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Seckl J. 11β-Hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase and the brain: Not (yet) lost in translation. J Intern Med 2024; 295:20-37. [PMID: 37941106 DOI: 10.1111/joim.13741] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2023]
Abstract
11-beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenases (11β-HSDs) catalyse the conversion of active 11-hydroxy glucocorticoids (cortisol, corticosterone) and their inert 11-keto forms (cortisone, 11-dehydrocorticosterone). They were first reported in the body and brain 70 years ago, but only recently have they become of interest. 11β-HSD2 is a dehydrogenase, potently inactivating glucocorticoids. In the kidney, 11β-HSD2 generates the aldosterone-specificity of intrinsically non-selective mineralocorticoid receptors. 11β-HSD2 also protects the developing foetal brain and body from premature glucocorticoid exposure, which otherwise engenders the programming of neuropsychiatric and cardio-metabolic disease risks. In the adult CNS, 11β-HSD2 is confined to a part of the brain stem where it generates aldosterone-specific central control of salt appetite and perhaps blood pressure. 11β-HSD1 is a reductase, amplifying active glucocorticoid levels within brain cells, notably in the cortex, hippocampus and amygdala, paralleling its metabolic functions in peripheral tissues. 11β-HSD1 is elevated in the ageing rodent and, less certainly, human forebrain. Transgenic models show this rise contributes to age-related cognitive decline, at least in mice. 11β-HSD1 inhibition robustly improves memory in healthy and pathological ageing rodent models and is showing initial promising results in phase II studies of healthy elderly people. Larger trials are needed to confirm and clarify the magnitude of effect and define target populations. The next decade will be crucial in determining how this tale ends - in new treatments or disappointment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan Seckl
- Centre for Cardiovascular Sciences, Queen's Medical Research Institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
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2
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Khan S, Livingstone DEW, Zielinska A, Doig CL, Cobice DF, Esteves CL, Man JTY, Homer NZM, Seckl JR, MacKay CL, Webster SP, Lavery GG, Chapman KE, Walker BR, Andrew R. Contribution of local regeneration of glucocorticoids to tissue steroid pools. J Endocrinol 2023; 258:e230034. [PMID: 37343234 PMCID: PMC10448579 DOI: 10.1530/joe-23-0034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2023] [Accepted: 06/20/2022] [Indexed: 06/23/2023]
Abstract
11β-Hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase 1 (11βHSD1) is a drug target to attenuate adverse effects of chronic glucocorticoid excess. It catalyses intracellular regeneration of active glucocorticoids in tissues including brain, liver and adipose tissue (coupled to hexose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase, H6PDH). 11βHSD1 activity in individual tissues is thought to contribute significantly to glucocorticoid levels at those sites, but its local contribution vs glucocorticoid delivery via the circulation is unknown. Here, we hypothesised that hepatic 11βHSD1 would contribute significantly to the circulating pool. This was studied in mice with Cre-mediated disruption of Hsd11b1 in liver (Alac-Cre) vs adipose tissue (aP2-Cre) or whole-body disruption of H6pdh. Regeneration of [9,12,12-2H3]-cortisol (d3F) from [9,12,12-2H3]-cortisone (d3E), measuring 11βHSD1 reductase activity was assessed at steady state following infusion of [9,11,12,12-2H4]-cortisol (d4F) in male mice. Concentrations of steroids in plasma and amounts in liver, adipose tissue and brain were measured using mass spectrometry interfaced with matrix-assisted laser desorption ionisation or liquid chromatography. Amounts of d3F were higher in liver, compared with brain and adipose tissue. Rates of appearance of d3F were ~6-fold slower in H6pdh-/- mice, showing the importance for whole-body 11βHSD1 reductase activity. Disruption of liver 11βHSD1 reduced the amounts of d3F in liver (by ~36%), without changes elsewhere. In contrast disruption of 11βHSD1 in adipose tissue reduced rates of appearance of circulating d3F (by ~67%) and also reduced regenerated of d3F in liver and brain (both by ~30%). Thus, the contribution of hepatic 11βHSD1 to circulating glucocorticoid levels and amounts in other tissues is less than that of adipose tissue.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Khan
- Centre for Cardiovascular Science, Queen’s Medical Research Institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - D E W Livingstone
- Centre for Cardiovascular Science, Queen’s Medical Research Institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
- Centre for Discovery Brain Science, University of Edinburgh, Hugh Robson Building, Edinburgh, UK
| | - A Zielinska
- College of Medical and Dental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK
| | - C L Doig
- Department of Biosciences, School of Science & Technology, Nottingham Trent University, Nottingham, UK
| | - D F Cobice
- Centre for Cardiovascular Science, Queen’s Medical Research Institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - C L Esteves
- Centre for Cardiovascular Science, Queen’s Medical Research Institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - J T Y Man
- Centre for Cardiovascular Science, Queen’s Medical Research Institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - N Z M Homer
- Mass Spectrometry Core Laboratory, Edinburgh Clinical Research Facility, Queen’s Medical Research Institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - J R Seckl
- Centre for Cardiovascular Science, Queen’s Medical Research Institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - C L MacKay
- SIRCAMS, School of Chemistry, University of Edinburgh, Joseph Black Building, King's Buildings, Edinburgh, UK
| | - S P Webster
- Centre for Cardiovascular Science, Queen’s Medical Research Institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - G G Lavery
- Department of Biosciences, School of Science & Technology, Nottingham Trent University, Nottingham, UK
| | - K E Chapman
- Centre for Cardiovascular Science, Queen’s Medical Research Institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - B R Walker
- Centre for Cardiovascular Science, Queen’s Medical Research Institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
- Clinical & Translational Research Institute, Newcastle University, International Centre for Life, Central Parkway, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
| | - R Andrew
- Centre for Cardiovascular Science, Queen’s Medical Research Institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
- Mass Spectrometry Core Laboratory, Edinburgh Clinical Research Facility, Queen’s Medical Research Institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
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3
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Fernandes ACA, de Oliveira FP, Fernandez G, da Guia Vieira L, Rosa CG, do Nascimento T, de Castro França S, Donato J, Vella KR, Antunes-Rodrigues J, Mecawi AS, Perello M, Elias LLK, Rorato R. Arcuate AgRP, but not POMC neurons, modulate paraventricular CRF synthesis and release in response to fasting. Cell Biosci 2022; 12:118. [PMID: 35902915 PMCID: PMC9331576 DOI: 10.1186/s13578-022-00853-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2022] [Accepted: 07/14/2022] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The activation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis is essential for metabolic adaptation in response to fasting. However, the neurocircuitry connecting changes in the peripheral energy stores to the activity of hypothalamic paraventricular corticotrophin-releasing factor (CRFPVN) neurons, the master controller of the HPA axis activity, is not completely understood. Our main goal was to determine if hypothalamic arcuate nucleus (ARC) POMC and AgRP neurons can communicate fasting-induced changes in peripheral energy stores, associated to a fall in plasma leptin levels, to CRFPVN neurons to modulate the HPA axis activity in mice. RESULTS We observed increased plasma corticosterone levels associate with increased CRFPVN mRNA expression and increased CRFPVN neuronal activity in 36 h fasted mice. These responses were associated with a fall in plasma leptin levels and changes in the mRNA expression of Agrp and Pomc in the ARC. Fasting-induced decrease in plasma leptin partially modulated these responses through a change in the activity of ARC neurons. The chemogenetic activation of POMCARC by DREADDs did not affect fasting-induced activation of the HPA axis. DREADDs inhibition of AgRPARC neurons reduced the content of CRFPVN and increased its accumulation in the median eminence but had no effect on corticosterone secretion induced by fasting. CONCLUSION Our data indicate that AgRPARC neurons are part of the neurocircuitry involved in the coupling of PVNCRF activity to changes in peripheral energy stores induced by prolonged fasting.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Franciane Pereira de Oliveira
- Department of Biophysics, Paulista Medical School, Federal University of Sao Paulo, São Paulo, SP, CEP 04023-062, Brazil
| | - Gimena Fernandez
- Laboratory of Neurophysiology of the Multidisciplinary Institute of Cell Biology [IMBICE, Argentine Research Council (CONICET) and Scientific Research Commission, Province of Buenos Aires (CIC-PBA), National University of La Plata, La Plata, 403, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Luane da Guia Vieira
- Department of Biotechnology, University of Ribeirao Preto, Ribeirão Prêto, SP, 14096-900, Brazil
| | - Cristiane Gugelmin Rosa
- Department of Biotechnology, University of Ribeirao Preto, Ribeirão Prêto, SP, 14096-900, Brazil
| | - Taís do Nascimento
- Department of Biotechnology, University of Ribeirao Preto, Ribeirão Prêto, SP, 14096-900, Brazil
| | - Suzelei de Castro França
- Department of Biotechnology, University of Ribeirao Preto, Ribeirão Prêto, SP, 14096-900, Brazil
| | - Jose Donato
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Sao Paulo, São Paulo, SP, 05508-000, Brazil
| | - Kristen R Vella
- Department of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism and the Weill Center for Metabolic Health, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, NY, 10021, USA
| | - Jose Antunes-Rodrigues
- Department of Physiology, Ribeirao Preto Medical School, University of Sao Paulo, Ribeirão Prêto, SP, 14049-900, Brazil
| | - André Souza Mecawi
- Department of Biophysics, Paulista Medical School, Federal University of Sao Paulo, São Paulo, SP, CEP 04023-062, Brazil
| | - Mario Perello
- Laboratory of Neurophysiology of the Multidisciplinary Institute of Cell Biology [IMBICE, Argentine Research Council (CONICET) and Scientific Research Commission, Province of Buenos Aires (CIC-PBA), National University of La Plata, La Plata, 403, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Lucila Leico Kagohara Elias
- Department of Physiology, Ribeirao Preto Medical School, University of Sao Paulo, Ribeirão Prêto, SP, 14049-900, Brazil
| | - Rodrigo Rorato
- Department of Biotechnology, University of Ribeirao Preto, Ribeirão Prêto, SP, 14096-900, Brazil. .,Department of Biophysics, Paulista Medical School, Federal University of Sao Paulo, São Paulo, SP, CEP 04023-062, Brazil.
