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Liang Z, Guo Y, Ellin N, King TI, Berthold EC, Mukhopadhyay S, Sharma A, McCurdy CR, Prentice BM. Formation of multiple ion types during MALDI imaging mass spectrometry analysis of Mitragyna speciosa alkaloids in dosed rat brain tissue. Talanta 2024; 274:125923. [PMID: 38569366 DOI: 10.1016/j.talanta.2024.125923] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2024] [Revised: 03/08/2024] [Accepted: 03/13/2024] [Indexed: 04/05/2024]
Abstract
Mitragyna speciosa, more commonly known as kratom, has emerged as an alternative to treat chronic pain and addiction. However, the alkaloid components of kratom, which are the major contributors to kratom's pharmaceutical properties, have not yet been fully investigated. In this study, matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization (MALDI) imaging mass spectrometry was used to map the biodistribution of three alkaloids (corynantheidine, mitragynine, and speciogynine) in rat brain tissues. The alkaloids produced three main ion types during MALDI analysis: [M + H]+, [M - H]+, and [M - 3H]+. Contrary to previous reports suggesting that the [M - H]+ and [M - 3H]+ ion types form during laser ablation, these ion types can also be produced during the MALDI matrix application process. Several strategies are proposed to accurately map the biodistribution of the alkaloids. Due to differences in the relative abundances of the ions in different biological regions of the tissue, differences in ionization efficiencies of the ions, and potential overlap of the [M - H]+ and [M - 3H]+ ion types with endogenous metabolites of the same empirical formula, a matrix that mainly produces the [M + H]+ ion type is optimal for accurate mapping of the alkaloids. Alternatively, the most abundant ion type can be mapped or the intensities of all ion types can be summed together to generate a composite image. The accuracy of each of these approaches is explored and validated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhongling Liang
- Department of Chemistry, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA
| | - Yingchan Guo
- Department of Chemistry, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA
| | - Nicholas Ellin
- Department of Chemistry, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA
| | - Tamara I King
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA
| | - Erin C Berthold
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA
| | - Sushobhan Mukhopadhyay
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA; Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA
| | - Abhisheak Sharma
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA
| | - Christopher R McCurdy
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA; Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA
| | - Boone M Prentice
- Department of Chemistry, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA.
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Yang Y, Müller CP, Singh D. Kratom (Mitragyna speciosa) Use and Mental Health: A Systematic Review and Multilevel Meta-Analysis. Eur Addict Res 2024:1-22. [PMID: 38889703 DOI: 10.1159/000539338] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2023] [Accepted: 05/02/2024] [Indexed: 06/20/2024]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Kratom (Mitragyna speciosa) is a medicinal tree native to Southeast Asia. The present multilevel meta-analysis describes the association between kratom use and the positive and negative indicators of mental health. METHODS A total of thirty-six articles were included in the meta-analysis to examine the associations, using a random-effects model. RESULTS The pooled effect size showed a very small positive association between kratom use and negative indicators of mental health {r = 0.092, 95% confidence interval (CI) = [0.020, 0.164], p < 0.05}, while no significant association was found with positive indicators of mental health (r = -0.031, 95% CI = [-0.149, 0.087], p > 0.05). Pooled effect sizes of specific mental health outcomes indicated that kratom use showed only a small positive correlation with externalizing disorders (r = 0.201, 95% CI = [0.107, 0.300], p < 0.001). No significant association was found between kratom use and quality of life (r = 0.069, 95% CI = [-0.104, 0.242], p > 0.05) and internalizing disorders (r = -0.001, 95% CI = [-0.115, 0.095], p > 0.05). Multilevel moderator analysis showed that the pooled effect size of the association between kratom use and substance use disorder was stronger in Malaysia (r = 0.347, 95% CI = [0.209, 0.516], p < 0.001), and with the mean age (β1 = -0.035, 95% CI = [-0.055, -0.014], p = 0.003), and the drug profile of those who were not co-using other drugs (r = 0.347, 95% CI = [0.209, 0.516], p < 0.001). CONCLUSION The meta-analysis supports the kratom instrumentalization concept, in that a positive gain from kratom consumption can be achieved without any significant adverse associations with mental health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuting Yang
- Centre for Drug Research, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Minden, Malaysia
| | - Christian P Müller
