optimized by delicate designing and modification of nanovaccines and by combining with complementary approaches to provide a synergistic immunity in the fight against cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lin Qin
- Key Laboratory of Drug-Targeting and Drug Delivery System of the Education Ministry and Sichuan Province, Sichuan Engineering Laboratory for Plant-Sourced Drug and Sichuan Research Center for Drug Precision Industrial Technology, West China School of Pharmacy, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610041, China
- Chongqing Vocational College of Transportation, Chongqing, 400715, China
| | - Huilin Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Drug-Targeting and Drug Delivery System of the Education Ministry and Sichuan Province, Sichuan Engineering Laboratory for Plant-Sourced Drug and Sichuan Research Center for Drug Precision Industrial Technology, West China School of Pharmacy, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610041, China
| | - Yang Zhou
- Key Laboratory of Drug-Targeting and Drug Delivery System of the Education Ministry and Sichuan Province, Sichuan Engineering Laboratory for Plant-Sourced Drug and Sichuan Research Center for Drug Precision Industrial Technology, West China School of Pharmacy, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610041, China
| | - Channakeshava Sokke Umeshappa
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Snyder Institute for Chronic Diseases, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, T2N 4N1, Canada
| | - Huile Gao
- Key Laboratory of Drug-Targeting and Drug Delivery System of the Education Ministry and Sichuan Province, Sichuan Engineering Laboratory for Plant-Sourced Drug and Sichuan Research Center for Drug Precision Industrial Technology, West China School of Pharmacy, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610041, China
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11
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Luo XQ, Zhong JW, Qiu SY, Zhi M, Yang LQ, Zhou YL, Zhou FX, Yang PC, Liu DB, Mo LH. A20-OVA Nanoparticles Inhibit Allergic Asthma in a Murine Model. Inflammation 2021; 43:953-961. [PMID: 31938979 DOI: 10.1007/s10753-020-01181-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
The skewed T helper (Th) 2 response plays a critical role in the pathogenesis of allergic asthma. Regulatory T (Treg) cells and the regulatory cytokines are required in maintaining the homeostasis in the body. This study aims to determine the effects of a poly(lactic-co-glycolic) acid (PLGA)-ovalbumin (OVA)+A20 (a ubiquitin E3 ligase) nanovaccine on inhibiting allergic asthma in a murine model. In this study, A20 and OVA (a model antigen) were encapsulated into PLGA to be a nanovaccine (PLGA-OVA+A20). An allergic asthma murine model was developed with OVA as the specific antigen to test the role of PLGA-OVA+A20 nanovaccine in maintaining the immune homeostasis in the airway tissues. The results showed that PLGA-OVA+A20 nanovaccine inhibited the asthma responses in mice by suppressing Th2 inflammatory responses, promoting the generation of Treg cells in the airway tissues. We conclude that the PLGA-OVA+A20 nanovaccine has a marked inhibitory effect on the airway allergic response in sensitized mice by significantly promoting the generation of Treg cell and IL-10. The data suggest that PLGA-OVA+A20 has translational potential in the treatment of allergic asthma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiang-Qian Luo
- Department of Pediatric Otolaryngology, Shenzhen Hospital, Southern Medical University, 1033 Qinghu Blvd, Shenzhen, 518101, China
| | - Jian-Wen Zhong
- Department of Pediatric Otolaryngology, Shenzhen Hospital, Southern Medical University, 1033 Qinghu Blvd, Shenzhen, 518101, China
| | - Shu-Yao Qiu
- Department of Pediatric Otolaryngology, Shenzhen Hospital, Southern Medical University, 1033 Qinghu Blvd, Shenzhen, 518101, China
| | - Min Zhi
- Department of Pediatric Otolaryngology, Shenzhen Hospital, Southern Medical University, 1033 Qinghu Blvd, Shenzhen, 518101, China
| | - Li-Qiang Yang
- Department of Pediatric Otolaryngology, Shenzhen Hospital, Southern Medical University, 1033 Qinghu Blvd, Shenzhen, 518101, China
| | - Yi-Long Zhou
- Department of Pediatric Otolaryngology, Shenzhen Hospital, Southern Medical University, 1033 Qinghu Blvd, Shenzhen, 518101, China
| | - Fen-Xuan Zhou
- Department of Pediatric Otolaryngology, Shenzhen Hospital, Southern Medical University, 1033 Qinghu Blvd, Shenzhen, 518101, China
| | - Ping-Chang Yang
- The Research Center of Allergy & Immunology, School of Medicine, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen, China
| | - Da-Bo Liu
- Department of Pediatric Otolaryngology, Shenzhen Hospital, Southern Medical University, 1033 Qinghu Blvd, Shenzhen, 518101, China
| | - Li-Hua Mo
- Department of Pediatric Otolaryngology, Shenzhen Hospital, Southern Medical University, 1033 Qinghu Blvd, Shenzhen, 518101, China.
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Terry TL, Givens BE, Adamcakova-Dodd A, Thorne PS, Rodgers VGJ, Salem AK. Encapsulating Polyethyleneimine-DNA Nanoplexes into PEGylated Biodegradable Microparticles Increases Transgene Expression In Vitro and Reduces Inflammatory Responses In Vivo. AAPS PharmSciTech 2021; 22:69. [PMID: 33565009 PMCID: PMC7872112 DOI: 10.1208/s12249-021-01932-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2020] [Accepted: 01/12/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Encapsulating genetic material into biocompatible polymeric microparticles is a means to improving gene transfection while simultaneously decreasing the tendency for inflammatory responses; and can be advantageous in terms of delivering material directly to the lungs via aerosolization for applications such as vaccinations. In this study, we investigated the advantages of using polymeric microparticles carrying the luciferase reporter gene in increasing transfection efficiency in the readily transfectable HEK293 cell line and the difficult to transfect RAW264.7 cell line. The results indicated that there was a limit to the ratio of nitrogen in polyethylenimine (PEI) to phosphate in DNA (N/P ratio) beyond which further increases in transgene expression no longer, or only marginally, occurred. Microparticles encapsulating PEI:DNA nanoplexes induced cellular toxicity in a dose-dependent manner. PEGylation increased transgene expression, likely related to enhanced degradation of particles. Furthermore, intra-tracheal instillation in rats allowed us to investigate the inflammatory response in the lung as a function of PEGylation, porosity, and size. Porosity did not influence cell counts in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid in the absence of PEG, but in particles containing PEG, non-porous particles recruited fewer inflammatory cells than their porous counterparts. Finally, both 1 μm and 10 μm porous PLA-PEG particles recruited more neutrophils than 4 μm particles. Thus, we have shown that PEGylation and lack of porosity are advantageous for faster release of genetic cargo from microparticles and a reduced inflammatory response, respectively.