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Gomez-Sanchez EP, Gomez-Sanchez CE. 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenases: A growing multi-tasking family. Mol Cell Endocrinol 2021; 526:111210. [PMID: 33607268 PMCID: PMC8108011 DOI: 10.1016/j.mce.2021.111210] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2020] [Revised: 02/02/2021] [Accepted: 02/07/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
This review briefly addresses the history of the discovery and elucidation of the three cloned 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (11βHSD) enzymes in the human, 11βHSD1, 11βHSD2 and 11βHSD3, an NADP+-dependent dehydrogenase also called the 11βHSD1-like dehydrogenase (11βHSD1L), as well as evidence for yet identified 11βHSDs. Attention is devoted to more recently described aspects of this multi-functional family. The importance of 11βHSD substrates other than glucocorticoids including bile acids, 7-keto sterols, neurosteroids, and xenobiotics is discussed, along with examples of pathology when functions of these multi-tasking enzymes are disrupted. 11βHSDs modulate the intracellular concentration of glucocorticoids, thereby regulating the activation of the glucocorticoid and mineralocorticoid receptors, and 7β-27-hydroxycholesterol, an agonist of the retinoid-related orphan receptor gamma (RORγ). Key functions of this nuclear transcription factor include regulation of immune cell differentiation, cytokine production and inflammation at the cell level. 11βHSD1 expression and/or glucocorticoid reductase activity are inappropriately increased with age and in obesity and metabolic syndrome (MetS). Potential causes for disappointing results of the clinical trials of selective inhibitors of 11βHSD1 in the treatment of these disorders are discussed, as well as the potential for more targeted use of inhibitors of 11βHSD1 and 11βHSD2.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Celso E Gomez-Sanchez
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Jackson, MS, USA; Medicine (Endocrinology), Jackson, MS, USA; University of Mississippi Medical Center and G.V. (Sonny) Montgomery VA Medical Center(3), Jackson, MS, USA
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Sarapultsev A, Sarapultsev P, Dremencov E, Komelkova M, Tseilikman O, Tseilikman V. Low glucocorticoids in stress-related disorders: the role of inflammation. Stress 2020; 23:651-661. [PMID: 32401103 DOI: 10.1080/10253890.2020.1766020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
There is evidence that plasma cortisol concentration can be either increased or decreased in patients with depression and related anxiety and stress-related disorders; the exact pathophysiological mechanisms of this state are not almost clear. Several distinct theories were proposed and mechanisms, which could lead to decreased glucocorticoid signaling and/or levels, were described. However, there is a possible drawback in almost all the theories proposed: insufficient attention to the inflammatory process, which is undoubtedly present in several stress-related disorders, including post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Previous studies only briefly mentioned the presence of an inflammatory reaction's signs in PTSD, without giving it due importance, although recognizing that it can affect the course of the disease. With that, the state of biochemical changes, characterized by the low glucocorticoids, glucocorticoid receptor's resistance and the signs of the persistent inflammation (with the high levels of circulating cytokines) might be observed not only in PTSD but in coronary heart diseases and systemic chronic inflammatory diseases (rheumatoid arthritis) as well. That is why the present review aims to depict the pathophysiological mechanisms, which lead to a decrease in glucocorticoids in PTSD due to the action of inflammatory stimuli. We described changes in the glucocorticoid system and inflammatory reaction as parts of an integral system, where glucocorticoids and the glucocorticoid receptor reside at the apex of a regulatory network that blocks several inflammatory pathways, while decreased glucocorticoid signaling and/or level leads to unchecked inflammatory reactions to promote pathologies such as PTSD. LAY SUMMARY This review emphasizes the importance of inflammatory reaction in the development of puzzling conditions sometimes observed in severe diseases including post-traumatic stress disorder - the decreased levels of glucocorticoids in the blood. Following the classical concepts, one would expect an increase in glucocorticoid hormones, since they are part of the feedback mechanism in the immune system, which reduces stress and inflammation. However, low levels of glucocorticoid hormones are also observed. Thus, this review describes potential mechanisms, which can lead to the development of such a state.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexey Sarapultsev
- Institute of Immunology and Physiology, Ural Division of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Ekaterinburg, Russia
| | - Petr Sarapultsev
- Institute of Immunology and Physiology, Ural Division of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Ekaterinburg, Russia
| | - Eliyahu Dremencov
- Institute of Molecular Physiology and Genetics, Centre for Biosciences, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Bratislava, Slovakia
- Institute of Experimental Endocrinology, Biomedical Research Center, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Maria Komelkova
- Institute of Immunology and Physiology, Ural Division of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Ekaterinburg, Russia
- School of Medical Biology, South Ural State University, Chelyabinsk, Russia
| | - Olga Tseilikman
- School of Medical Biology, South Ural State University, Chelyabinsk, Russia
| | - Vadim Tseilikman
- School of Medical Biology, South Ural State University, Chelyabinsk, Russia
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6
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Effects of corticosterone within the hypothalamic arcuate nucleus on food intake and body weight in male rats. Mol Metab 2020; 36:100972. [PMID: 32229097 PMCID: PMC7132090 DOI: 10.1016/j.molmet.2020.02.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2020] [Revised: 02/20/2020] [Accepted: 02/26/2020] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Obesity is a major cause of morbidity and mortality. Few weight-reducing medications are available, and these have limited efficacy. Cushing's Syndrome (caused by elevated glucocorticoid levels) and obesity have similar metabolic features. Though circulating glucocorticoid levels are not elevated in obesity, tissue-specific glucocorticoid levels have been implicated in the development of the metabolic phenotype of obesity. Tissue glucocorticoid levels are regulated by 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type1 (11βHSD1), which increases the local concentration of active glucocorticoids by the production of corticosterone from 11-dehydrocorticosterone. 11βHSD1 is expressed in the hypothalamic arcuate nucleus (ARC), a major weight and appetite-regulating centre, and therefore represents a target for novel anti-obesity therapeutic agents. Thus, we sought to investigate the effect of chronic alterations of ARC corticosterone levels (mediated by 11βHSD1) on food intake and body weight in adult male rats. METHODS Recombinant adeno-associated virus particles bearing sense 11βHSD1 (rAAV-S11βHSD1) and small interfering 11βHSD1 (rAAV-si11βHSD1), respectively, were stereotactically injected into the ARC (bilaterally) of adult male Wistar rats. rAAV-GFP was injected into control groups of male Wistar rats. Food intake and body weight were measured three times a week for 70 days. Terminal brain, plasma and intrascapular brown adipose tissue (iBAT) samples were taken for measurement of mRNA expression and hormone levels. RESULTS Compared to controls, rAAV-S11βHSD1 injection resulted in higher ARC corticosterone levels, hyperphagia and increased weight gain. Conversely, rAAV-si11βHSD1 injection (compared to controls) resulted in lower ARC corticosterone levels, higher iBAT uncoupling protein-1 mRNA expression and less weight gain despite similar food intake. CONCLUSIONS Therefore ARC corticosterone, regulated by 11βHSD1, may play a role in food intake and body weight regulation. These data have important implications for the development of centrally-acting 11βHSD1 inhibitors, which are currently being developed for the treatment of obesity, metabolic disorders, and other conditions.