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University Hospital, Friedrich-Alexander-University Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, Germany
- Institute of Psychopharmacology, Central Institute of Mental Health, Faculty of Medicine Mannheim, University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Darshan Singh
- Centre for Drug Research, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Minden, Malaysia
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Rogers JM, Colvin K, Epstein DH, Grundmann O, McCurdy CR, Smith KE. Growing pains with kratom: experiences discussed in subreddits contrast with satisfaction expressed in surveys. Front Pharmacol 2024; 15:1412397. [PMID: 38948457 PMCID: PMC11211595 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2024.1412397] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2024] [Accepted: 05/28/2024] [Indexed: 07/02/2024] Open
Abstract
Background "Kratom" refers to an array of bioactive products derived from Mitragyna speciosa, a tree indigenous to Southeast Asia. Most kratom consumers report analgesic and stimulatory effects, and common reasons for use are to address mental and physical health needs, manage pain, and to reduce use of other substances. Natural-history studies and survey studies suggest that many kratom consumers perceive benefits from those uses, but such studies are unlikely to capture the full range of kratom-use experiences. Methods We collected text data from Reddit posts from 2020-2022 to qualitatively examine conceptualizations, motivations, effects, and consequences associated with kratom use among people posting to social media. Reddit posts mentioning kratom were studied using template thematic analysis, which included collecting descriptions of kratom product types and use practices. Network analyses of coded themes was performed to examine independent relationships among themes, and between themes and product types. Results Codes were applied to 329 of the 370 posts that comprised the final sample; 134 posts contained kratom product descriptions. As Reddit accounts were functionally anonymous, demographic estimates were untenable. Themes included kratom physical dependence (tolerance, withdrawal, or use to avoid withdrawal), perceived addiction (net detrimental effects on functioning), and quitting. Extract products were positively associated with reports of perceived addiction, dependence, and experiences of quitting kratom. Many used kratom for energy and self-treatment of pain, fatigue, and problems associated with opioid and alcohol; they perceived these uses as effective. Consumers expressed frustrations about product inconsistencies and lack of product information. Conclusion As in previous studies, kratom was deemed helpful for some and a hindrance to others, but we also found evidence of notable negative experiences with kratom products that have not been well documented in surveys. Daily kratom use may produce mild-moderate physical dependence, with greater severity being possibly more common with concentrated extracts; however, there are currently no human laboratory studies of concentrated kratom extracts. Such studies, and detailed kratom product information, are needed to help inform consumer decision-making.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeffrey M. Rogers
- San Diego State University/University of California San Diego Joint Doctoral Program in Clinical Psychology, San Diego, CA, United States
| | - Kayla Colvin
- Real-world Assessment, Prediction, and Treatment Unit, National Institute on Drug Abuse Intramural Research Program, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - David H. Epstein
- Real-world Assessment, Prediction, and Treatment Unit, National Institute on Drug Abuse Intramural Research Program, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Oliver Grundmann
- College of Pharmacy, Department of Medicinal Chemistry, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States
| | - Christopher R. McCurdy
- College of Pharmacy, Department of Medicinal Chemistry, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States
| | - Kirsten E. Smith
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, United States
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4
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Andleeb H, Papke RL, Stokes C, Richter K, Herz SM, Chiang K, Kanumuri SRR, Sharma A, Damaj MI, Grau V, Horenstein NA, Thakur GA. Explorations of Agonist Selectivity for the α9* nAChR with Novel Substituted Carbamoyl/Amido/Heteroaryl Dialkylpiperazinium Salts and Their Therapeutic Implications in Pain and Inflammation. J Med Chem 2024; 67:8642-8666. [PMID: 38748608 PMCID: PMC11181317 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.3c02429] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2023] [Revised: 04/01/2024] [Accepted: 04/29/2024] [Indexed: 06/14/2024]
Abstract