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Zhong W, Zhang X, Zeng Y, Lin D, Wu J. Recent applications and strategies in nanotechnology for lung diseases. NANO RESEARCH 2021; 14:2067-2089. [PMID: 33456721 PMCID: PMC7796694 DOI: 10.1007/s12274-020-3180-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2020] [Revised: 10/11/2020] [Accepted: 10/11/2020] [Indexed: 05/14/2023]
Abstract
Lung diseases, including COVID-19 and lung cancers, is a huge threat to human health. However, for the treatment and diagnosis of various lung diseases, such as pneumonia, asthma, cancer, and pulmonary tuberculosis, are becoming increasingly challenging. Currently, several types of treatments and/or diagnostic methods are used to treat lung diseases; however, the occurrence of adverse reactions to chemotherapy, drug-resistant bacteria, side effects that can be significantly toxic, and poor drug delivery necessitates the development of more promising treatments. Nanotechnology, as an emerging technology, has been extensively studied in medicine. Several studies have shown that nano-delivery systems can significantly enhance the targeting of drug delivery. When compared to traditional delivery methods, several nanoparticle delivery strategies are used to improve the detection methods and drug treatment efficacy. Transporting nanoparticles to the lungs, loading appropriate therapeutic drugs, and the incorporation of intelligent functions to overcome various lung barriers have broad prospects as they can aid in locating target tissues and can enhance the therapeutic effect while minimizing systemic side effects. In addition, as a new and highly contagious respiratory infection disease, COVID-19 is spreading worldwide. However, there is no specific drug for COVID-19. Clinical trials are being conducted in several countries to develop antiviral drugs or vaccines. In recent years, nanotechnology has provided a feasible platform for improving the diagnosis and treatment of diseases, nanotechnology-based strategies may have broad prospects in the diagnosis and treatment of COVID-19. This article reviews the latest developments in nanotechnology drug delivery strategies in the lungs in recent years and studies the clinical application value of nanomedicine in the drug delivery strategy pertaining to the lung.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenhao Zhong
- Department of Hematology, The Seventh Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Shenzhen, 518107 China
| | - Xinyu Zhang
- Department of Hematology, The Seventh Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Shenzhen, 518107 China
| | - Yunxin Zeng
- Department of Hematology, The Seventh Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Shenzhen, 518107 China
| | - Dongjun Lin
- Department of Hematology, The Seventh Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Shenzhen, 518107 China
| | - Jun Wu
- Department of Hematology, The Seventh Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Shenzhen, 518107 China
- Key Laboratory of Sensing Technology and Biomedical Instrument of Guangdong Province, School of Biomedical Engineering, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, 510006 China
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14
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Pali-Schöll I, DeBoer DJ, Alessandri C, Seida AA, Mueller RS, Jensen-Jarolim E. Formulations for Allergen Immunotherapy in Human and Veterinary Patients: New Candidates on the Horizon. Front Immunol 2020; 11:1697. [PMID: 32849594 PMCID: PMC7417425 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2020.01697] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2020] [Accepted: 06/25/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Allergen immunotherapy is currently the only causal treatment for allergic diseases in human beings and animals. It aims to re-direct the immune system into a tolerogenic or desensitized state. Requirements include clinical efficacy, safety, and schedules optimizing patient or owner compliance. To achieve these goals, specific allergens can be formulated with adjuvants that prolong tissue deposition and support uptake by antigen presenting cells, and/or provide a beneficial immunomodulatory action. Here, we depict adjuvant formulations being investigated for human and veterinary allergen immunotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isabella Pali-Schöll
- University of Veterinary Medicine, Vienna, Austria.,Institute of Pathophysiology and Allergy Research, Center of Physiology, Pathophysiology and Immunology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Douglas J DeBoer
- Dermatology/Allergy Section, Department of Medical Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI, United States
| | | | - Ahmed Adel Seida
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Cairo University, Cairo, Egypt
| | - Ralf S Mueller
- Centre for Clinical Veterinary Medicine, University of Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Erika Jensen-Jarolim
- Institute of Pathophysiology and Allergy Research, Center of Physiology, Pathophysiology and Immunology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
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15
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Kan S, Hariyadi DM, Grainge C, Knight DA, Bartlett NW, Liang M. Airway epithelial-targeted nanoparticles for asthma therapy. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol 2020; 318:L500-L509. [PMID: 31913649 DOI: 10.1152/ajplung.00237.2019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Asthma is a common chronic inflammatory disease associated with intermittent airflow obstruction caused by airway inflammation, mucus overproduction, and bronchial hyperresponsiveness. Despite current treatment and management options, a large number of patients with asthma still have poorly controlled disease and are susceptible to acute exacerbations, usually caused by a respiratory virus infection. As a result, there remains a need for novel therapies to achieve better control and prevent/treat exacerbations. Nanoparticles (NPs), including extracellular vesicles (EV) and their synthetic counterparts, have been developed for drug delivery in respiratory diseases. In the case of asthma, where airway epithelium dysfunction, including dysregulated differentiation of epithelial cells, impaired barrier, and immune response, is a driver of disease, targeting airway epithelial cells with NPs may offer opportunities to repair or reverse these dysfunctions with therapeutic interventions. EVs possess multiple advantages for airway epithelial targeting, such as their natural intrinsic cell-targeting properties and low immunogenicity. Synthetic NPs can be coated with muco-inert polymers to overcome biological barriers such as mucus and the phagocytic response of immune cells. Targeting ligands could be also added to enhance targeting specificity to epithelial cells. The review presents current understanding and advances in NP-mediated drug delivery to airway epithelium for asthma therapy. Future perspectives in this therapeutic strategy will also be discussed, including the development of novel formulations and physiologically relevant preclinical models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stanislav Kan
- School of Biomedical Sciences and Pharmacy, The University of Newcastle, Callaghan, New South Wales, Australia.,Priority Research Centre for Healthy Lungs, Hunter Medical Research Institute, The University of Newcastle, New South Wales, Australia
| | | | - Christopher Grainge
- School of Medicine and Public Health, The University of Newcastle, Callaghan, New South Wales, Australia.,Priority Research Centre for Healthy Lungs, Hunter Medical Research Institute, The University of Newcastle, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Darryl A Knight
- School of Biomedical Sciences and Pharmacy, The University of Newcastle, Callaghan, New South Wales, Australia.,Priority Research Centre for Healthy Lungs, Hunter Medical Research Institute, The University of Newcastle, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Nathan W Bartlett
- School of Biomedical Sciences and Pharmacy, The University of Newcastle, Callaghan, New South Wales, Australia.,Priority Research Centre for Healthy Lungs, Hunter Medical Research Institute, The University of Newcastle, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Mingtao Liang
- School of Biomedical Sciences and Pharmacy, The University of Newcastle, Callaghan, New South Wales, Australia.,Faculty of Pharmacy, Universitas Airlangga, Surabaya, Indonesia
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16
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Preventive effects of "ovalbumin-conjugated celastrol-loaded nanomicelles'' in a mouse model of ovalbumin-induced allergic airway inflammation. Eur J Pharm Sci 2019; 143:105172. [PMID: 31841695 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejps.2019.105172] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2019] [Revised: 11/15/2019] [Accepted: 12/01/2019] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Allergies affect a significant proportion of the world's population, and existing vaccination strategies to restrict their adverse pathologies often render side-effects. The aim of this study was to design a new vaccine for allergen-specific immunotherapy (SIT), and to investigate its preventive effects during allergic inflammation. We constructed ovalbumin (OVA)-conjugated celastrol-loaded nanomicelles (OVA-NMs-celastrol), wherein celastrol (a bioactive anti-inflammatory compound) was loaded into carboxyl-functioned polymeric nanomicelles using a thin-film hydration method. OVA was used as a model allergen and conjugated on nanomicelles. The OVA-NMs-celastrol obtained were characterized based on particle size, morphology, drug encapsulation efficiency, and drug loading percentage. Further, the preventive effect of OVA-NMs-celastrol was evaluated in a mouse model of allergic asthma. Our results showed that OVA-NMs-celastrol possessed valuable characteristics such as small particle size (50.72 ± 0.98 nm) and spherical-like shape, with celastrol encapsulation efficiency of 99.89 ± 0.85% and a drug loading percentage of 4.76 ± 0.03%. Further, in vivo results showed that treatment with OVA-NMs-celastrol could decrease OVA specific IgE and histamine levels, Th2 cytokine (IL-4, IL-5) levels, and inflammatory cell infiltration in the lung tissues. Moreover, it could enhance the OVA specific IgG1 and IgG2a levels and decrease the IgE / IgG2a ratio. These results demonstrate the successful construction of OVA-NMs-celastrol as a potential vaccine candidate for use in SIT for allergic inflammation.