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Aas M, Ueland T, Inova A, Melle I, Andreassen OA, Steen NE. Childhood Trauma Is Nominally Associated With Elevated Cortisol Metabolism in Severe Mental Disorder. Front Psychiatry 2020; 11:391. [PMID: 32528319 PMCID: PMC7247816 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2020.00391] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2019] [Accepted: 04/17/2020] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Individuals exposed to childhood trauma display longstanding modifications of the Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal (HPA) axis, as well as cognitive impairments. Schizophrenia spectrum disorder (SZ) and bipolar disorders (BD) are characterised by higher prevalence of childhood trauma, abnormal HPA axis, and cognitive dysfunction. Elevated cortisol metabolism was recently demonstrated in both disorders. However, it is yet to be established if childhood adversity is associated with cortisol metabolism in this population, and how this may be associated with cognitive function. METHODS One-hundred-and-fourteen participants with a DSM-IV SZ or BD diagnosis took part in the study. Diagnoses were evaluated by the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV Axis I disorders (SCID-I). Estimated cortisol metabolizing activity (5α-reductase and 5β-reductase) was assessed by urinary free cortisol, and metabolites. All patients underwent cognitive assessment and completed the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire. RESULTS Estimated 5β-reductase activity was elevated in participant with childhood physical abuse (r = 0.26, p = 0.005). After adjusting for age, sex and diagnosis, physical abuse was still nominally associated with elevated 5β-reductase. Moreover, only high 5α-reductase activity was negatively correlated with working memory and executive performance (r = -0.23, p = 0.01; r = -0.19, p = 0.05, respectively), however this disappeared after adjusting for age, sex and diagnosis. Cortisol metabolism did not mediate the association between childhood trauma and cognitive function. CONCLUSIONS Our study indicates that childhood physical abuse is associated with elevated cortisol metabolism (5β-reductase) in adults with a SZ or BD disorder. However, our study did not support cortisol metabolism as a mediator between childhood trauma experiences and cognitive function within these disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Monica Aas
- NORMENT, Psychosis Research Unit, Division of Mental Health and Addiction, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway
| | - Torill Ueland
- NORMENT, Psychosis Research Unit, Division of Mental Health and Addiction, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway.,Department of Psychology, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Amina Inova
- NORMENT, Psychosis Research Unit, Division of Mental Health and Addiction, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway
| | - Ingrid Melle
- NORMENT, Psychosis Research Unit, Division of Mental Health and Addiction, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway
| | - Ole A Andreassen
- NORMENT, Psychosis Research Unit, Division of Mental Health and Addiction, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway.,NORMENT, Institute of Clinical Medicine, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Nils Eiel Steen
- NORMENT, Psychosis Research Unit, Division of Mental Health and Addiction, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway.,NORMENT, Institute of Clinical Medicine, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
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Sattler J, Tu J, Stoner S, Li J, Buttgereit F, Seibel MJ, Zhou H, Cooper MS. Role of 11β-HSD type 1 in abnormal HPA axis activity during immune-mediated arthritis. Endocr Connect 2018; 7:385-394. [PMID: 29386227 PMCID: PMC5825927 DOI: 10.1530/ec-17-0361] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2018] [Accepted: 01/31/2018] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Patients with chronic immune-mediated arthritis exhibit abnormal hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis activity. The basis for this abnormality is not known. Immune-mediated arthritis is associated with increased extra-adrenal synthesis of active glucocorticoids by the 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1 (11β-HSD1) enzyme. 11β-HSD1 is expressed in the central nervous system, including regions involved in HPA axis regulation. We examined whether altered 11β-HSD1 expression within these regions contributes to HPA axis dysregulation during arthritis. The expression of 11β-HSD1, and other components of glucocorticoid signaling, were examined in various brain regions and the pituitary gland of mice with experimentally induced arthritis. Two arthritis protocols were employed: The K/BxN spontaneous arthritis model for chronic arthritis and the K/BxN serum transfer arthritis model for acute arthritis. 11β-HSD1 mRNA (Hsd11b1) was expressed in the hippocampus, hypothalamus, cortex, cerebellum and pituitary gland. Hypothalamic Hsd11b1 expression did not change in response to arthritis in either model. Pituitary Hsd11b1 expression was however significantly increased in both chronic and acute arthritis models. Hippocampal Hsd11b1 was decreased in acute but not chronic arthritis. Chronic, but not acute, arthritis was associated with a reduction in hypothalamic corticotropin-releasing hormone and arginine vasopressin expression. In both models, serum adrenocorticotropic hormone and corticosterone levels were no different from non-inflammatory controls. These findings demonstrate inflammation-dependent regulation of Hsd11b1 expression in the pituitary gland and hippocampus. The upregulation of 11β-HSD1 expression in the pituitary during both chronic and acute arthritis, and thus, an increase in glucocorticoid negative feedback, could contribute to the abnormalities in HPA axis activity seen in immune-mediated arthritis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Janko Sattler
- Adrenal Steroid GroupANZAC Research Institute, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
- Department of Rheumatology and Clinical ImmunologyCharité-University Medicine, Berlin, Germany
| | - Jinwen Tu
- Adrenal Steroid GroupANZAC Research Institute, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
- Bone Research ProgramANZAC Research Institute, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
- Concord Clinical SchoolThe University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia
| | - Shihani Stoner
- Bone Research ProgramANZAC Research Institute, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Jingbao Li
- Bone Research ProgramANZAC Research Institute, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
- Key Laboratory for Space Bioscience and BiotechnologyInstitute of Special Environmental Biophysics, School of Life Sciences, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Shaanxi, China
| | - Frank Buttgereit
- Department of Rheumatology and Clinical ImmunologyCharité-University Medicine, Berlin, Germany
| | - Markus J Seibel
- Bone Research ProgramANZAC Research Institute, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
- Concord Clinical SchoolThe University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia
- Department of Endocrinology & MetabolismConcord Hospital, Sydney, Australia
| | - Hong Zhou
- Bone Research ProgramANZAC Research Institute, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
- Concord Clinical SchoolThe University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia
| | - Mark S Cooper
- Adrenal Steroid GroupANZAC Research Institute, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
- Concord Clinical SchoolThe University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia
- Department of Endocrinology & MetabolismConcord Hospital, Sydney, Australia
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Pierre K, Schlesinger N, Androulakis IP. The Hepato-Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal-Renal Axis: Mathematical Modeling of Cortisol’s Production, Metabolism, and Seasonal Variation. J Biol Rhythms 2017; 32:469-484. [DOI: 10.1177/0748730417729929] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Cortisol dynamics are governed by the integration of influences from the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN), the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, and metabolic enzymes, such as the 11β–hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (HSD) family, which are highly expressed in hepatic and renal tissue. The coordinated regulation of cortisol dynamics is essential for the maintenance of a healthy state, and aberrant cortisol circadian rhythms are associated with various pathophysiological conditions. The duration of the light-dark cycle, or photoperiod, which regulates SCN activity, varies seasonally, and the shorter photoperiod winter season is associated with elevated cortisol levels, peak inflammatory disease incidence, and symptom exacerbation. Elevated expression and activity of 11β-HSD1 protein, assumed to also occur during the winter, have been allied with numerous inflammatory conditions. A comprehensive understanding of the communication between the underlying regulatory mechanisms of cortisol as well as how changes in their activity could lead to the development of disease is yet to be elucidated. In this work, we propose the use of a semimechanistic mathematical model to explore the impact of the hepato-hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal-renal axis in modulating neuroendocrine-immune system dynamics. Our model predicts the predominance of a winter proinflammatory state and that genetic variations could alter 11β-HSD enzyme functionality, rendering certain subpopulations more susceptible to disease as a consequence of HPA axis dysregulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kamau Pierre
- Biomedical Engineering Department, Rutgers University, Piscataway, New Jersey
| | - Naomi Schlesinger
- Department of Medicine, Rutgers Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, New Brunswick, New Jersey
| | - Ioannis P. Androulakis
- Biomedical Engineering Department, Rutgers University, Piscataway, New Jersey
- Chemical & Biochemical Engineering Department, Rutgers University, Piscataway, New Jersey
- Department of Surgery, Rutgers-Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, New Brunswick, New Jersey
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10
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Caughey S, Harris AP, Seckl JR, Holmes MC, Yau JLW. Forebrain-Specific Transgene Rescue of 11β-HSD1 Associates with Impaired Spatial Memory and Reduced Hippocampal Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor mRNA Levels in Aged 11β-HSD1 Deficient Mice. J Neuroendocrinol 2017; 29. [PMID: 27859809 PMCID: PMC5244685 DOI: 10.1111/jne.12447] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2016] [Revised: 10/04/2016] [Accepted: 11/14/2016] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Mice lacking the intracellular glucocorticoid-regenerating enzyme 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1 (11β-HSD1) are protected from age-related spatial memory deficits. 11β-HSD1 is expressed predominantly in the brain, liver and adipose tissue. Reduced glucocorticoid levels in the brain in the absence of 11β-HSD1 may underlie the improved memory in aged 11β-HSD1 deficient mice. However, the improved glucose tolerance, insulin sensitisation and cardioprotective lipid profile associated with reduced peripheral glucocorticoid regeneration may potentially contribute to the cognitive phenotype of aged 11β-HSD1 deficient mice. In the present study, transgenic mice with forebrain-specific overexpression of 11β-HSD1 (Tg) were intercrossed with global 11β-HSD1 knockout mice (HSD1KO) to examine the influence of forebrain and peripheral 11β-HSD1 activity on spatial memory in aged mice. Transgene-mediated delivery of 11β-HSD1 to the hippocampus and cortex of aged HSD1KO mice reversed the improved spatial memory retention in the Y-maze but not spatial learning in the watermaze. Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) mRNA levels in the hippocampus of aged HSD1KO mice were increased compared to aged wild-type mice. Rescue of forebrain 11β-HSD1 reduced BDNF mRNA in aged HSD1KO mice to levels comparable to aged wild-type mice. These findings indicate that 11β-HSD1 regenerated glucocorticoids in the forebrain and decreased levels of BDNF mRNA in the hippocampus play a role in spatial memory deficits in aged wild-type mice, although 11β-HSD1 activity in peripheral tissues may also contribute to spatial learning impairments in aged mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Caughey
- UoE/BHF Centre for Cardiovascular Science, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
- Centre for Cognitive Ageing and Cognitive Epidemiology, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - A P Harris
- UoE/BHF Centre for Cardiovascular Science, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
- Centre for Cognitive Ageing and Cognitive Epidemiology, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - J R Seckl
- UoE/BHF Centre for Cardiovascular Science, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