There is an urgent need for nonopioid treatments for chronic and neuropathic pain to provide effective alternatives amid the escalating opioid crisis. This study introduces novel compounds targeting the α9 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR) subunit, which is crucial for pain regulation, inflammation, and inner ear functions. Specifically, it identifies novel substituted carbamoyl/amido/heteroaryl dialkylpiperazinium iodides as potent agonists selective for human α9 and α9α10 over α7 nAChRs, particularly compounds 3f, 3h, and 3j. Compound 3h (GAT2711) demonstrated a 230 nM potency as a full agonist at α9 nAChRs, being 340-fold selective over α7. Compound 3c was 10-fold selective for α9α10 over α9 nAChR. Compounds 2, 3f, and 3h inhibited ATP-induced interleukin-1β release in THP-1 cells. The analgesic activity of 3h was fully retained in α7 knockout mice, suggesting that analgesic effects were potentially mediated through α9* nAChRs. Our findings provide a blueprint for developing α9*-specific therapeutics for pain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hina Andleeb
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Florida, P.O. Box 117200, Gainesville, Florida 32611-7200, United States
- Department
of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical
Sciences, Bouvé College of Health Sciences, Northeastern University, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, United States
| | - Roger L. Papke
- Department
of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, University
of Florida, P.O. Box 100267, Gainesville, Florida 32610, United States
| | - Clare Stokes
- Department
of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, University
of Florida, P.O. Box 100267, Gainesville, Florida 32610, United States
| | - Katrin Richter
- Department
of General and Thoracic Surgery, Laboratory of Experimental Surgery,
Justus-Liebig-University, German Center for Lung Research [DZL], Cardio-Pulmonary Institute [CPI], Giessen 35385, Germany
| | - Sara M. Herz
- Department
of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Virginia
Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia 23298, United States
| | - Ka Chiang
- Department
of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Virginia
Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia 23298, United States
| | - Siva R. Raju Kanumuri
- Department
of Pharmaceutics, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32610, United States
| | - Abhisheak Sharma
- Department
of Pharmaceutics, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32610, United States
| | - M. Imad Damaj
- Department
of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Virginia
Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia 23298, United States
| | - Veronika Grau
- Department
of General and Thoracic Surgery, Laboratory of Experimental Surgery,
Justus-Liebig-University, German Center for Lung Research [DZL], Cardio-Pulmonary Institute [CPI], Giessen 35385, Germany
| | - Nicole A. Horenstein
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Florida, P.O. Box 117200, Gainesville, Florida 32611-7200, United States
| | - Ganesh A. Thakur
- Department
of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical
Sciences, Bouvé College of Health Sciences, Northeastern University, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, United States
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5
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Henningfield JE, Grundmann O, Huestis MA, Smith KE. Kratom safety and toxicology in the public health context: research needs to better inform regulation. Front Pharmacol 2024; 15:1403140. [PMID: 38887550 PMCID: PMC11180979 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2024.1403140] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2024] [Accepted: 04/30/2024] [Indexed: 06/20/2024] Open
Abstract
Although kratom use has been part of life for centuries in Southeast Asia, the availability and use of kratom in the United States (US) increased substantially since the early 2000s when there was little information on kratom pharmacology, use patterns, and effects, all critical to guiding regulation and policy. Here we provide a synthesis of research with several hundred English-language papers published in the past 5 years drawing from basic research, epidemiological and surveillance data, and recent clinical research. This review of available literature aims to provide an integrated update regarding our current understanding of kratom's benefits, risks, pharmacology, and epidemiology, which may inform United States-based kratom regulation. Recent surveillance indicates there are likely several million past-year kratom consumers, though estimates vary widely. Even without precise prevalence data, kratom use is no longer a niche, with millions of United States adults using it for myriad reasons. Despite its botanical origins in the coffee tree family and its polypharmacy, kratom is popularly characterized as an opioid with presumed opioid-system-based risks for addiction or overdose. Neuropharmacology, toxicology, and epidemiology studies show that kratom is more accurately characterized as a substance with diverse and complex pharmacology. Taken together the work reviewed here provides a foundation for future scientific studies, as well as a guide for ongoing efforts to regulate kratom. This work also informs much-needed federal oversight, including by the United States Food and Drug Administration. We conclude with recommendations for kratom regulation and research priorities needed to address current policy and knowledge gaps around this increasingly used botanical product.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jack E. Henningfield