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17
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Yang B, Choi H, Kim SH, Yoon HJ, Lee H. How will nanotechnology lead to better control of asthma? ANNALS OF TRANSLATIONAL MEDICINE 2019; 7:515. [PMID: 31807497 DOI: 10.21037/atm.2019.09.129] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Bumhee Yang
- Division of Pulmonology, Center of Lung Cancer, National Cancer Center, Goyang, Korea
| | - Hayoung Choi
- Division of Pulmonary, Allergy, and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, Hallym University Kangnam Sacred Heart Hospital, Seoul, Korea
| | - Sang-Heon Kim
- Division of Pulmonary Medicine and Allergy, Department of Internal Medicine, Hanyang University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
| | - Ho Joo Yoon
- Division of Pulmonary Medicine and Allergy, Department of Internal Medicine, Hanyang University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
| | - Hyun Lee
- Division of Pulmonary Medicine and Allergy, Department of Internal Medicine, Hanyang University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
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18
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Hong J, Xiao X, Gao Q, Li S, Jiang B, Sun X, Ran P, Yang P. Co-delivery of allergen epitope fragments and R848 inhibits food allergy by inducing tolerogenic dendritic cells and regulatory T cells. Int J Nanomedicine 2019; 14:7053-7064. [PMID: 31564865 PMCID: PMC6722440 DOI: 10.2147/ijn.s215415] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2019] [Accepted: 07/29/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Food allergy (FA) is a significant public health problem. The therapeutic efficacy for FA is unsatisfactory currently. The breakdown of intestinal immune tolerance is associated with the pathogenesis of FA. Therefore, it is of great significance to develop novel therapeutic methods to restore immune tolerance in treating FA. METHODS We proposed an oral administration strategy to treat FA by co-delivering food allergen epitope fragment (peptide: IK) and adjuvant R848 (TLR7 ligand) in the mPEG-PDLLA nanoparticles (PPLA-IK/R848 NPs). The generation of tolerogenic dendritic cells (DCs) and regulatory T cells (Tregs) induced by PPLA-IK/R848 NPs were evaluated in vitro and in vivo. The therapeutic effects of PPLA-IK/R848 NPs were also assessed in an OVA-induced FA model. RESULTS PPLA-IK/R848 NPs could efficiently deliver IK to DCs to drive DCs into the tolerogenic phenotypes and promote the differentiation of Tregs in vitro and in vivo, significantly inhibited FA responses through the recovery of intestinal immune tolerance. CONCLUSION Oral administration of PPLA-IK/R848 NPs could efficiently deliver IK and R848 to intestinal DCs and stimulate DCs into allergen tolerogenic phenotype. These tolerogenic DCs could promote the differentiation of Tregs, which significantly protected mice from food allergic responses. This study provided an efficient formulation to alleviate FA through the recovery of immune tolerance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jingyi Hong
- Department of Allergy, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Shenzhen University, Shenzhen518020, People’s Republic of China
- Research Center of Allergy & Immunology, Department of Medicine, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen518055, People’s Republic of China
- State Key Laboratory of Respiratory Disease, Department of Allergy and Clinical Immunology, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou510006, People’s Republic of China
| | - Xiaojun Xiao
- Research Center of Allergy & Immunology, Department of Medicine, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen518055, People’s Republic of China
- State Key Laboratory of Respiratory Disease, Department of Allergy and Clinical Immunology, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou510006, People’s Republic of China
| | - Qichan Gao
- Research Center of Allergy & Immunology, Department of Medicine, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen518055, People’s Republic of China
| | - Shanshan Li
- Research Center of Allergy & Immunology, Department of Medicine, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen518055, People’s Republic of China
| | - Bei Jiang
- Research Center of Allergy & Immunology, Department of Medicine, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen518055, People’s Republic of China
| | - Xizhuo Sun
- Department of Allergy, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Shenzhen University, Shenzhen518020, People’s Republic of China
| | - Pixin Ran
- State Key Laboratory of Respiratory Disease, Department of Allergy and Clinical Immunology, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou510006, People’s Republic of China
| | - Pingchang Yang
- Research Center of Allergy & Immunology, Department of Medicine, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen518055, People’s Republic of China
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19
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Do AV, Smith R, Tobias P, Carlsen D, Pham E, Bowden NB, Salem AK. Sustained Release of Hydrogen Sulfide (H 2S) from Poly(Lactic Acid) Functionalized 4-Hydroxythiobenzamide Microparticles to Protect Against Oxidative Damage. Ann Biomed Eng 2019; 47:1691-1700. [PMID: 31139973 PMCID: PMC6650332 DOI: 10.1007/s10439-019-02270-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2018] [Accepted: 04/11/2019] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) has emerged as a gaseous mediator capable of exhibiting many beneficial properties including cytoprotection, anti-inflammation, and vasodilation. The study presented here provides characterization of a poly(lactic acid) polymer with a functionalized 4-hydroxythiobenzamide (PLA-4HTB) capable of extended H2S release. The polymer was used to fabricate microparticles that can be potentially loaded with a drug allowing for co-release of the drug and H2S. Microparticles with the average diameter of 500 ± 207 nm were fabricated and shown to release 77.0 ± 1.76 µM of H2S over 4 weeks (release of H2S from 1 mg of particles). To test for the antioxidant properties of the PLA-4HTB microparticles, human embryonic kidney 293 cells were first incubated with PLA-4HTB microparticles and then oxidative stress was induced using CoCl2. Particle suspensions of 1 mg/mL were shown to protect cells resulting in reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels of superoxide that were similar to that of the control group. The microparticles fabricated from the PLA-4HTB released H2S over a sustained period of weeks to months, while providing protection from ROS. The microparticles described in this article represent a new platform technology that could be used to prevent and treat diseases caused by oxidative damage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anh-Vu Do
- Division of Pharmaceutics and Translational Therapeutics, College of Pharmacy, University of Iowa, Iowa, IA, USA
| | - Rasheid Smith
- Division of Pharmaceutics and Translational Therapeutics, College of Pharmacy, University of Iowa, Iowa, IA, USA
| | - Phillip Tobias
- Division of Pharmaceutics and Translational Therapeutics, College of Pharmacy, University of Iowa, Iowa, IA, USA
| | - Daniel Carlsen
- Division of Pharmaceutics and Translational Therapeutics, College of Pharmacy, University of Iowa, Iowa, IA, USA
| | - Erica Pham
- Division of Pharmaceutics and Translational Therapeutics, College of Pharmacy, University of Iowa, Iowa, IA, USA
| | - Ned B Bowden
- Department of Chemistry, College of Liberal Arts and Sciences, University of Iowa, Iowa, IA, USA
| | - Aliasger K Salem
- Division of Pharmaceutics and Translational Therapeutics, College of Pharmacy, University of Iowa, Iowa, IA, USA.
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20
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Oligonucleotide therapy: An emerging focus area for drug delivery in chronic inflammatory respiratory diseases. Chem Biol Interact 2019; 308:206-215. [PMID: 31136735 PMCID: PMC7094617 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbi.2019.05.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2019] [Revised: 04/30/2019] [Accepted: 05/15/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Oligonucleotide-based therapies are advanced novel interventions used in the management of various respiratory diseases such as asthma and Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD). These agents primarily act by gene silencing or RNA interference. Better methodologies and techniques are the need of the hour that can deliver these agents to tissues and cells in a target specific manner by which their maximum potential can be reached in the management of chronic inflammatory diseases. Nanoparticles play an important role in the target-specific delivery of drugs. In addition, oligonucleotides also are extensively used for gene transfer in the form of polymeric, liposomal and inorganic carrier materials. Therefore, the current review focuses on various novel dosage forms like nanoparticles, liposomes that can be used efficiently for the delivery of various oligonucleotides such as siRNA and miRNA. We also discuss the future perspectives and targets for oligonucleotides in the management of respiratory diseases.