- Centre for Cognitive Ageing and Cognitive Epidemiology, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - M C Holmes
- UoE/BHF Centre for Cardiovascular Science, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
- Centre for Cognitive Ageing and Cognitive Epidemiology, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - J L W Yau
- UoE/BHF Centre for Cardiovascular Science, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
- Centre for Cognitive Ageing and Cognitive Epidemiology, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
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11
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Quteineh L, Vandenberghe F, Saigi Morgui N, Delacrétaz A, Choong E, Gholam-Rezaee M, Magistretti P, Bondolfi G, Von Gunten A, Preisig M, Castelao E, Vollenweider P, Waeber G, Bochud M, Kutalik Z, Conus P, Eap CB. Impact of HSD11B1 polymorphisms on BMI and components of the metabolic syndrome in patients receiving psychotropic treatments. Pharmacogenet Genomics 2015; 25:246-58. [PMID: 25751397 DOI: 10.1097/fpc.0000000000000131] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Metabolic syndrome (MetS) associated with psychiatric disorders and psychotropic treatments represents a major health issue. 11β-Hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1 (11β-HSD1) is an enzyme that catalyzes tissue regeneration of active cortisol from cortisone. Elevated enzymatic activity of 11β-HSD1 may lead to the development of MetS. METHODS We investigated the association between seven HSD11B1 gene (encoding 11β-HSD1) polymorphisms and BMI and MetS components in a psychiatric sample treated with potential weight gain-inducing psychotropic drugs (n=478). The polymorphisms that survived Bonferroni correction were analyzed in two independent psychiatric samples (nR1=168, nR2=188) and in several large population-based samples (n1=5338; n2=123 865; n3>100 000). RESULTS HSD11B1 rs846910-A, rs375319-A, and rs4844488-G allele carriers were found to be associated with lower BMI, waist circumference, and diastolic blood pressure compared with the reference genotype (Pcorrected<0.05). These associations were exclusively detected in women (n=257) with more than 3.1 kg/m, 7.5 cm, and 4.2 mmHg lower BMI, waist circumference, and diastolic blood pressure, respectively, in rs846910-A, rs375319-A, and rs4844488-G allele carriers compared with noncarriers (Pcorrected<0.05). Conversely, carriers of the rs846906-T allele had significantly higher waist circumference and triglycerides and lower high-density lipoprotein-cholesterol exclusively in men (Pcorrected=0.028). The rs846906-T allele was also associated with a higher risk of MetS at 3 months of follow-up (odds ratio: 3.31, 95% confidence interval: 1.53-7.17, Pcorrected=0.014). No association was observed between HSD11B1 polymorphisms and BMI and MetS components in the population-based samples. CONCLUSIONS Our results indicate that HSD11B1 polymorphisms may contribute toward the development of MetS in psychiatric patients treated with potential weight gain-inducing psychotropic drugs, but do not play a significant role in the general population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lina Quteineh
- aUnit of Pharmacogenetics and Clinical Psychopharmacology, Department of Psychiatry, Centre for Psychiatric Neuroscience bDepartment of Psychiatry, Centre of Psychiatric Epidemiology and Psychopathology cDepartment of Psychiatry, Service of Old Age Psychiatry dDepartment of Psychiatry, Service of General Psychiatry, Lausanne University Hospital, Prilly eLaboratory of Neuroenergetics and Cellular Dynamics, Brain Mind Institute, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne fDepartment of Medicine gInstitute of Social and Preventive Medicine (IUMSP), Lausanne University Hospital hDepartment of Medical Genetics, University of Lausanne iSwiss Institute of Bioinformatics, Lausanne jDepartment of Mental Health and Psychiatry, University Hospital of Geneva kSchool of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Geneve, University of Lausanne, Geneva, Switzerland lFaculty of Biological and Environmental Science and Engineering, King Abdullah University of Science and Technology, Thuwal, Saudi Arabia
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12
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Kong S, Ruan J, Xin L, Fan J, Xia J, Liu Z, Mu Y, Yang S, Li K. Multi‑transgenic minipig models exhibiting potential for hepatic insulin resistance and pancreatic apoptosis. Mol Med Rep 2015; 13:669-80. [PMID: 26648014 PMCID: PMC4686100 DOI: 10.3892/mmr.2015.4582] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2015] [Accepted: 10/14/2015] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
There are currently no multi‑transgenic minipig models of diabetes for the regulation of multiple genes involved in its pathogenesis. The foot and mouth disease virus 2A (F2A)‑mediated polycistronic system possesses several advantages, and the present study developed a novel multi‑transgenic minipig model associated with diabetes using this system. The tissue‑specific polycistronic system used in the present study consisted of two expression cassettes, separated by an insulator: (i) 11‑β‑hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase 1 (11β‑HSD1), driven by the porcine liver‑specific apolipoprotein E promoter; (ii) human islet amyloid polypeptide (hIAPP) and C/EBP homologous protein (CHOP), linked to the furin digested site and F‑2A, driven by the porcine pancreas‑specific insulin promoter. In the present study, porcine fetal fibroblasts were transfected with this vector. Following somatic cell nuclear transfer using 10 cell clones and the transplantation of 1,459 embryos in total, three Landrace x Yorkshire surrogates became pregnant and delivered three Wuzhishan piglets. Genomic polymerase chain reaction (PCR) demonstrated that the piglets were multi‑transgenic. Reverse transcription‑quantitative PCR confirmed that 11β‑HSD1 transcription was upregulated in the targeted liver. Similarly, hIAPP and CHOP were expressed at high levels, compared with the control (P<0.05 and P<0.01) in the pancreas, consistent with the western blotting and immunohistochemistry results. The primary results also showed that overexpression of 11β‑HSD1 in the liver increased the liver fat lipid parameters; and the levels of hIAPP and CHOP in the pancreatic islet cells, leading to delayed β‑cell development and apoptosis. This novel tissue‑specific polycistronic system offers a promising starting point for efficiently mimicking multigenic metabolic disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Siyuan Kong
- State Key Laboratory of Animal Nutrition, Institute of Animal Sciences, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100193, P.R. China
| | - Jinxue Ruan
- State Key Laboratory of Animal Nutrition, Institute of Animal Sciences, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100193, P.R. China
| | - Leilei Xin
- State Key Laboratory of Animal Nutrition, Institute of Animal Sciences, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100193, P.R. China
| | - Junhua Fan
- State Key Laboratory of Animal Nutrition, Institute of Animal Sciences, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100193, P.R. China
| | - Jihan Xia
- State Key Laboratory of Animal Nutrition, Institute of Animal Sciences, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100193, P.R. China
| | - Zhiguo Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Animal Nutrition, Institute of Animal Sciences, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100193, P.R. China
| | - Yulian Mu
- State Key Laboratory of Animal Nutrition, Institute of Animal Sciences, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100193, P.R. China
| | - Shulin Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Animal Nutrition, Institute of Animal Sciences, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100193, P.R. China
| | - Kui Li
- State Key Laboratory of Animal Nutrition, Institute of Animal Sciences, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100193, P.R. China
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13
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Yau JLW, Noble J, Kenyon CJ, Ludwig M, Seckl JR. Diurnal and stress-induced intra-hippocampal corticosterone rise attenuated in 11β-HSD1-deficient mice: a microdialysis study in young and aged mice. Eur J Neurosci 2015; 41:787-92. [PMID: 25614240 PMCID: PMC4440343 DOI: 10.1111/ejn.12836] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2014] [Revised: 12/17/2014] [Accepted: 12/18/2014] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
11β-Hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1 (11β-HSD1) locally regenerates active glucocorticoids from their inert forms thereby amplifying intracellular levels within target tissues including the brain. We previously showed greater increases in intra-hippocampal corticosterone (CORT) levels upon Y-maze testing in aged wild-type than in 11β-HSD1(-/-) mice coinciding with impaired and intact spatial memory, respectively. Here we examined whether ageing influences 11β-HSD1 regulation of CORT in the dorsal hippocampus under basal conditions during the diurnal cycle and following stress. Intra-hippocampal CORT levels measured by in vivo microdialysis in freely behaving wild-type mice displayed a diurnal variation with peak levels in the evening that were significantly elevated with ageing. In contrast, the diurnal rise in intra-hippocampal CORT levels was greatly diminished in 11β-HSD1(-/-) mice and there was no rise with ageing; basal intra-hippocampal CORT levels were similar to wild-type controls. Furthermore, a short (3 min) swim stress induced a longer lasting increase in intra-hippocampal CORT levels in wild-type mice than in 11β-HSD1(-/-) mice despite no genotypic differences in elevation of plasma CORT. These data indicate that 11β-HSD1 activity contributes substantially to diurnal and stress-induced increases in hippocampal CORT levels. This contribution is even greater with ageing. Thus, 11β-HSD1 inhibition may be an attractive target for treating cognitive impairments associated with stress or ageing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joyce L W Yau
- Centre for Cognitive Aging and Cognitive Epidemiology, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK; Endocrinology Unit, BHF Centre for Cardiovascular Science, Queen's Medical Research Institute, University of Edinburgh, 47 Little France Crescent, Edinburgh EH16 4TJ, UK
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14
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Steen NE, Methlie P, Lorentzen S, Dieset I, Aas M, Nerhus M, Haram M, Agartz I, Melle I, Berg JP, Andreassen OA. Altered systemic cortisol metabolism in bipolar disorder and schizophrenia spectrum disorders. J Psychiatr Res 2014; 52:57-62. [PMID: 24534618 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpsychires.2014.01.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2013] [Revised: 01/23/2014] [Accepted: 01/27/2014] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Dysfunction of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis is suggested as a pathophysiological factor in bipolar disorder and schizophrenia. Increased clearance of cortisol was recently indicated as a component in the HPA axis hyperdrive. The aim of the present study was to test the model of increased cortisol metabolism in a new replication sample separately and combined with a previously published sample of bipolar disorder and schizophrenia. Spot urine was sampled from 212 healthy controls (HC) and 221 patients with a schizophrenia spectrum disorder (SCZ, n = 115) and bipolar disorder (BD, n = 106). Of these, a subsample of 169 HC and 155 patients was included in a previous report. Urinary free cortisol, cortisone and their metabolites were measured, and the activities of 5α-reductase, 5β-reductase and 11β-HSD were estimated and analyzed for differences between groups. In the new sample, there was increased enzyme activity in SCZ for 5β-reductase (p = 0.024 vs HC; p = 0.027 vs BD) and 11β-HSD2 (p = 0.014 vs HC; p = 0.004 vs BD). In the combined sample, there was increased activity in SCZ for 5α-reductase (p < 0.001 vs HC; p = 0.020 vs BD), 5β-reductase (p < 0.001 vs HC; p = 0.045 vs BD) and 11β-HSD2 (p < 0.001 vs HC; p = 0.043 vs BD), and in BD for 5β-reductase (p = 0.002), 11β-HSD2 (p = 0.039) and 5α-reductase (trend, p = 0.084) (all vs HC). The findings confirm increased systemic cortisol metabolism in BD and SCZ. This is most consistent in SCZ, with BD taking an intermediate position. The design makes it impossible to determine the direction of the effect. However, the findings merit further study of cortisol metabolism as a possible component in the HPA axis dysfunction and pathophysiology of BD and SCZ.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nils Eiel Steen
- KG Jebsen Centre for Psychosis Research, Division of Mental Health and Addiction, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway; Institute of Clinical Medicine, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway; Drammen District Psychiatric Center, Clinic of Mental Health and Addiction, Vestre Viken Hospital Trust, Drammen, Norway.