- Pinney Associates, Inc., Bethesda, MD, United States
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Bethesda, MD, United States
| | - Oliver Grundmann
- College of Pharmacy, Department of Medicinal Chemistry, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States
| | - Marilyn A. Huestis
- Institute of Emerging Health Professions, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA, United States
| | - Kirsten E. Smith
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, United States
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6
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Huestis MA, Brett MA, Bothmer J, Atallah R. Human Mitragynine and 7-Hydroxymitragynine Pharmacokinetics after Single and Multiple Daily Doses of Oral Encapsulated Dried Kratom Leaf Powder. Molecules 2024; 29:984. [PMID: 38474495 DOI: 10.3390/molecules29050984] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/01/2024] [Revised: 01/21/2024] [Accepted: 01/26/2024] [Indexed: 03/14/2024] Open
Abstract
Kratom leaves, consumed by millions worldwide as tea or ground leaf powder, contain multiple alkaloids, with mitragynine being the most abundant and responsible for most effects. Mitragynine is a partial µ-opioid receptor agonist and competitive antagonist at κ- and δ-opioid receptors; however, unlike morphine, it does not activate the β-arrestin-2 respiratory depression pathway. Due to few human mitragynine data, the largest randomized, between-subject, double-blind, placebo-controlled, dose-escalation study of 500-4000 mg dried kratom leaf powder (6.65-53.2 mg mitragynine) was conducted. LC-MS/MS mitragynine and 7-hydroxymitragynine plasma concentrations were obtained after single and 15 daily doses. Mitragynine and 7-hydroxymitragynine Cmax increased dose proportionally, and AUC was slightly more than dose proportional. The median mitragynine Tmax was 1.0-1.3 h after single and 1.0-1.7 h after multiple doses; for 7-hydroxymitragynine Tmax, it was 1.2-1.8 h and 1.3-2.0 h. Steady-state mitragynine concentrations were reached in 8-9 days and 7-hydroxymitragynine within 7 days. The highest mean mitragynine T1/2 was 43.4 h after one and 67.9 h after multiple doses, and, for 7-hydroxymitragynine, it was 4.7 and 24.7 h. The mean 7-hydroxy-mitragynine/mitragynine concentration ratios were 0.20-0.31 after a single dose and decreased (0.15-0.21) after multiple doses. These mitragynine and 7-hydroxymitragynine data provide guidance for future clinical kratom dosing studies and an interpretation of clinical and forensic mitragynine and 7-hydroxymitragynine concentrations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marilyn A Huestis
- Institute of Emerging Health Professions, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA 19107, USA
| | | | - John Bothmer
- JB Pharma Consulting, 6418PR Heerlen, The Netherlands
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McCurdy CR, Sharma A, Smith KE, Veltri CA, Weiss ST, White CM, Grundmann O. An update on the clinical pharmacology of kratom: uses, abuse potential, and future considerations. Expert Rev Clin Pharmacol 2024; 17:131-142. [PMID: 38217374 PMCID: PMC10846393 DOI: 10.1080/17512433.2024.2305798] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2023] [Accepted: 01/11/2024] [Indexed: 01/15/2024]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Kratom (Mitragyna speciosa) has generated substantial clinical and scientific interest as a complex natural product. Its predominant alkaloid mitragynine and several stereoisomers have been studied for activity in opioid, adrenergic, and serotonin receptors. While awaiting clinical trial results, the pre-clinical evidence suggests a range of potential therapeutic applications for kratom with careful consideration of potential adverse effects. AREAS COVERED The focus of this review is on the pharmacology, pharmacokinetics, and potential drug-drug interactions of kratom and its individual alkaloids. A discussion on the clinical pharmacology and toxicology of kratom is followed by a summary of user surveys and the evolving concepts of tolerance, dependence, and withdrawal associated with kratom use disorder. EXPERT OPINION With the increasing use of kratom in clinical practice, clinicians should be aware of the potential benefits and adverse effects associated with kratom. While many patients may benefit from kratom use with few or no reported adverse effects, escalating dose and increased use frequency raise the risk for toxic events in the setting of polysubstance use or development of a use disorder.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher R McCurdy
- College of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmaceutics, University of Florida, FL, 32610, U.S.A
- College of Pharmacy, Department of Medicinal Chemistry, University of Florida, FL, 32610, U.S.A
| | - Abhisheak Sharma
- College of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmaceutics, University of Florida, FL, 32610, U.S.A
| | - Kirsten E. Smith