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21
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Gonzalez-Miro M, Chen S, Gonzaga ZJ, Evert B, Wibowo D, Rehm BHA. Polyester as Antigen Carrier toward Particulate Vaccines. Biomacromolecules 2019; 20:3213-3232. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.biomac.9b00509] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Majela Gonzalez-Miro
- School of Fundamental Sciences, Massey University, Palmerston North 4474, New Zealand
| | - Shuxiong Chen
- Centre for Cell
Factories and Biopolymers, Griffith Institute for Drug Discovery, Griffith University, Nathan, Queensland 4111, Australia
| | - Zennia Jean Gonzaga
- Centre for Cell
Factories and Biopolymers, Griffith Institute for Drug Discovery, Griffith University, Nathan, Queensland 4111, Australia
| | - Benjamin Evert
- Centre for Cell
Factories and Biopolymers, Griffith Institute for Drug Discovery, Griffith University, Nathan, Queensland 4111, Australia
| | - David Wibowo
- Centre for Cell
Factories and Biopolymers, Griffith Institute for Drug Discovery, Griffith University, Nathan, Queensland 4111, Australia
| | - Bernd H. A. Rehm
- Centre for Cell
Factories and Biopolymers, Griffith Institute for Drug Discovery, Griffith University, Nathan, Queensland 4111, Australia
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22
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Hajavi J, Hashemi M, Sankian M. Evaluation of size and dose effects of rChe a 3 allergen loaded PLGA nanoparticles on modulation of Th2 immune responses by sublingual immunotherapy in mouse model of rhinitis allergic. Int J Pharm 2019; 563:282-292. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2019.03.040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2018] [Revised: 03/11/2019] [Accepted: 03/18/2019] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
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23
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Terry TL, Givens BE, Rodgers VGJ, Salem AK. Tunable Properties of Poly-DL-Lactide-Monomethoxypolyethylene Glycol Porous Microparticles for Sustained Release of Polyethylenimine-DNA Polyplexes. AAPS PharmSciTech 2019; 20:23. [PMID: 30604270 DOI: 10.1208/s12249-018-1215-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2018] [Accepted: 10/08/2018] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Direct pulmonary delivery is a promising step in developing effective gene therapies for respiratory disease. Gene therapies can be used to treat the root cause of diseases, rather than just the symptoms. However, developing effective therapies that do not cause toxicity and that successfully reach the target site at therapeutic levels is challenging. We have developed a polymer-DNA complex utilizing polyethylene imine (PEI) and DNA, which was then encapsulated into poly(lactic acid)-co-monomethoxy poly(ethylene glycol) (PLA-mPEG) microparticles via double emulsion, solvent evaporation. Then, the resultant particle size, porosity, and encapsulation efficiency were measured as a function of altering preparation parameters. Microsphere formation was confirmed from scanning electron micrographs and the aerodynamic particle diameter was measured using an aerodynamic particle sizer. Several formulations produced particles with aerodynamic diameters in the 0-5 μm range despite having larger particle diameters which is indicative of porous particles. Furthermore, these aerodynamic diameters correspond to high deposition within the airways when inhaled and the measured DNA content indicated high encapsulation efficiency. Thus, this formulation provides promise for developing inhalable gene therapies.
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Kim H, Sehgal D, Kucaba TA, Ferguson DM, Griffith TS, Panyam J. Acidic pH-responsive polymer nanoparticles as a TLR7/8 agonist delivery platform for cancer immunotherapy. NANOSCALE 2018; 10:20851-20862. [PMID: 30403212 DOI: 10.1039/c8nr07201a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Synthetic imidazoquinoline-based toll-like receptor (TLR) 7/8 bi-specific agonists are promising vaccine adjuvants that can induce maturation of dendritic cells (DCs) and activate them to secrete pro-inflammatory cytokines. However, in vivo efficacy of these small molecule agonists is often hampered by their fast clearance from the injection site, limiting their use to topical treatments. In this study, we investigated the use of acidic pH-responsive poly(lactide-co-glycolide) (PLGA) nanoparticles for endo-lysosome specific release of 522, a novel TLR7/8 agonist. Bicarbonate salt was incorporated into the new formulation to generate carbon dioxide (CO2) gas at acidic pH, which can disrupt the polymer shell to rapidly release the payload. Compared to conventional PLGA nanoparticles, the pH responsive formulation resulted in 33-fold higher loading of 522. The new formulation demonstrated acid-responsive CO2 gas generation and drug release. The acid-responsive formulation increased the in vitro expression of co-stimulatory molecules on DCs and improved antigen-presentation via MHC I, both of which are essential for CD8 T cell priming. In vivo studies showed that the pH-responsive formulation elicited stronger antigen-specific CD8 T cell and natural killer (NK) cell responses than conventional PLGA nanoparticles, resulting in enhanced anticancer efficacy in a murine melanoma tumor model. Our results suggest that acidic-pH responsive, gas-generating nanoparticles are an efficient TLR7/8 agonist delivery platform for cancer immunotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hyunjoon Kim
- Department of Pharmaceutics, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA.
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25
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Givens BE, Naguib YW, Geary SM, Devor EJ, Salem AK. Nanoparticle-Based Delivery of CRISPR/Cas9 Genome-Editing Therapeutics. AAPS J 2018; 20:108. [PMID: 30306365 PMCID: PMC6398936 DOI: 10.1208/s12248-018-0267-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2018] [Accepted: 09/18/2018] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The recent progress in harnessing the efficient and precise method of DNA editing provided by CRISPR/Cas9 is one of the most promising major advances in the field of gene therapy. However, the development of safe and optimally efficient delivery systems for CRISPR/Cas9 elements capable of achieving specific targeting of gene therapy to the location of interest without off-target effects is a primary challenge for clinical therapeutics. Nanoparticles (NPs) provide a promising means to meet such challenges. In this review, we present the most recent advances in developing innovative NP-based delivery systems that efficiently deliver CRISPR/Cas9 constructs and maximize their effectiveness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brittany E Givens
- Division of Pharmaceutics and Translational Therapeutics, College of Pharmacy, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa, 52242, USA
- Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering, College of Engineering, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa, 52242, USA
| | - Youssef W Naguib
- Division of Pharmaceutics and Translational Therapeutics, College of Pharmacy, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa, 52242, USA
- Department of Pharmaceutics, Faculty of Pharmacy, Minia University, Minia, 61519, Egypt
| | - Sean M Geary
- Division of Pharmaceutics and Translational Therapeutics, College of Pharmacy, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa, 52242, USA
| | - Eric J Devor
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Carver College of Medicine, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa, 52242, USA
| | - Aliasger K Salem
- Division of Pharmaceutics and Translational Therapeutics, College of Pharmacy, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa, 52242, USA.
- Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering, College of Engineering, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa, 52242, USA.