| | - Paal Methlie
- Institute of Medicine, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway; Hormone Laboratory, Haukeland University Hospital, Bergen, Norway
| | - Steinar Lorentzen
- Institute of Clinical Medicine, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway; Department of Research and Development, Division of Mental Health and Addiction, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway
| | - Ingrid Dieset
- KG Jebsen Centre for Psychosis Research, Division of Mental Health and Addiction, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway; Institute of Clinical Medicine, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Monica Aas
- KG Jebsen Centre for Psychosis Research, Division of Mental Health and Addiction, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway; Institute of Clinical Medicine, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Mari Nerhus
- KG Jebsen Centre for Psychosis Research, Division of Mental Health and Addiction, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway; Institute of Clinical Medicine, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Marit Haram
- KG Jebsen Centre for Psychosis Research, Division of Mental Health and Addiction, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway; Institute of Clinical Medicine, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Ingrid Agartz
- KG Jebsen Centre for Psychosis Research, Division of Mental Health and Addiction, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway; Institute of Clinical Medicine, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway; Department of Psychiatric Research, Diakonhjemmet Hospital, Oslo, Norway
| | - Ingrid Melle
- KG Jebsen Centre for Psychosis Research, Division of Mental Health and Addiction, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway; Institute of Clinical Medicine, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Jens P Berg
- Institute of Clinical Medicine, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway; Department of Medical Biochemistry, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway; Hormone Laboratory, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway
| | - Ole A Andreassen
- KG Jebsen Centre for Psychosis Research, Division of Mental Health and Addiction, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway; Institute of Clinical Medicine, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
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15
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Aas M, Dazzan P, Mondelli V, Melle I, Murray RM, Pariante CM. A systematic review of cognitive function in first-episode psychosis, including a discussion on childhood trauma, stress, and inflammation. Front Psychiatry 2014; 4:182. [PMID: 24409157 PMCID: PMC3884147 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2013.00182] [Citation(s) in RCA: 141] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2013] [Accepted: 12/13/2013] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To carry out a systematic review of the literature addressing cognitive functions in first-episode psychosis (FEP), divided into domains. Although this is not a full "cognitive-genetics-in-schizophrenia review," we will also include putative ideas of mechanism(s) behind these impairments, focusing on how early stress, and genetic vulnerability may moderate cognitive function in psychosis. METHOD Relevant studies were identified via computer literature searches for research published up to and including January 2013, only case-control studies were included for the neurocognitive meta-analysis. RESULTS Patients with FEP present global cognitive impairment compared to healthy controls. The largest effect size was observed for verbal memory (Cohen's d effect size = 2.10), followed by executive function (effect size = 1.86), and general IQ (effect size = 1.71). However, effect sizes varied between studies. CONCLUSION Cognitive impairment across domains, up to severe level based on Cohen's effect size, is present already in FEP studies. However, differences in levels of impairment are observed between studies, as well as within domains, indicating that further consolidation of cognitive impairment over the course of illness may be present. Cognitive abnormalities may be linked to a neurodevelopmental model including increased sensitivity to the negative effect of stress, as well as genetic vulnerability. More research on this field is needed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Monica Aas
- Division of Mental Health and Addiction, Institute of Clinical Medicine, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
- NORMENT, K.G. Jebsen Psychosis Research Unit, Division of Mental Health and Addiction, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway
| | - Paola Dazzan
- Department of Psychosis Studies, Institute of Psychiatry, King’s College London, London, UK
- NIHR Biomedical Research Centre for Mental Health, South London and Maudsley NHS Foundation Trust and Institute of Psychiatry, King’s College London, London, UK
| | - Valeria Mondelli
- Department of Psychological Medicine, Institute of Psychiatry, King’s College London, London, UK
| | - Ingrid Melle
- Division of Mental Health and Addiction, Institute of Clinical Medicine, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
- NORMENT, K.G. Jebsen Psychosis Research Unit, Division of Mental Health and Addiction, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway
| | - Robin M. Murray
- Department of Psychosis Studies, Institute of Psychiatry, King’s College London, London, UK
- NIHR Biomedical Research Centre for Mental Health, South London and Maudsley NHS Foundation Trust and Institute of Psychiatry, King’s College London, London, UK
| | - Carmine M. Pariante
- NIHR Biomedical Research Centre for Mental Health, South London and Maudsley NHS Foundation Trust and Institute of Psychiatry, King’s College London, London, UK
- Department of Psychological Medicine, Institute of Psychiatry, King’s College London, London, UK
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16
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Maniam J, Antoniadis C, Morris MJ. Early-Life Stress, HPA Axis Adaptation, and Mechanisms Contributing to Later Health Outcomes. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2014; 5:73. [PMID: 24860550 PMCID: PMC4026717 DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2014.00073] [Citation(s) in RCA: 180] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2013] [Accepted: 04/28/2014] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Stress activates the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, which then modulates the degree of adaptation and response to a later stressor. It is known that early-life stress can impact on later health but less is known about how early-life stress impairs HPA axis activity, contributing to maladaptation of the stress-response system. Early-life stress exposure (either prenatally or in the early postnatal period) can impact developmental pathways resulting in lasting structural and regulatory changes that predispose to adulthood disease. Epidemiological, clinical, and experimental studies have demonstrated that early-life stress produces long term hyper-responsiveness to stress with exaggerated circulating glucocorticoids, and enhanced anxiety and depression-like behaviors. Recently, evidence has emerged on early-life stress-induced metabolic derangements, for example hyperinsulinemia and altered insulin sensitivity on exposure to a high energy diet later in life. This draws our attention to the contribution of later environment to disease vulnerability. Early-life stress can alter the expression of genes in peripheral tissues, such as the glucocorticoid receptor and 11-beta hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (11β-HSD1). We propose that interactions between altered HPA axis activity and liver 11β-HSD1 modulates both tissue and circulating glucocorticoid availability, with adverse metabolic consequences. This review discusses the potential mechanisms underlying early-life stress-induced maladaptation of the HPA axis, and its subsequent effects on energy utilization and expenditure. The effects of positive later environments as a means of ameliorating early-life stress-induced health deficits, and proposed mechanisms underpinning the interaction between early-life stress and subsequent detrimental environmental exposures on metabolic risk will be outlined. Limitations in current methodology linking early-life stress and later health outcomes will also be addressed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jayanthi Maniam
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medical Sciences, UNSW Australia, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Christopher Antoniadis
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medical Sciences, UNSW Australia, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Margaret J. Morris
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medical Sciences, UNSW Australia, Sydney, NSW, Australia
- *Correspondence: Margaret J. Morris, Department of Pharmacology, School of Medical Sciences, UNSW Australia, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia e-mail:
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17
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Dickmeis T, Weger BD, Weger M. The circadian clock and glucocorticoids--interactions across many time scales. Mol Cell Endocrinol 2013; 380:2-15. [PMID: 23707790 DOI: 10.1016/j.mce.2013.05.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2013] [Revised: 05/14/2013] [Accepted: 05/15/2013] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Glucocorticoids are steroid hormones of the adrenal gland that are an integral component of the stress response and regulate many physiological processes, including metabolism and immune response. Their release into the blood is highly dynamic and occurs in about hourly pulses, the amplitude of which is modulated in a daytime dependent fashion. In addition, in many species seasonal changes in basal glucocorticoid levels have been reported. In their target tissues, glucocorticoids bind to cytoplasmic receptors of the nuclear receptor superfamily. Upon binding, these receptors regulate transcription in a highly dynamic fashion, which involves stochastic binding to regulatory DNA elements on a time scale of seconds and heat shock protein mediated receptor-ligand complex recycling within minutes. The glucocorticoid hormone system interacts with another highly dynamic system, the circadian clock. The circadian clock is an endogenous biological timing mechanism that allows organisms to anticipate regular daily changes in their environment. It regulates daily rhythms of glucocorticoid release by a variety of mechanisms, modulates glucocorticoid signaling and is itself influenced by glucocorticoids. Here, we discuss mechanisms, functions and interactions of the circadian and glucocorticoid systems across time scales ranging from seconds (DNA binding by transcriptional regulators) to years (seasonal rhythms).
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Dickmeis
- Institute of Toxicology and Genetics, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), Campus Nord, Postfach 3640, D-76021 Karlsruhe, Germany.
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18
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Chapman K, Holmes M, Seckl J. 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenases: intracellular gate-keepers of tissue glucocorticoid action. Physiol Rev 2013; 93:1139-206. [PMID: 23899562 DOI: 10.1152/physrev.00020.2012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 553] [Impact Index Per Article: 50.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Glucocorticoid action on target tissues is determined by the density of "nuclear" receptors and intracellular metabolism by the two isozymes of 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (11β-HSD) which catalyze interconversion of active cortisol and corticosterone with inert cortisone and 11-dehydrocorticosterone. 11β-HSD type 1, a predominant reductase in most intact cells, catalyzes the regeneration of active glucocorticoids, thus amplifying cellular action. 11β-HSD1 is widely expressed in liver, adipose tissue, muscle, pancreatic islets, adult brain, inflammatory cells, and gonads. 11β-HSD1 is selectively elevated in adipose tissue in obesity where it contributes to metabolic complications. Similarly, 11β-HSD1 is elevated in the ageing brain where it exacerbates glucocorticoid-associated cognitive decline. Deficiency or selective inhibition of 11β-HSD1 improves multiple metabolic syndrome parameters in rodent models and human clinical trials and similarly improves cognitive function with ageing. The efficacy of inhibitors in human therapy remains unclear. 11β-HSD2 is a high-affinity dehydrogenase that inactivates glucocorticoids. In the distal nephron, 11β-HSD2 ensures that only aldosterone is an agonist at mineralocorticoid receptors (MR). 11β-HSD2 inhibition or genetic deficiency causes apparent mineralocorticoid excess and hypertension due to inappropriate glucocorticoid activation of renal MR. The placenta and fetus also highly express 11β-HSD2 which, by inactivating glucocorticoids, prevents premature maturation of fetal tissues and consequent developmental "programming." The role of 11β-HSD2 as a marker of programming is being explored. The 11β-HSDs thus illuminate the emerging biology of intracrine control, afford important insights into human pathogenesis, and offer new tissue-restricted therapeutic avenues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karen Chapman
- Endocrinology Unit, Centre for Cardiovascular Science, The Queen’s Medical Research Institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
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19
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Modulation of 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase as a strategy to reduce vascular inflammation. Curr Atheroscler Rep 2013; 15:320. [PMID: 23512604 PMCID: PMC3631116 DOI: 10.1007/s11883-013-0320-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Atherosclerosis is a chronic inflammatory disease in which initial vascular damage leads to extensive macrophage and lymphocyte infiltration. Although acutely glucocorticoids suppress inflammation, chronic glucocorticoid excess worsens atherosclerosis, possibly by exacerbating systemic cardiovascular risk factors. However, glucocorticoid action within the lesion may reduce neointimal proliferation and inflammation. Glucocorticoid levels within cells do not necessarily reflect circulating levels due to pre-receptor metabolism by 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenases (11β-HSDs). 11β-HSD2 converts active glucocorticoids into inert 11-keto forms. 11β-HSD1 catalyses the reverse reaction, regenerating active glucocorticoids. 11β-HSD2-deficiency/inhibition causes hypertension, whereas deficiency/inhibition of 11β-HSD1 generates a cardioprotective lipid profile and improves glycemic control. Importantly, 11β-HSD1-deficiency/inhibition is atheroprotective, whereas 11β-HSD2-deficiency accelerates atherosclerosis. These effects are largely independent of systemic risk factors, reflecting modulation of glucocorticoid action and inflammation within the vasculature. Here, we consider whether evidence linking the 11β-HSDs to vascular inflammation suggests these isozymes are potential therapeutic targets in vascular injury and atherosclerosis.