- School of Medicine, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Johns Hopkins University, MD, 21205, U.S.A
| | - Charles A. Veltri
- Midwestern University, College of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Glendale, AZ, 85308, U.S.A
| | - Stephanie T. Weiss
- Translational Addiction Medicine Branch, National Institute on Drug Abuse Intramural Research Program, Baltimore, MD, U.S.A
| | - Charles M. White
- University of Connecticut School of Pharmacy, Storrs, CT, and Department of Pharmacy, Hartford Hospital, Hartford, CT, U.S.A
| | - Oliver Grundmann
- College of Pharmacy, Department of Medicinal Chemistry, University of Florida, FL, 32610, U.S.A
- Midwestern University, College of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Glendale, AZ, 85308, U.S.A
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Angyal P, Hegedüs K, Mészáros BB, Daru J, Dudás Á, Galambos AR, Essmat N, Al-Khrasani M, Varga S, Soós T. Total Synthesis and Structural Plasticity of Kratom Pseudoindoxyl Metabolites. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2023; 62:e202303700. [PMID: 37332089 DOI: 10.1002/anie.202303700] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2023] [Revised: 06/13/2023] [Accepted: 06/15/2023] [Indexed: 06/20/2023]
Abstract
Mitragynine pseudoindoxyl, a kratom metabolite, has attracted increasing attention due to its favorable side effect profile as compared to conventional opioids. Herein, we describe the first enantioselective and scalable total synthesis of this natural product and its epimeric congener, speciogynine pseudoindoxyl. The characteristic spiro-5-5-6-tricyclic system of these alkaloids was formed through a protecting-group-free cascade relay process in which oxidized tryptamine and secologanin analogues were used. Furthermore, we discovered that mitragynine pseudoindoxyl acts not as a single molecular entity but as a dynamic ensemble of stereoisomers in protic environments; thus, it exhibits structural plasticity in biological systems. Accordingly, these synthetic, structural, and biological studies provide a basis for the planned design of mitragynine pseudoindoxyl analogues, which can guide the development of next-generation analgesics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Péter Angyal
- Institute of Organic Chemistry, Research Centre for Natural Sciences, Magyar tudósok körútja 2, 1117, Budapest, Hungary
- Hevesy György PhD School of Chemistry, Eötvös Loránd University, Pázmány Péter sétány 1/A, 1117, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Kristóf Hegedüs
- Institute of Organic Chemistry, Research Centre for Natural Sciences, Magyar tudósok körútja 2, 1117, Budapest, Hungary
- Hevesy György PhD School of Chemistry, Eötvös Loránd University, Pázmány Péter sétány 1/A, 1117, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Bence Balázs Mészáros
- Institute of Organic Chemistry, Research Centre for Natural Sciences, Magyar tudósok körútja 2, 1117, Budapest, Hungary
| | - János Daru
- Department of Chemistry, Eötvös Loránd University, Pázmány Péter sétány 1/A, 1117, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Ádám Dudás
- Institute of Organic Chemistry, Research Centre for Natural Sciences, Magyar tudósok körútja 2, 1117, Budapest, Hungary
- Hevesy György PhD School of Chemistry, Eötvös Loránd University, Pázmány Péter sétány 1/A, 1117, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Anna Rita Galambos
- Department of Pharmacology and Pharmacotherapy, Semmelweis University, Nagyvárad tér 4, 1089, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Nariman Essmat
- Department of Pharmacology and Pharmacotherapy, Semmelweis University, Nagyvárad tér 4, 1089, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Mahmoud Al-Khrasani
- Department of Pharmacology and Pharmacotherapy, Semmelweis University, Nagyvárad tér 4, 1089, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Szilárd Varga
- Institute of Organic Chemistry, Research Centre for Natural Sciences, Magyar tudósok körútja 2, 1117, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Tibor Soós
- Institute of Organic Chemistry, Research Centre for Natural Sciences, Magyar tudósok körútja 2, 1117, Budapest, Hungary
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Laforest LC, Kuntz MA, Kanumuri SRR, Mukhopadhyay S, Sharma A, O'Connor SE, McCurdy CR, Nadakuduti SS. Metabolite and Molecular Characterization of Mitragyna speciosa Identifies Developmental and Genotypic Effects on Monoterpene Indole and Oxindole Alkaloid Composition. JOURNAL OF NATURAL PRODUCTS 2023; 86:1042-1052. [PMID: 36913648 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jnatprod.3c00092] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