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26
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Givens BE, Geary SM, Salem AK. Nanoparticle-based CpG-oligonucleotide therapy for treating allergic asthma. Immunotherapy 2018; 10:595-604. [PMID: 29569508 DOI: 10.2217/imt-2017-0142] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Allergic asthma is becoming increasingly prevalent in the developed world, and many common allergens are capable of inducing allergic asthma responses, particularly in atopic individuals. Unmethylated CpG-oligonucleotide (ODN) therapy can shift the immune response to mitigate these allergic responses. Therapeutic and prophylactic delivery of soluble CpG-ODN in preclinical studies has shown promise in treating existing asthma and preventing allergic responses upon subsequent allergen exposure, respectively. However, when CpG-ODN is coupled with nanoparticles or self assembled into nanostructures, improved efficacy of CpG-ODN treatment for several common allergens is observed in preclinical studies and clinical trials. Here we discuss the role of CpG-ODN in treating allergic asthma and how nanoparticle-based delivery can further enhance its therapeutic properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brittany E Givens
- Department of Chemical & Biochemical Engineering, College of Engineering, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, 52242, USA.,Division of Pharmaceutics & Translational Therapeutics, College of Pharmacy, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, 52242, USA
| | - Sean M Geary
- Division of Pharmaceutics & Translational Therapeutics, College of Pharmacy, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, 52242, USA
| | - Aliasger K Salem
- Department of Chemical & Biochemical Engineering, College of Engineering, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, 52242, USA.,Division of Pharmaceutics & Translational Therapeutics, College of Pharmacy, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, 52242, USA
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27
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Shen L, Tenzer S, Storck W, Hobernik D, Raker VK, Fischer K, Decker S, Dzionek A, Krauthäuser S, Diken M, Nikolaev A, Maxeiner J, Schuster P, Kappel C, Verschoor A, Schild H, Grabbe S, Bros M. Protein corona-mediated targeting of nanocarriers to B cells allows redirection of allergic immune responses. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2018; 142:1558-1570. [PMID: 29382591 DOI: 10.1016/j.jaci.2017.08.049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2017] [Revised: 07/26/2017] [Accepted: 08/26/2017] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Nanoparticle (NP)-based vaccines are attractive immunotherapy tools because of their capability to codeliver antigen and adjuvant to antigen-presenting cells. Their cellular distribution and serum protein interaction ("protein corona") after systemic administration and their effect on the functional properties of NPs is poorly understood. OBJECTIVES We analyzed the relevance of the protein corona on cell type-selective uptake of dextran-coated NPs and determined the outcome of vaccination with NPs that codeliver antigen and adjuvant in disease models of allergy. METHODS The role of protein corona constituents for cellular binding/uptake of dextran-coated ferrous nanoparticles (DEX-NPs) was analyzed both in vitro and in vivo. DEX-NPs conjugated with the model antigen ovalbumin (OVA) and immunostimulatory CpG-rich oligodeoxynucleotides were administered to monitor the induction of cellular and humoral immune responses. Therapeutic effects of this DEX-NP vaccine in mouse models of OVA-induced anaphylaxis and allergic asthma were assessed. RESULTS DEX-NPs triggered lectin-induced complement activation, yielding deposition of activated complement factor 3 on the DEX-NP surface. In the spleen DEX-NPs targeted predominantly B cells through complement receptors 1 and 2. The DEX-NP vaccine elicited much stronger OVA-specific IgG2a production than coadministered soluble OVA plus CpG oligodeoxynucleotides. B-cell binding of the DEX-NP vaccine was critical for IgG2a production. Treatment of OVA-sensitized mice with the DEX-NP vaccine prevented induction of anaphylactic shock and allergic asthma accompanied by IgE inhibition. CONCLUSIONS Opsonization of lectin-coated NPs by activated complement components results in selective B-cell targeting. The intrinsic B-cell targeting property of lectin-coated NPs can be exploited for treatment of allergic immune responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Limei Shen
- Department of Dermatology, University of Mainz Medical Center, Mainz, Germany
| | - Stefan Tenzer
- Institute for Immunology, University of Mainz Medical Center, Mainz, Germany
| | - Wiebke Storck
- Institute for Immunology, University of Mainz Medical Center, Mainz, Germany
| | - Dominika Hobernik
- Department of Dermatology, University of Mainz Medical Center, Mainz, Germany
| | | | - Karl Fischer
- Department of Physical Chemistry, University of Mainz, Mainz, Germany
| | - Sandra Decker
- Department of Physical Chemistry, University of Mainz, Mainz, Germany
| | | | | | - Mustafa Diken
- TRON-Translational Oncology at the University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University gGmbH, Mainz, Germany
| | - Alexej Nikolaev
- Institute for Molecular Medicine, University of Mainz Medical Center, Mainz, Germany
| | - Joachim Maxeiner
- Asthma Core Facility, Research Center for Immunotherapy, University of Mainz Medical Center, Mainz, Germany
| | - Petra Schuster
- Asthma Core Facility, Research Center for Immunotherapy, University of Mainz Medical Center, Mainz, Germany
| | - Cinja Kappel
- Department of Dermatology, University of Mainz Medical Center, Mainz, Germany
| | - Admar Verschoor
- Institute for Systemic Inflammation Research, Universität zu Lübeck, Lübeck, Germany
| | - Hansjörg Schild
- Institute for Immunology, University of Mainz Medical Center, Mainz, Germany
| | - Stephan Grabbe
- Department of Dermatology, University of Mainz Medical Center, Mainz, Germany.
| | - Matthias Bros
- Department of Dermatology, University of Mainz Medical Center, Mainz, Germany
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28
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Hanagata N, Li X, Chen MH, Li J, Hattori S. Double-stranded phosphodiester cytosine-guanine oligodeoxynucleotide complexed with calcium phosphate as a potent vaccine adjuvant for activating cellular and Th1-type humoral immunities. Int J Nanomedicine 2017; 13:43-62. [PMID: 29317815 PMCID: PMC5743182 DOI: 10.2147/ijn.s152141] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Conventional class B cytosine-guanine (CpG) (CpG-B) oligodeoxynucleotide (ODNs) consisting of a single-stranded (ss) phosphorothioate (PT) backbone (ss CpG-B-PT) is converted from a proinflammatory cytokine inducer to a type-I interferon (IFN) inducer when complexed with cationic materials. In this study, we designed ss CpG-B and double-stranded (ds) CpG-B ODNs with a phosphodiester (PD) backbone (ss CpG-B-PD and ds CpG-B-PD, respectively) that became type-I IFN inducers upon complexation with Lipofectamine 2000 (Lipo), a cationic liposome. The ds CpG-B-PD complex induced higher IFN-β expression in mouse macrophage-like RAW264 cells than ss CpG-B-PD and ss CpG-B-PT complexes. The fold induction of IFN-β increased with the number of CpG motifs in ds CpG-B-PD, and a complex of ds CpG-B-PD consisting of 72 base pairs with nine CpG motifs (ds CpG-B72-PD) and Lipo showed the highest capacity to induce IFN-β. The materials and method used for complexation influenced the degree of IFN-β induction: ds CpG-B72-PD entrapped by calcium phosphate (CaP) (ds CpG-B72-PD/CaP) showed a higher induction capacity than ds CpG-B72-PD adsorbed onto the CaP surface. Entrapment of ds CpG-B72-PD by CaP also enhanced the induction of the proinflammatory cytokine interleukin-12. Vaccinating mice with ds CpG-B72-PD/CaP in conjunction with ovalbumin (OVA) increased the ratios of OVA-specific CD8+ T cells to total CD8+ T cells in peripheral blood and of OVA-specific IgG2a associated with helper T (Th)1 cells to OVA-specific IgG1 associated with Th2 cells. These results indicate that ds CpG-B72-PD/CaP is an effective vaccine adjuvant that can activate both cellular and Th1-type humoral immune responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nobutaka Hanagata
- Nanotechnology Innovation Station, National Institute for Materials Science, Tsukuba.,Graduate School of Life Science, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
| | - Xianglan Li
- Nanotechnology Innovation Station, National Institute for Materials Science, Tsukuba
| | - Min-Hua Chen
- Nanotechnology Innovation Station, National Institute for Materials Science, Tsukuba
| | - Jie Li
- Nanotechnology Innovation Station, National Institute for Materials Science, Tsukuba
| | - Shinya Hattori
- Nanotechnology Innovation Station, National Institute for Materials Science, Tsukuba
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29
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Pohlit H, Bellinghausen I, Frey H, Saloga J. Recent advances in the use of nanoparticles for allergen-specific immunotherapy. Allergy 2017; 72:1461-1474. [PMID: 28474379 DOI: 10.1111/all.13199] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 04/29/2017] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
The number of patients suffering from allergic asthma and rhinoconjunctivitis has increased dramatically within the last decades. Allergen-specific immunotherapy (AIT) is the only available cause-oriented therapy so far. AIT reduces symptoms, but has also a disease-modifying effect. Disadvantages are a long-lasting procedure, and in a few cases potential systemic adverse reactions. Encapsulation of allergens or DNA vaccines into nanostructures may provide advantages compared to the conventional AIT with noncapsulated allergen extracts: The protein/DNA molecule can be protected from degradation, higher local concentrations and targeted delivery to the site of action appear possible, and most importantly, recognition of encapsulated allergen by the immune system, especially by IgE antibodies, is prevented. AIT with nanoparticles (NPs) may offer a safer and potentially more efficient way of treatment for allergic diseases. In this review, we summarize the use of biodegradable NPs consisting of synthetic or natural polymers, liposomes, and virus-like particles as well as nonbiodegradable NPs like dendrimers, and carbon- or metal-based NPs for AIT. More or less successful applications of these NPs in prophylactic as well as therapeutic vaccination approaches in rodents or other animals as well as first human clinical trials are discussed in detail.