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20
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Gillespie CF, Almli LM, Smith AK, Bradley B, Kerley K, Crain DF, Mercer KB, Weiss T, Phifer J, Tang Y, Cubells JF, Binder EB, Conneely KN, Ressler KJ. Sex dependent influence of a functional polymorphism in steroid 5-α-reductase type 2 (SRD5A2) on post-traumatic stress symptoms. Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet 2013; 162B:283-292. [PMID: 23505265 PMCID: PMC3770127 DOI: 10.1002/ajmg.b.32147] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2012] [Accepted: 02/13/2013] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
A non-synonymous, single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) in the gene coding for steroid 5-α-reductase type 2 (SRD5A2) is associated with reduced conversion of testosterone to dihydrotestosterone (DHT). Because SRD5A2 participates in the regulation of testosterone and cortisol metabolism, hormones shown to be dysregulated in patients with PTSD, we examined whether the V89L variant (rs523349) influences risk for post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Study participants (N = 1,443) were traumatized African-American patients of low socioeconomic status with high rates of lifetime trauma exposure recruited from the primary care clinics of a large, urban hospital. PTSD symptoms were measured with the post-traumatic stress symptom scale (PSS). Subjects were genotyped for the V89L variant (rs523349) of SRD5A2. We initially found a significant sex-dependent effect of genotype in male but not female subjects on symptoms. Associations with PTSD symptoms were confirmed using a separate internal replication sample with identical methods of data analysis, followed by pooled analysis of the combined samples (N = 1,443, sex × genotype interaction P < 0.002; males: n = 536, P < 0.001). These data support the hypothesis that functional variation within SRD5A2 influences, in a sex-specific way, the severity of post-traumatic stress symptoms and risk for diagnosis of PTSD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charles F. Gillespie
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Lynn M. Almli
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Alicia K. Smith
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia,Department of Human Genetics, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Bekh Bradley
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia,Atlanta VA Medical Center, Atlanta, Georgia
| | | | - Daniel F. Crain
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia
| | | | - Tamara Weiss
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Justine Phifer
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Yilang Tang
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Joseph F. Cubells
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia,Department of Human Genetics, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Elisabeth B. Binder
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia,Max Planck Institute of Psychiatry, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Karen N. Conneely
- Department of Human Genetics, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Kerry J. Ressler
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia,Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Atlanta, Georgia,Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Atlanta, Georgia,Correspondence to: Kerry J. Ressler, M.D., Ph.D., Investigator, Howard Hughes Medical Institute; Professor, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Yerkes Research Center, Emory University, 954 Gatewood Dr, Atlanta, GA 30329.
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Lavery GG, Zielinska AE, Gathercole LL, Hughes B, Semjonous N, Guest P, Saqib K, Sherlock M, Reynolds G, Morgan SA, Tomlinson JW, Walker EA, Rabbitt EH, Stewart PM. Lack of significant metabolic abnormalities in mice with liver-specific disruption of 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1. Endocrinology 2012; 153:3236-48. [PMID: 22555437 PMCID: PMC3475725 DOI: 10.1210/en.2012-1019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Glucocorticoids (GC) are implicated in the development of metabolic syndrome, and patients with GC excess share many clinical features, such as central obesity and glucose intolerance. In patients with obesity or type 2 diabetes, systemic GC concentrations seem to be invariably normal. Tissue GC concentrations determined by the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis and local cortisol (corticosterone in mice) regeneration from cortisone (11-dehydrocorticosterone in mice) by the 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1 (11β-HSD1) enzyme, principally expressed in the liver. Transgenic mice have demonstrated the importance of 11β-HSD1 in mediating aspects of the metabolic syndrome, as well as HPA axis control. In order to address the primacy of hepatic 11β-HSD1 in regulating metabolism and the HPA axis, we have generated liver-specific 11β-HSD1 knockout (LKO) mice, assessed biomarkers of GC metabolism, and examined responses to high-fat feeding. LKO mice were able to regenerate cortisol from cortisone to 40% of control and had no discernible difference in a urinary metabolite marker of 11β-HSD1 activity. Although circulating corticosterone was unaltered, adrenal size was increased, indicative of chronic HPA stimulation. There was a mild improvement in glucose tolerance but with insulin sensitivity largely unaffected. Adiposity and body weight were unaffected as were aspects of hepatic lipid homeostasis, triglyceride accumulation, and serum lipids. Additionally, no changes in the expression of genes involved in glucose or lipid homeostasis were observed. Liver-specific deletion of 11β-HSD1 reduces corticosterone regeneration and may be important for setting aspects of HPA axis tone, without impacting upon urinary steroid metabolite profile. These discordant data have significant implications for the use of these biomarkers of 11β-HSD1 activity in clinical studies. The paucity of metabolic abnormalities in LKO points to important compensatory effects by HPA activation and to a crucial role of extrahepatic 11β-HSD1 expression, highlighting the contribution of cross talk between GC target tissues in determining metabolic phenotype.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gareth G Lavery
- Centre for Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism, School of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Birmingham, Birmingham B15 2TT, United Kingdom.
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22
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Yehuda R, Seckl J. Minireview: Stress-related psychiatric disorders with low cortisol levels: a metabolic hypothesis. Endocrinology 2011; 152:4496-503. [PMID: 21971152 DOI: 10.1210/en.2011-1218] [Citation(s) in RCA: 156] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Several stress-associated neuropsychiatric disorders, notably posttraumatic stress disorder and chronic pain and fatigue syndromes, paradoxically exhibit somewhat low plasma levels of the stress hormone cortisol. The effects appear greatest in those initially traumatized in early life, implying a degree of developmental programming, perhaps of both lower cortisol and vulnerability to psychopathology. In these conditions, lowered cortisol is not due to any adrenal or pituitary insufficiency. Instead, two processes appear involved. First, there is increased target cell sensitivity to glucocorticoid action, notably negative feedback upon the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (stress) axis. Altered density of the glucocorticoid receptor is inferred, squaring with much preclinical data showing early life challenges can permanently program glucocorticoid receptors in a tissue-specific manner. These effects involve epigenetic mechanisms. Second, early life trauma/starvation induces long-lasting lowering of glucocorticoid catabolism, specifically by 5α-reductase type 1 (predominantly a liver enzyme) and 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2 (in kidney), an effect also seen in model systems. These changes reflect a plausible early-life adaptation to increase the persistence of active cortisol in liver (to maximize fuel output) and kidney (to increase salt retention) without elevation of circulating levels, thus avoiding their deleterious effects on brain and muscle. Modestly lowered circulating cortisol and increased vulnerability to stress-associated disorders may be the outcome. This notion implies a vulnerable early-life phenotype may be discernable and indicates potential therapy by modest glucocorticoid replacement. Indeed, early clinical trials with cortisol have shown a modicum of promise.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachel Yehuda
- Mount Sinai School of Medicine, Department of Psychiatry, Traumatology and Stress Studies Division, New York, New York 10029, USA
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23
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Wyrwoll CS, Holmes MC, Seckl JR. 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenases and the brain: from zero to hero, a decade of progress. Front Neuroendocrinol 2011; 32:265-86. [PMID: 21144857 PMCID: PMC3149101 DOI: 10.1016/j.yfrne.2010.12.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 168] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2010] [Revised: 12/01/2010] [Accepted: 12/01/2010] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Glucocorticoids have profound effects on brain development and adult CNS function. Excess or insufficient glucocorticoids cause myriad abnormalities from development to ageing. The actions of glucocorticoids within cells are determined not only by blood steroid levels and target cell receptor density, but also by intracellular metabolism by 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenases (11β-HSD). 11β-HSD1 regenerates active glucocorticoids from their inactive 11-keto derivatives and is widely expressed throughout the adult CNS. Elevated hippocampal and neocortical 11β-HSD1 is observed with ageing and causes cognitive decline; its deficiency prevents the emergence of cognitive defects with age. Conversely, 11β-HSD2 is a dehydrogenase, inactivating glucocorticoids. The major central effects of 11β-HSD2 occur in development, as expression of 11β-HSD2 is high in fetal brain and placenta. Deficient feto-placental 11β-HSD2 results in a life-long phenotype of anxiety and cardiometabolic disorders, consistent with early life glucocorticoid programming.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caitlin S Wyrwoll
- Endocrinology Unit, Centre for Cardiovascular Science, Queen's Medical Research Institute, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4TJ, UK.