The monoterpene indole alkaloid (MIA) mitragynine has garnered attention as a potential treatment for pain, opioid use disorder, and opioid withdrawal because of its combined pharmacology at opioid and adrenergic receptors in humans. This alkaloid is unique to Mitragyna speciosa (kratom), which accumulates over 50 MIAs and oxindole alkaloids in its leaves. Quantification of 10 targeted alkaloids from several tissue types and cultivars of M. speciosa revealed that mitragynine accumulation was highest in leaves, followed by stipules and stems, but was absent, along with other alkaloids, in roots. While mitragynine is the predominant alkaloid in mature leaves, juvenile leaves accumulate higher amounts of corynantheidine and speciociliatine. Interestingly, corynantheidine has an inverse relationship with mitragynine accumulation throughout leaf development. Characterization of various cultivars of M. speciosa indicated altered alkaloidal profiles ranging from undetectable to high levels of mitragynine. DNA barcoding and phylogenetic analysis using ribosomal ITS sequences revealed polymorphisms leading M. speciosa cultivars having lower mitragynine content to group with other mitragyna species, suggesting interspecific hybridization events. Root transcriptome analysis of low- and high-mitragynine-producing cultivars indicated significant differences in gene expression and revealed allelic variation, further supporting that hybridization events may have impacted the alkaloid profile of M. speciosa.
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Affiliation(s)
- Larissa C Laforest
- Plant Molecular and Cell Biology Program, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, United States
| | - Michelle A Kuntz
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, United States
| | - Siva Rama Raju Kanumuri
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, United States
| | - Sushobhan Mukhopadhyay
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, United States
| | - Abhisheak Sharma
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, United States
| | - Sarah E O'Connor
- Department of Natural Product Biosynthesis, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Hans-Knöll-Straße 8, 07745 Jena, Germany
| | - Christopher R McCurdy
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, United States
| | - Satya Swathi Nadakuduti
- Plant Molecular and Cell Biology Program, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, United States
- Department of Environmental Horticulture, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32606, United States
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10
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Hill K, Gibson S, Grundmann O, Smith KE, Ballard J, Stanciu CN. Evaluating health information provided to kratom consumers by good manufacturing practice-qualified vendors. Subst Abuse Treat Prev Policy 2023; 18:21. [PMID: 37041624 PMCID: PMC10088264 DOI: 10.1186/s13011-023-00531-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2023] [Accepted: 03/27/2023] [Indexed: 04/13/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND "Kratom" commonly refers to the botanical Mitragyna speciosa, native to Southeast Asia, which is increasingly used globally for its unique pharmacological effects. Motives for using the whole plant material or kratom-derived products include self-management of pain, mental health disorders, symptoms related to substance use disorders, and/or to increase energy. In the United States, kratom products have varying alkaloid content, potencies, and marketing profiles. There is little regulatory oversight over kratom, as it is currently not approved as a dietary supplement by the Food and Drug Administration. This results in substantial variability in labeling of kratom products and the product information provided to consumers. METHODS In January 2023, we evaluated the American Kratom Association's Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP) qualified vendors' websites (n = 42) using the well-established and validated DISCERN instrument to examine the quality of health information provided to consumers. DISCERN contains 15 five-point Likert-scale questions on specific criteria, with the highest possible score being 75, indicating that all the DISCERN criteria have been fulfilled by the website (i.e., the highest quality information is provided to consumers). RESULTS The mean DISCERN score for all evaluated online kratom vendors was 32.72 (SD = 6.69; score range 18.00-43.76). Overall, vendors scored higher on DISCERN questions assessing the website's reliability, as vendors typically provided clear information for consumers about product availability, purchasing, shipping, etc. On average, vendors scored poorly on the DISCERN section pertaining to the quality of the health information provided. Information on kratom's potential risks and benefits was particularly insufficient. CONCLUSIONS Consumers require high quality information in order to make informed decisions concerning use, which entails disclosure of known risks and potential benefits. The online kratom vendors evaluated in this study should consider enhancing the quality of health information provided, especially information regarding kratom's risks and benefits. Further, consumers should be made aware of current knowledge gaps related to kratom's effects. Clinicians must also be aware of the lack of evidence-based information available to their patients who use kratom or are interested in using kratom products, in order to facilitate educational discussions with them.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katherine Hill
- Department of Epidemiology of Microbial Diseases, Yale School of Public Health, New Haven, CT, USA.