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Affiliation(s)
- H. Pohlit
- Department of Dermatology; University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz; Mainz Germany
- Institute of Organic Chemistry; Johannes Gutenberg-University Mainz; Mainz Germany
- Graduate School of Excellence Materials Science in Mainz; Johannes Gutenberg-University Mainz; Mainz Germany
| | - I. Bellinghausen
- Department of Dermatology; University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz; Mainz Germany
| | - H. Frey
- Institute of Organic Chemistry; Johannes Gutenberg-University Mainz; Mainz Germany
| | - J. Saloga
- Department of Dermatology; University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz; Mainz Germany
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30
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Silva AL, Peres C, Conniot J, Matos AI, Moura L, Carreira B, Sainz V, Scomparin A, Satchi-Fainaro R, Préat V, Florindo HF. Nanoparticle impact on innate immune cell pattern-recognition receptors and inflammasomes activation. Semin Immunol 2017; 34:3-24. [PMID: 28941640 DOI: 10.1016/j.smim.2017.09.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2017] [Revised: 09/10/2017] [Accepted: 09/11/2017] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Nanotechnology-based strategies can dramatically impact the treatment, prevention and diagnosis of a wide range of diseases. Despite the unprecedented success achieved with the use of nanomaterials to address unmet biomedical needs and their particular suitability for the effective application of a personalized medicine, the clinical translation of those nanoparticulate systems has still been impaired by the limited understanding on their interaction with complex biological systems. As a result, unexpected effects due to unpredicted interactions at biomaterial and biological interfaces have been underlying the biosafety concerns raised by the use of nanomaterials. This review explores the current knowledge on how nanoparticle (NP) physicochemical and surface properties determine their interactions with innate immune cells, with particular attention on the activation of pattern-recognition receptors and inflammasome. A critical perspective will additionally address the impact of biological systems on the effect of NP on immune cell activity at the molecular level. We will discuss how the understanding of the NP-innate immune cell interactions can significantly add into the clinical translation by guiding the design of nanomedicines with particular effect on targeted cells, thus improving their clinical efficacy while minimizing undesired but predictable toxicological effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Luísa Silva
- Research Institute for Medicines (iMed.ULisboa), Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Prof. Gama Pinto, 1649-003 Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Carina Peres
- Research Institute for Medicines (iMed.ULisboa), Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Prof. Gama Pinto, 1649-003 Lisbon, Portugal; Université Catholique de Louvain, Louvain Drug Research Institute, Advanced Drug Delivery and Biomaterials, 1200 Brussels, Belgium
| | - João Conniot
- Research Institute for Medicines (iMed.ULisboa), Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Prof. Gama Pinto, 1649-003 Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Ana I Matos
- Research Institute for Medicines (iMed.ULisboa), Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Prof. Gama Pinto, 1649-003 Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Liane Moura
- Research Institute for Medicines (iMed.ULisboa), Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Prof. Gama Pinto, 1649-003 Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Bárbara Carreira
- Research Institute for Medicines (iMed.ULisboa), Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Prof. Gama Pinto, 1649-003 Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Vanessa Sainz
- Research Institute for Medicines (iMed.ULisboa), Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Prof. Gama Pinto, 1649-003 Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Anna Scomparin
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Sackler School of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel and dSagol School of Neuroscience, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
| | - Ronit Satchi-Fainaro
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Sackler School of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel and dSagol School of Neuroscience, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel; Sagol School of Neuroscience, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
| | - Véronique Préat
- Université Catholique de Louvain, Louvain Drug Research Institute, Advanced Drug Delivery and Biomaterials, 1200 Brussels, Belgium.
| | - Helena F Florindo
- Research Institute for Medicines (iMed.ULisboa), Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Prof. Gama Pinto, 1649-003 Lisbon, Portugal.
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31
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Abstract
Allergen-specific immunotherapy was introduced in clinical settings more than 100 years ago. It remains the only curative approach to treating allergic disorders that ameliorates symptoms, reduces medication costs, and blocks the onset of new sensitizations. Despite this clinical evidence and knowledge of some immunological mechanisms, there remain some open questions regarding the safety and efficacy of this treatment. This suggests the need for novel therapeutic approaches that attempt to reduce the dose and frequency of treatment administration, improving patient compliance, and reducing costs. In this context, the use of novel adjuvants has been proposed and, in recent years, biomedical applications using nanoparticles have been exploited in the attempt to find formulations with improved stability, bioavailability, favorable biodistribution profiles, and the capability of targeting specific cell populations. In this article, we review some of the most relevant regulatory aspects and challenges concerning nanoparticle-based formulations with immunomodulatory potential, their related immunosafety issues, and the nature of the nanoparticles most widely employed in the allergy field. Furthermore, we report in vitro and in vivo data published using allergen/nanoparticle systems, discuss their impact on the immune system in terms of immunomodulatory activity and the reduction of side effects, and show that this strategy is a novel and promising tool for the development of allergy vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabriella Di Felice
- National Center for Drug Research and Evaluation, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Rome
| | - Paolo Colombo
- Institute of Biomedicine and Molecular Immunology, National Research Council, Palermo, Italy
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32
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Andorko JI, Jewell CM. Designing biomaterials with immunomodulatory properties for tissue engineering and regenerative medicine. Bioeng Transl Med 2017; 2:139-155. [PMID: 28932817 PMCID: PMC5579731 DOI: 10.1002/btm2.10063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 130] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2017] [Revised: 04/14/2017] [Accepted: 04/24/2017] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Recent research in the vaccine and immunotherapy fields has revealed that biomaterials have the ability to activate immune pathways, even in the absence of other immune-stimulating signals. Intriguingly, new studies reveal these responses are influenced by the physicochemical properties of the material. Nearly all of this work has been done in the vaccine and immunotherapy fields, but there is tremendous opportunity to apply this same knowledge to tissue engineering and regenerative medicine. This review discusses recent findings that reveal how material properties-size, shape, chemical functionality-impact immune response, and links these changes to emerging opportunities in tissue engineering and regenerative medicine. We begin by discussing what has been learned from studies conducted in the contexts of vaccines and immunotherapies. Next, research is highlighted that elucidates the properties of materials that polarize innate immune cells, including macrophages and dendritic cells, toward either inflammatory or wound healing phenotypes. We also discuss recent studies demonstrating that scaffolds used in tissue engineering applications can influence cells of the adaptive immune system-B and T cell lymphocytes-to promote regenerative tissue microenvironments. Through greater study of the intrinsic immunogenic features of implantable materials and scaffolds, new translational opportunities will arise to better control tissue engineering and regenerative medicine applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- James I. Andorko
- Fischell Department of BioengineeringUniversity of MarylandCollege ParkMD 20742
| | - Christopher M. Jewell
- Fischell Department of BioengineeringUniversity of MarylandCollege ParkMD 20742
- Department of Microbiology and ImmunologyUniversity of Maryland Medical SchoolBaltimoreMD 21201
- Marlene and Stewart Greenebaum Cancer CenterBaltimoreMD 21201
- United States Department of Veterans AffairsBaltimoreMD 21201
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33
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Klimek L, Schmidt-Weber CB, Kramer MF, Skinner MA, Heath MD. Clinical use of adjuvants in allergen-immunotherapy. Expert Rev Clin Immunol 2017; 13:599-610. [DOI: 10.1080/1744666x.2017.1292133] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Ludger Klimek
- Center for Rhinology and Allergology, Wiesbaden, Germany
| | - Carsten B. Schmidt-Weber
- Center of Allergy and Environment (ZAUM), Technical University and Helmholtz Center Munich, Munich, Germany
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34
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Andorko JI, Pineault KG, Jewell CM. Impact of molecular weight on the intrinsic immunogenic activity of poly(beta amino esters). J Biomed Mater Res A 2017; 105:1219-1229. [PMID: 27977902 DOI: 10.1002/jbm.a.35970] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2016] [Revised: 09/28/2016] [Accepted: 10/28/2016] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Polymeric carriers are ubiquitously studied in vaccine and drug delivery to control the encapsulation, kinetics, and targeting of cargo. Recent research reveals many polymers can cause immunostimulatory and inflammatory responses, even in the absence of other immune signals. However, the extent to which this intrinsic immunogenicity evolves during degradation is understudied. Here we synthesized a small library of poly(beta amino esters) (PBAEs) that exhibit different starting molecular weights (MWs), but with similar and rapid degradation rates. Primary dendritic cells (DCs) treated with free PBAEs, either intact or degraded to form low MW fragments, were not activated. In contrast particles formed from PBAEs at different extents of degradation caused differential expression of classical DC activation markers (for example, CD40, CD80, CD86, MHCII), as well as antigen presentation. During degradation, activation levels changed with changing physicochemical properties (for example, MW, concentration, size, charge). Of note, irrespective of starting MW, immunogenicity peaked when the MW of degrading PBAEs decreased to a range of ∼1500-3000 Da. These findings could help inform design of future carriers that exploit the dynamic interactions with the immune system as materials degrade, leading to carriers that deliver cargo but also help direct the immune responses to vaccine or immunotherapy cargo. © 2017 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Biomed Mater Res Part A: 105A: 1219-1229, 2017.