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24
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Zielinska AE, Walker EA, Stewart PM, Lavery GG. Biochemistry and physiology of hexose-6-phosphate knockout mice. Mol Cell Endocrinol 2011; 336:213-8. [PMID: 21146583 DOI: 10.1016/j.mce.2010.12.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2010] [Revised: 12/01/2010] [Accepted: 12/02/2010] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Hexose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (H6PDH) has emerged as an important factor in setting the redox status of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) lumen. An important role of H6PDH is to generate a high NADPH/NADP(+) ratio which permits 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1 (11β-HSD1) to act as an oxo-reductase, catalyzing the activation of glucocorticoids (GCs). In H6PDH knockout mice 11β-HSD1 assumes dehydrogenase activity and inactivates GCs, rendering the target cell relatively GC insensitive. Consequently, H6PDHKO mice have a phenotype consistent with defects in the permissive and adaptive actions of GCs upon physiology. H6PDHKO mice have also offered an insight into muscle physiology as they also present with a severe vacuolating myopathy, abnormalities of glucose homeostasis and activation of the unfolded protein response due to ER stress, and a number of mechanisms driving this phenotype are thought to be involved. This article will review what we understand of the redox control of GC hormone metabolism regulated by H6PDH, and how H6PDHKO mice have allowed an in-depth understanding of its potentially novel, GC-independent roles in muscle physiology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Agnieszka E Zielinska
- Centre for Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism, School of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK
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25
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Sneeringer R, Penzias AS, Barrett B, Usheva A. High levels of mineralocorticoids in preovulatory follicular fluid could contribute to oocyte development. Fertil Steril 2011; 95:182-7. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fertnstert.2010.06.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2009] [Revised: 05/18/2010] [Accepted: 06/15/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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26
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Steen NE, Tesli M, Kähler AK, Methlie P, Hope S, Barrett EA, Larsson S, Mork E, Løvås K, Røssberg JI, Agartz I, Melle I, Djurovic S, Lorentzen S, Berg JP, Andreassen OA. SRD5A2 is associated with increased cortisol metabolism in schizophrenia spectrum disorders. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2010; 34:1500-6. [PMID: 20800085 DOI: 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2010.08.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2010] [Revised: 08/17/2010] [Accepted: 08/18/2010] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Dysfunction of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis is documented in bipolar disorder and schizophrenia, but the mechanism is unclear; recently, increased activity of cortisol metabolizing enzymes was indicated in these disorders. We investigated whether five genes involved in cortisol metabolism were associated with altered activity of cortisol metabolizing enzymes in bipolar disorder (BD) and schizophrenia spectrum disorders (SCZ). METHODS A case-control sample of subjects with BD (N=213), SCZ (N=274) and healthy controls (N=370) from Oslo, Norway, were included and genotyped from 2003 to 2008. A sub-sample (healthy controls: N=151; SCZ: N=40; BD: N=39) had estimated enzyme activities based on measurements of urinary free cortisol, urinary free cortisone and metabolites. A total of 102 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in the SRD5A1, SRD5A2, AKR1D1, HSD11B1 and HSD11B2 genes were genotyped, and significant SNPs analyzed in the sub-sample. RESULTS There was a significant association of rs6732223 in SRD5A2 (5α-reductase) with SCZ (p=0.0043, Bonferroni corrected p=0.030, T risk allele). There was a significantly increased 5α-reductase activity associated with rs6732223 (T allele) within the SCZ group (p=0.011). CONCLUSIONS The present data suggest an interaction between SCZ and SRD5A2 variants coding for the enzyme 5α-reductase, giving rise to increased 5α-reductase activity in SCZ. The findings may have implications for cortisol metabolizing enzymes as possible drug targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nils Eiel Steen
- Section for Psychosis Research, Clinic of Mental Health and Addiction, Oslo University Hospital, Ullevål Hospital, P.O. Box 4956 Nydalen, 0424 Oslo, Norway.
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MacLullich AMJ, Ferguson KJ, Reid LM, Deary IJ, Starr JM, Wardlaw JM, Walker BR, Andrew R, Seckl JR. 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1, brain atrophy and cognitive decline. Neurobiol Aging 2010; 33:207.e1-8. [PMID: 20961667 DOI: 10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2010.09.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2010] [Revised: 09/02/2010] [Accepted: 09/10/2010] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Excess cortisol levels are linked with brain atrophy and cognitive decline in older people. 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1 (11β-HSD1) potently amplifies intracellular glucocorticoid action by converting inert cortisone to active cortisol, but any causal importance in brain aging is unexplored. We tested the hypotheses that higher systemic 11β-HSD1 activity predicts brain atrophy and cognitive decline in older men. In a longitudinal study of 41 men (65-70 years old at baseline) we measured baseline systemic 11β-HSD1 activity, the urinary 5alpha- and 5beta-tetrahydrocortisol to tetrahydrocortisone ratio (ratio of tetrahydrometabolites of cortisol (THFs)/ratio of tetrahydrometabolites of cortisol (THE)), and assessed change in brain atrophy, white matter lesions and cognitive function over 6 years. Baseline THFs/THE correlated negatively with baseline hippocampal volumes (left: r = -0.37; right: r = -0.34; p < 0.05) and positively with ventricular volumes (r = 0.43, p = 0.006) and periventricular white matter lesions (rho = 0.31, p = 0.047). Importantly, baseline THFs/THE but not cortisol predicted increase in ventricular volumes (r = 0.33, p = 0.037) and decline in processing speed (r = -0.55, p = 0.0002) over 6 years. The predictive link between systemic 11β-HSD1 activity and progressive brain atrophy and cognitive decline suggests 11β-HSD1 inhibition as a plausible therapy for brain aging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alasdair M J MacLullich
- Endocrinology, University of Edinburgh, Queen's Medical Research Institute, 47 Little France Crescent, Edinburgh, Scotland, UK.
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Harno E, White A. Will treating diabetes with 11β-HSD1 inhibitors affect the HPA axis? Trends Endocrinol Metab 2010; 21:619-27. [PMID: 20594868 DOI: 10.1016/j.tem.2010.06.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2010] [Revised: 06/01/2010] [Accepted: 06/03/2010] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Inhibitors of 11β-HSD1 are in clinical trials for the treatment of type 2 diabetes. These compounds act by decreasing the cortisol generated in liver and adipose tissue, and therefore reducing tissue-specific gluconeogenesis and fatty acid metabolism. However, there is concern that reduction in tissue-regenerated cortisol might decrease feedback to the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, resulting in upregulation of cortisol from the adrenal gland. This review considers evidence from 11β-HSD1 knockout and transgenic mice, inhibitor studies and results from clinical trials evaluating HPA axis biomarkers. It is clear that analysis of the HPA axis is not sufficiently detailed, and there is a need to understand the subtle changes in the axis associated with pulsatility, diurnal rhythm and stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erika Harno
- Faculties of Life Sciences and Medical and Human Sciences, Manchester, Academic Health Sciences Centre, University of Manchester, UK
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11beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1 expression is increased in the aged mouse hippocampus and parietal cortex and causes memory impairments. J Neurosci 2010; 30:6916-20. [PMID: 20484633 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.0731-10.2010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Increased neuronal glucocorticoid exposure may underlie interindividual variation in cognitive function with aging in rodents and humans. 11beta-Hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1 (11beta-HSD1) catalyzes the regeneration of active glucocorticoids within cells (in brain and other tissues), thus amplifying steroid action. We examined whether 11beta-HSD1 plays a role in the pathogenesis of cognitive deficits associated with aging in male C57BL/6J mice. We show that 11beta-HSD1 levels increase with age in CA3 hippocampus and parietal cortex, correlating with impaired cognitive performance in the water maze. In contrast, neither circulating corticosterone levels nor tissue corticosteroid receptor expression correlates with cognition. 11beta-HSD1 elevation appears causal, since aging (18 months) male transgenic mice with forebrain-specific 11beta-HSD1 overexpression ( approximately 50% in hippocampus) exhibit premature age-associated cognitive decline in the absence of altered circulating glucocorticoid levels or other behavioral (affective) deficits. Thus, excess 11beta-HSD1 in forebrain is a cause of as well as a therapeutic target in memory impairments with aging.
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McSweeney SJ, Hadoke PWF, Kozak AM, Small GR, Khaled H, Walker BR, Gray GA. Improved heart function follows enhanced inflammatory cell recruitment and angiogenesis in 11betaHSD1-deficient mice post-MI. Cardiovasc Res 2010; 88:159-67. [PMID: 20495186 DOI: 10.1093/cvr/cvq149] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
AIMS Mice unable to locally regenerate corticosterone due to deficiency of 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1 (11βHSD1) have enhanced angiogenesis during acute myocardial infarct healing. The present study investigates the hypotheses that in these mice (i) inflammation and angiogenic signalling are promoted and (ii) longer-term remodelling and function are improved. METHODS AND RESULTS Myocardial infarction (MI) was induced by coronary artery ligation in 11βHSD1(-/-) and wild-type (C57BL/6) mice. Studies were terminated 2, 4, 7, and 28 days post-surgery. Increased vessel density (CD31 immunoreactivity) on the infarct border was confirmed 7 days after MI in 11βHSD1(-/-) hearts (P < 0.05) and was accompanied by improved ejection fraction (ultrasound) compared with C57BL/6. During wound healing, recruitment of neutrophils (at 2 days after MI) and macrophages (from 4 days after MI) and expression of monocyte-chemoattractant protein-1 was increased in 11βHSD1(-/-) compared with C57BL/6 hearts (P < 0.05). Recruitment of alternatively activated YM1-positive macrophages was particularly enhanced in the period preceding increased vessel density and was accompanied by increased expression of pro-angiogenic IL-8. By 28 days post-MI, when the infarct scar had matured, higher vessel density was maintained in 11βHSD1(-/-) hearts and vessels were smooth-muscle coated. Infarct scars were thicker (P < 0.001) in 11βHSD1(-/-) compared with C57BL/6 hearts and ejection fraction was higher (P < 0.05). CONCLUSION Increased vessel density in healing infarcts of mice deficient in 11(-/-)HSD1 follows recruitment of pro-reparative macrophages and increased pro-angiogenic signalling. Mature infarcts show less thinning and cardiac function is improved relative to wild-type mice, suggesting that 11βHSD1 may be a novel therapeutic target after MI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara J McSweeney
- Queen's Medical Research Institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, EH16 4TJ Scotland, UK
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31
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Yehuda R, Bierer LM, Andrew R, Schmeidler J, Seckl JR. Enduring effects of severe developmental adversity, including nutritional deprivation, on cortisol metabolism in aging Holocaust survivors. J Psychiatr Res 2009; 43:877-83. [PMID: 19162277 PMCID: PMC2749458 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpsychires.2008.12.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2008] [Revised: 11/21/2008] [Accepted: 12/09/2008] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE In animal models, early life exposure to major environmental challenges such as malnutrition and stress results in persisting cardiometabolic, neuroendocrine and affective effects. While such effects have been associated with pathogenesis, the widespread occurrence of 'developmental programming' suggests it has adaptive function. Glucocorticoids may mediate 'programming' and their metabolism is known to be affected by early life events in rodents. To examine these relationships in humans, cortisol metabolism and cardiometabolic disease manifestations were examined in Holocaust survivors in relation to age at exposure and affective dysfunction, notably lifetime posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). METHODS Fifty-one Holocaust survivors and 22 controls without Axis I disorder collected 24-h urine samples and were evaluated for psychiatric disorders and cardiometabolic diagnoses. Corticosteroids and their metabolites were assayed by gas chromatography-mass spectroscopy (GC-MS); cortisol was also measured by radioimmunoassay (RIA). RESULTS Holocaust survivors showed reduced cortisol by RIA, and decreased levels of 5alpha-tetrahydrocortisol (5alpha-THF) and total glucocorticoid production by GC-MS. The latter was associated with lower cortisol metabolism by 5alpha-reductase and 11beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (11beta-HSD) type-2. The greatest decrements were associated with earliest age of Holocaust exposure and less severe PTSD symptomatology. Cardiometabolic manifestations were associated with decreased 11beta-HSD-2 activity. In controls, 5alpha-reductase was positively associated with trauma-related symptoms (i.e., to traumatic exposures unrelated to the Holocaust). CONCLUSION Extreme malnutrition and related stress during development is associated with long-lived alterations in specific pathways of glucocorticoid metabolism. These effects may be adaptive and link with lower risks of cardiometabolic and stress-related disorders in later life.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachel Yehuda
- Traumatic Stress Studies Division, Mount Sinai School of Medicine and James J. Peters Bronx Veteran Affairs Medical Center, 130 West Kingsbridge Road, Bronx, NY 10468, USA.