| | - Stephen Gibson
- Massachusetts College of Pharmacy and Health Sciences, Manchester, NH, USA
- New Hampshire Hospital, Concord, NH, USA
| | - Oliver Grundmann
- College of Pharmacy, Department of Medicinal Chemistry, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
- College of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Midwestern University, Glendale, AZ, USA
| | - Kirsten E Smith
- National Institute On Drug Abuse Intramural Research Program, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Jonathan Ballard
- New Hampshire Department of Health and Human Services, Concord, NH, USA
- Department of Psychiatry, Dartmouth-Hitchcock Medical Center, Lebanon, NH, USA
- Geisel School of Medicine, Dartmouth College, Hanover, NH, USA
| | - Corneliu N Stanciu
- New Hampshire Hospital, Concord, NH, USA
- Department of Psychiatry, Dartmouth-Hitchcock Medical Center, Lebanon, NH, USA
- Geisel School of Medicine, Dartmouth College, Hanover, NH, USA
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Leksungnoen N, Andriyas T, Ngernsaengsaruay C, Uthairatsamee S, Racharak P, Sonjaroon W, Kjelgren R, Pearson BJ, McCurdy CR, Sharma A. Variations in mitragynine content in the naturally growing Kratom ( Mitragyna speciosa) population of Thailand. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2022; 13:1028547. [PMID: 36388525 PMCID: PMC9648690 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2022.1028547] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2022] [Accepted: 10/06/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
We analyzed the content of mitragynine (MG) found in kratom leaves (Mitragyna speciosa) and the influence of different environmental conditions (air and soil variables) on the yield in various regions of Thailand. The content of MG in kratom leaves ranged from 7.5 - 26.6 mg g-1 of dry leaf weight. Canonical correspondence analysis showed that the most significant environmental variables affecting the MG content among the various regions were light intensity, relative humidity, soil volumetric water content (VW), soil pH, and calcium. This study is a first step towards providing information about environmental conditions suitable to maximize the quality and quantity of bioactive alkaloids in kratom. Future studies should focus on leaf collection and the post-harvest processes in order to assure the desired alkaloidal content in finished products, when produced under suitable environmental conditions identified in this study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nisa Leksungnoen
- Department of Forest Biology, Faculty of Forestry, Kasetsart University, Bangkok, Thailand
- Kasetsart University Research and Development Institute (KURDI), Kasetsart University, Bangkok, Thailand
- Center for Advance Studies in Tropical Natural Resources, National Research University-Kasetsart University, Kasetsart University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Tushar Andriyas
- Department of Forest Biology, Faculty of Forestry, Kasetsart University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | | | - Suwimon Uthairatsamee
- Department of Forest Biology, Faculty of Forestry, Kasetsart University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Phruet Racharak
- Department of Forest Biology, Faculty of Forestry, Kasetsart University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | | | - Roger Kjelgren
- The University of Florida (UF)/Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences (IFAS) Department of Environmental Horticulture, Mid-Florida Research and Education Center, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida, Apopka, FL, United States
| | - Brian J. Pearson
- The University of Florida (UF)/Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences (IFAS) Department of Environmental Horticulture, Mid-Florida Research and Education Center, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida, Apopka, FL, United States
| | - Christopher R. McCurdy
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States
| | - Abhisheak Sharma
- Department of Pharmaceutics, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States
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