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Affiliation(s)
- James I Andorko
- Fischell Department of Bioengineering, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland
| | - Kevin G Pineault
- Fischell Department of Bioengineering, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland
| | - Christopher M Jewell
- Fischell Department of Bioengineering, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland.,Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Maryland Medical School, Baltimore, Maryland.,Marlene and Stewart Greenebaum Cancer Center, Baltimore, Maryland.,Biomedical Laboratory Research and Development, United States Department of Veterans Affairs, Baltimore, Maryland
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35
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Hanagata N. CpG oligodeoxynucleotide nanomedicines for the prophylaxis or treatment of cancers, infectious diseases, and allergies. Int J Nanomedicine 2017; 12:515-531. [PMID: 28144136 PMCID: PMC5248940 DOI: 10.2147/ijn.s114477] [Citation(s) in RCA: 101] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Unmethylated cytosine-guanine dinucleotide-containing oligodeoxynucleotides (CpG ODNs), which are synthetic agonists of Toll-like receptor 9 (TLR9), activate humoral and cellular immunity and are being developed as vaccine adjuvants to prevent or treat cancers, infectious diseases, and allergies. Free CpG ODNs have been used in many clinical trials implemented to verify their effects. However, recent research has reported that self-assembled CpG ODNs, protein/peptide–CpG ODN conjugates, and nanomaterial–CpG ODN complexes demonstrate higher adjuvant effects than free CpG ODNs, owing to their improved uptake efficiency into cells expressing TLR9. Moreover, protein/peptide–CpG ODN conjugates and nanomaterial–CpG ODN complexes are able to deliver CpG ODNs and antigens (or allergens) to the same types of cells, which enables a higher degree of prophylaxis or therapeutic effect. In this review, the author describes recent trends in the research and development of CpG ODN nanomedicines containing self-assembled CpG ODNs, protein/peptide–CpG ODN conjugates, and nanomaterial–CpG ODN complexes, focusing mainly on the results of preclinical and clinical studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nobutaka Hanagata
- Nanotechnology Innovation Station, National Institute for Materials Science, Tsukuba, Ibaraki; Graduate School of Life Science, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Hokkaido, Japan
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36
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Larenas Linnemann DES, Singh J, Rosario N, Esch R, Matta JJ, Maspero J, Michels A, Mösges R. Similar biological activity in skin prick test for Oralair ® (8200 BAU) and Grazax ® (6200 BAU) reinforces effective SLIT dosing level. Allergy 2016; 71:1782-1786. [PMID: 27484017 DOI: 10.1111/all.12998] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/29/2016] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
In Europe, allergen extracts are standardized based on skin prick wheal size in 20-30 allergic subjects. To understand the biological activity of clinically effective Sublingual immunotherapy, we used this method to determine the biological activity of solution and tablet Timothy grass pollen (TIM) extracts, compared to an FDA-approved extract (Reference) of 10 000 BAU/ml. Blinded, quadruplicate skin prick tests with concentrate and three serial half-log dilutions allowed the construction of a semilogarithmic regression line per extract. Bioequivalent allergy units (BAU) values were obtained from the comparison with reference. Extracts and dilutions showed a neat linear dose response (all: R2 > 0.98) in 33 rhinitis patients. Relative potencies: Staloral® 12 000 BAU/ml, Soluprick® 10 300 BAU/ml, Oralair® 8200 BAU, and Grazax® 6200 BAU. Even though all extract concentrates differed in wheal size (P = 0.01-0.001), Grazax® producing a 25% smaller wheal size than Oralair® , and the biological activity of these clinically effective TIM tablets led in the same range (6200-8200 BAU; 0.92-1.23 cm2 ). SLIT dose-finding studies for other pollens might start with allergen extracts producing 1.1 cm2 wheal surface.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - J. Singh
- Institute for Medical Statistics, Informatics and Epidemiology; Faculty of Medicine, University of Cologne; Cologne Germany
| | - N. Rosario
- Universidad Federal do Paraná; Curitiba Brazil
| | - R. Esch
- Greer Laboratories Inc.; Lenoir NC USA
| | | | | | - A. Michels
- Institute for Medical Statistics, Informatics and Epidemiology; Faculty of Medicine, University of Cologne; Cologne Germany
| | - R. Mösges
- Institute for Medical Statistics, Informatics and Epidemiology; Faculty of Medicine, University of Cologne; Cologne Germany
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37
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Abstract
One key approach to increase the efficacy and the safety of immunotherapy is the use of adjuvants. However, many of the adjuvants currently in use can cause adverse events, raising concerns regarding their clinical use, and are geared toward productive immune responses but not necessarily tolerogenic responses. Thus, novel adjuvants for immunotherapy are needed and are being developed. Essential is their potential to boost appropriate tolerogenic adaptive immune responses to allergens while limiting side effects. This review provides an overview of adjuvants currently in clinical use or under development and discusses their therapeutic effect in enhancing allergen-induced tolerance.
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38
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Atluri K, De Jesus AM, Chinnathambi S, Brouillette MJ, Martin JA, Salem AK, Sander EA. Blebbistatin-Loaded Poly(d,l-lactide- co-glycolide) Particles For Treating Arthrofibrosis. ACS Biomater Sci Eng 2016; 2:1097-1107. [PMID: 33445238 DOI: 10.1021/acsbiomaterials.6b00082] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Joint immobility is a debilitating complication of articular trauma that is characterized by thickening and stiffening of the joint capsule and the formation of fibrotic lesions inside joints. Capsule release surgery can temporarily restore mobility, but contraction often recurs due to the contractile activities of fibroblasts, which exert tension on the capsule ECM via nonmuscle myosin II. Based on these findings we hypothesized that blebbistatin, a drug that reversibly inhibits the activity of this protein, would relax ECM tension imposed by fibroblasts and reduce fibrosis. In this study, we characterized the effectiveness of blebbistatin as an anticontractile treatment. Given that sustained suppression of contractile activity may be required to achieve capsule release and reduce fibrosis, we compared the effects on fibroblast-mediated collagen ECM displacement of blebbistatin-loaded poly(lactide-co-gylcolide) (PLGA) particles versus bolus blebbistatin dosing. Time-lapse imaging of fluorescent microspheres embedded in collagen gels confirmed that PLGA/blebbistatin inhibited force generation and reduced both gel displacement and rate of displacement. In addition, collagen production at 10 days was significantly reduced. Taken together, these data indicate that blebbistatin-loaded PLGA particles can be used to inhibit fibroblast force-generation and reduce collagen production and lay the foundation for optimization of drug delivery technology for treating arthrofibrosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Atluri
- Division of Pharmaceutics and Translational Therapeutics, University of Iowa College of Pharmacy, 115 South Grand Avenue, Iowa City, Iowa 52242, United States
| | - A M De Jesus
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Iowa College of Engineering, 1402 Seamans Center, Iowa City, Iowa 52242, United States
| | - S Chinnathambi
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Iowa College of Engineering, 1402 Seamans Center, Iowa City, Iowa 52242, United States
| | - M J Brouillette
- Department of Orthopaedics and Rehabilitation, University of Iowa Roy J and Lucille A Carver College of Medicine, 25 South Grand Avenue, Iowa City, Iowa 52242, United States
| | - J A Martin
- Department of Orthopaedics and Rehabilitation, University of Iowa Roy J and Lucille A Carver College of Medicine, 25 South Grand Avenue, Iowa City, Iowa 52242, United States
| | - A K Salem
- Division of Pharmaceutics and Translational Therapeutics, University of Iowa College of Pharmacy, 115 South Grand Avenue, Iowa City, Iowa 52242, United States.,Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Iowa College of Engineering, 1402 Seamans Center, Iowa City, Iowa 52242, United States
| | - E A Sander
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Iowa College of Engineering, 1402 Seamans Center, Iowa City, Iowa 52242, United States
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39
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Geary SM, Morris AS, Salem AK. Assessing the effect of engineered nanomaterials on the environment and human health. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2016; 138:405-8. [PMID: 27497279 DOI: 10.1016/j.jaci.2016.06.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2016] [Revised: 06/20/2016] [Accepted: 06/22/2016] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Sean M Geary
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Experimental Therapeutics, College of Pharmacy, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa
| | - Angie S Morris
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Experimental Therapeutics, College of Pharmacy, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa
| | - Aliasger K Salem
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Experimental Therapeutics, College of Pharmacy, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa.