| | - Linda M. Bierer
- Traumatic Stress Studies Division, Mount Sinai School of Medicine and James J. Peters Bronx Veteran Affairs Medical Center, 130 West Kingsbridge Road, Bronx, NY 10468, USA
| | - Ruth Andrew
- Endocrinology Unit, Queen’s Medical Research Institute, University of Edinburgh, 47 Little France Crescent, Edinburgh EH16 4TJ, UK
| | - James Schmeidler
- Traumatic Stress Studies Division, Mount Sinai School of Medicine and James J. Peters Bronx Veteran Affairs Medical Center, 130 West Kingsbridge Road, Bronx, NY 10468, USA
| | - Jonathan R. Seckl
- Endocrinology Unit, Queen’s Medical Research Institute, University of Edinburgh, 47 Little France Crescent, Edinburgh EH16 4TJ, UK
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Abstract
Glucocorticoids, hormones produced by the adrenal gland cortex, perform numerous functions in body homeostasis and the response of the organism to external stressors. One striking feature of their regulation is a diurnal release pattern, with peak levels linked to the start of the activity phase. This release is under control of the circadian clock, an endogenous biological timekeeper that acts to prepare the organism for daily changes in its environment. Circadian control of glucocorticoid production and secretion involves a central pacemaker in the hypothalamus, the suprachiasmatic nucleus, as well as a circadian clock in the adrenal gland itself. Central circadian regulation is mediated via the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis and the autonomic nervous system, while the adrenal gland clock appears to control sensitivity of the gland to the adrenocorticopic hormone (ACTH). The rhythmically released glucocorticoids in turn might contribute to synchronisation of the cell-autonomous clocks in the body and interact with them to time physiological dynamics in their target tissues around the day.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Dickmeis
- Institute of Toxicology and Genetics, Forschungszentrum Karlsruhe, Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen, Germany.
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Jia Y, Viswakarma N, Fu T, Yu S, Rao MS, Borensztajn J, Reddy JK. Conditional ablation of mediator subunit MED1 (MED1/PPARBP) gene in mouse liver attenuates glucocorticoid receptor agonist dexamethasone-induced hepatic steatosis. Gene Expr 2009; 14:291-306. [PMID: 19630272 PMCID: PMC2756817 DOI: 10.3727/105221609788681213] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Glucocorticoid receptor (GR) agonist dexamethasone (Dex) induces hepatic steatosis and enhances constitutive androstane receptor (CAR) expression in the liver. CAR is known to worsen hepatic injury in nonalcoholic hepatic steatosis. Because transcription coactivator MED1/PPARBP gene is required for GR- and CAR-mediated transcriptional activation, we hypothesized that disruption of MED1/PPARBP gene in liver cells would result in the attenuation of Dex-induced hepatic steatosis. Here we show that liver-specific disruption of MED1 gene (MED1(delta Liv)) improves Dex-induced steatotic phenotype in the liver. In wild-type mice Dex induced severe hepatic steatosis and caused reduction in medium- and short-chain acyl-CoA dehydrogenases that are responsible for mitochondrial beta-oxidation. In contrast, Dex did not induce hepatic steatosis in mice conditionally null for hepatic MED1, as it failed to inhibit fatty acid oxidation enzymes in the liver. MED1(delta Liv) livers had lower levels of GR-regulated CAR mRNA compared to wild-type mouse livers. Microarray gene expression profiling showed that absence of MED1 affects the expression of the GR-regulated genes responsible for energy metabolism in the liver. These results establish that absence of MED1 in the liver diminishes Dex-induced hepatic steatosis by altering the GR- and CAR-dependent gene functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuzhi Jia
- Department of Pathology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Navin Viswakarma
- Department of Pathology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Tao Fu
- Department of Pathology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Songtao Yu
- Department of Pathology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - M. Sambasiva Rao
- Department of Pathology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Jayme Borensztajn
- Department of Pathology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Janardan K. Reddy
- Department of Pathology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, USA
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Bibliography. Current world literature. Adrenal cortex. Curr Opin Endocrinol Diabetes Obes 2008; 15:284-299. [PMID: 18438178 DOI: 10.1097/med.0b013e3283040e80] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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Hughes KA, Webster SP, Walker BR. 11-Beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1 (11β-HSD1) inhibitors in Type 2 diabetes mellitus and obesity. Expert Opin Investig Drugs 2008; 17:481-96. [DOI: 10.1517/13543784.17.4.481] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
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Chapman KE, Seckl JR. 11beta-HSD1, inflammation, metabolic disease and age-related cognitive (dys)function. Neurochem Res 2007; 33:624-36. [PMID: 17963039 DOI: 10.1007/s11064-007-9504-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 02/27/2007] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
11beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1 (11beta-HSD1) is an intracellular amplifier of glucocorticoid action. By converting intrinsically inert glucocorticoids (cortisone, 11-dehydrocorticosterone) into their active forms (cortisol, corticosterone), 11beta-HSD1 increases glucocorticoid access to receptors. Glucocorticoid hormones modulate diverse physiological processes, linking circadian rhythms to food seeking, motivational and cognitive behaviours, as well as intermediary metabolism and immune responses. They are a key component of pathways that buffer the organism against stressful challenges. Here we review the part played in these processes by 11beta-HSD1, and discuss the promise of inhibitors of 11beta-HSD1 in alleviating disorders associated with cumulative stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karen E Chapman
- Endocrinology Unit, Centre for Cardiovascular Sciences, Queen's Medical Research Institute, University of Edinburgh, 47 Little France Crescent, Edinburgh, EH16 4TJ, UK.
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Vantyghem MC, Marcelli-Tourvieille S, Defrance F, Wemeau JL. 11β-hydroxystéroïde déshydrogénases. Avancées récentes. ANNALES D'ENDOCRINOLOGIE 2007; 68:349-56. [PMID: 17368420 DOI: 10.1016/j.ando.2007.02.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
11beta-hydroxysteroide dehydrogenase (11beta-OHSD) enzymes exhibit a regulating action upon cortisol metabolism before access to its receptors. Two types of isoenzymes have been described, type 2 being the most anciently known. Type 2 11beta-OHSD, which changes cortisol into cortisone, is a unidirectional dehydrogenase mainly located in kidney, that protects mineralocorticoid receptors from illicit activation by glucocorticoids. Mutations of the gene coding for this enzyme has been demonstrated in apparent mineralocorticoid excess, which induces hypertension and hypokalemia with low renin and aldosterone levels. Polymorphisms of this gene could modulate essential hypertension and also be responsible for certain forms of acquired apparent mineralocorticoid excess especially after liquorice intoxication, in hypothyroidism, Cushing syndrome, and chronic renal insufficiency. Type 1 11beta-OHSD, which changes cortisone into cortisol, is a reductase, mainly located in liver and adipose tissue. Functional defects of this enzyme have been shown in polycystic ovaries and cortisone reductase deficiency. By contrast, metabolic syndrome, corticoid-induced osteoporosis, and glaucoma are linked to a local over-activity of this enzyme. The understanding of action mechanisms of these two enzymes currently leads to 11beta-OHSD inhibitors development, therefore opening new therapeutic strategies, especially in metabolic syndrome.
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Affiliation(s)
- M-C Vantyghem
- Service d'endocrinologie et métabolisme, clinique d'endocrinologie Marc-Linquette, 6, rue du Professeur-Laguesse, CHRU de Lille, 59037 Lille cedex, France.
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Vegiopoulos A, Herzig S. Glucocorticoids, metabolism and metabolic diseases. Mol Cell Endocrinol 2007; 275:43-61. [PMID: 17624658 DOI: 10.1016/j.mce.2007.05.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 332] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2007] [Revised: 05/14/2007] [Accepted: 05/17/2007] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Since the discovery of the beneficial effects of adrenocortical extracts for treating adrenal insufficiency more than 80 years ago, glucocorticoids (GC) and their cognate, intracellular receptor, the glucocorticoid receptor (GR) have been characterized as critical components of the delicate hormonal control system that determines energy homeostasis in mammals. Whereas physiological levels of GCs are required for proper metabolic control, excessive GC action has been tied to a variety of pandemic metabolic diseases, such as type II diabetes and obesity. Highlighted by its importance for human health, the investigation of molecular mechanisms of GC/GR action has become a major focus in biomedical research. In particular, the understanding of tissue-specific functions of the GC-GR pathway has been proven to be of substantial value for the identification of novel therapeutic options in the treatment of severe metabolic disorders. Therefore, this review focuses on the role of the GC-GR axis for metabolic homeostasis and dysregulation, emphasizing tissue-specific functions of GCs in the control of energy metabolism.
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