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40
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Allahyari M, Mohit E. Peptide/protein vaccine delivery system based on PLGA particles. Hum Vaccin Immunother 2016; 12:806-28. [PMID: 26513024 PMCID: PMC4964737 DOI: 10.1080/21645515.2015.1102804] [Citation(s) in RCA: 94] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2015] [Revised: 09/15/2015] [Accepted: 09/27/2015] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Due to the excellent safety profile of poly (D,L-lactide-co-glycolide) (PLGA) particles in human, and their biodegradability, many studies have focused on the application of PLGA particles as a controlled-release vaccine delivery system. Antigenic proteins/peptides can be encapsulated into or adsorbed to the surface of PLGA particles. The gradual release of loaded antigens from PLGA particles is necessary for the induction of efficient immunity. Various factors can influence protein release rates from PLGA particles, which can be defined intrinsic features of the polymer, particle characteristics as well as protein and environmental related factors. The use of PLGA particles encapsulating antigens of different diseases such as hepatitis B, tuberculosis, chlamydia, malaria, leishmania, toxoplasma and allergy antigens will be described herein. The co-delivery of antigens and immunostimulants (IS) with PLGA particles can prevent the systemic adverse effects of immunopotentiators and activate both dendritic cells (DCs) and natural killer (NKs) cells, consequently enhancing the therapeutic efficacy of antigen-loaded PLGA particles. We will review co-delivery of different TLR ligands with antigens in various models, highlighting the specific strengths and weaknesses of the system. Strategies to enhance the immunotherapeutic effect of DC-based vaccine using PLGA particles can be designed to target DCs by functionalized PLGA particle encapsulating siRNAs of suppressive gene, and disease specific antigens. Finally, specific examples of cellular targeting where decorating the surface of PLGA particles target orally administrated vaccine to M-cells will be highlighted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mojgan Allahyari
- Department of Recombinant Protein Production, Research & Production Complex, Pasteur Institute of Iran, Tehran, Iran
| | - Elham Mohit
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, School of Pharmacy, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
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Nanoparticle conjugation enhances the immunomodulatory effects of intranasally delivered CpG in house dust mite-allergic mice. Sci Rep 2015; 5:14274. [PMID: 26387548 PMCID: PMC4585708 DOI: 10.1038/srep14274] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2015] [Accepted: 08/17/2015] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
An emerging strategy in preventing and treating airway allergy consists of modulating the immune response induced against allergens in the lungs. CpG oligodeoxynucleotides have been investigated in airway allergy studies, but even if promising, efficacy requires further substantiation. We investigated the effect of pulmonary delivery of nanoparticle (NP)-conjugated CpG on lung immunity and found that NP-CpG led to enhanced recruitment of activated dendritic cells and to Th1 immunity compared to free CpG. We then evaluated if pulmonary delivery of NP-CpG could prevent and treat house dust mite-induced allergy by modulating immunity directly in lungs. When CpG was administered as immunomodulatory therapy prior to allergen sensitization, we found that NP-CpG significantly reduced eosinophilia, IgE levels, mucus production and Th2 cytokines, while free CpG had only a moderate effect on these parameters. In a therapeutic setting where CpG was administered after allergen sensitization, we found that although both free CpG and NP-CpG reduced eosinophilia and IgE levels to the same extent, NP conjugation of CpG significantly enhanced reduction of Th2 cytokines in lungs of allergic mice. Taken together, these data highlight benefits of NP conjugation and the relevance of NP-CpG as allergen-free therapy to modulate lung immunity and treat airway allergy.
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Diaminosulfide based polymer microparticles as cancer vaccine delivery systems. J Control Release 2015; 220:682-90. [PMID: 26359124 DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2015.09.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2015] [Revised: 09/01/2015] [Accepted: 09/04/2015] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
The aim of the research presented here was to determine the characteristics and immunostimulatory capacity, in vivo, of antigen and adjuvant co-loaded into microparticles made from a novel diaminosulfide polymer, poly(4,4'-trimethylenedipiperdyl sulfide) (PNSN), and to assess their potential as cancer vaccine vectors. PNSN microparticles co-loaded with the antigen, ovalbumin (OVA), and adjuvant, CpG 1826, (PNSN(OVA + CpG)) were fabricated and characterized for size (1.64 μm diameter; PDI=0.62), charge (-23.1 ± 0.3), and loading efficiencies of antigen (7.32 μg/mg particles) and adjuvant (0.95 μg/mg particles). The ability of PNSN(OVA + CpG) to stimulate cellular and humoral immune responses in vivo was compared with other PNSN microparticle formulations as well as with poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid)(PLGA)-based microparticles, co-loaded with OVA and CpG (PLGA(OVA + CpG)), an adenovirus encoding OVA (Ad5-OVA), and OVA delivered with incomplete Freund's adjuvant (IFA(OVA)). In vivo OVA-specific IgG1 responses, after subcutaneous prime/boosts in mice, were similar when PNSN(OVA + CpG) and PLGA(OVA + CpG) were compared and the presence of CpG 1826 within the PNSN microparticles demonstrated significantly improved responses when compared to PNSN microparticles loaded with OVA alone (PNSN(OVA)), plus or minus soluble CpG 1826. Cellular immune responses to all particle-based vaccine formulations ranged from being negligible to modest with PNSN(OVA + CpG) generating the greatest responses, displaying significantly increased levels of OVA-specific CD8+ T lymphocytes compared to controls and IFA(OVA) treated mice. Finally, it was shown that of all vaccination formulations tested PNSN(OVA + CpG) was the most protective against subsequent challenge with an OVA-expressing tumor cell line, E.G7. Thus, microparticles made from poly(diaminosulfide)-based macromolecules possess promising potential as vaccine vectors and, as demonstrated here, may have impact as cancer vaccines in particular.
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Salem AK. A promising CpG adjuvant-loaded nanoparticle-based vaccine for treatment of dust mite allergies. Immunotherapy 2015; 6:1161-3. [PMID: 25496331 DOI: 10.2217/imt.14.97] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
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Salem AK. Nanoparticles in vaccine delivery. AAPS JOURNAL 2015; 17:289-91. [PMID: 25613459 DOI: 10.1208/s12248-015-9720-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2015] [Accepted: 01/12/2015] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Aliasger K Salem
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Experimental Therapeutics, College of Pharmacy, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, 52242, USA,
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