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Taves MD, Donahue KM, Bian J, Cam MC, Ashwell JD. Aire drives steroid hormone biosynthesis by medullary thymic epithelial cells. Sci Immunol 2023; 8:eabo7975. [PMID: 37595021 PMCID: PMC10732315 DOI: 10.1126/sciimmunol.abo7975] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2022] [Accepted: 07/25/2023] [Indexed: 08/20/2023]
Abstract
Thymic epithelial cells (TECs) produce glucocorticoids, which antagonize negative selection of autoreactive thymocytes and promote a competent T cell antigen-specific repertoire. To characterize their source, we generated a knock-in reporter mouse in which endogenous Cyp11b1, the final enzyme in de novo production of active glucocorticoids, was fluorescently tagged with mScarlet. Here, we find that Cyp11b1 is expressed in medullary TECs (mTECs) but not cortical TECs or other cells in the thymus. A distinct characteristic of mTECs is the presence of Aire, a transcription factor that drives expression of tissue-restricted antigens (TRAs) important for establishing immune tolerance. Cyp11b1 expression was highest in Aire+ mTECs, lower in post-Aire mTECs, and absent in mTECs of Aire-deficient mice. Transcriptomic analyses found that multiple enzymatic biosynthetic pathways are expressed specifically in mTECs and are also Aire dependent. In particular, we found that the thymus expresses messenger RNA for enzymes that catalyze production of many bioactive steroids and that glucocorticoids and sex steroids were secreted by cultured thymi. Expression of the transcripts for these genes and production of their final steroid products were markedly reduced in the absence of Aire. Thus, in addition to its well-established role in inducing TRAs that promote negative selection, Aire has an additional and contrary function of inducing glucocorticoids that antagonize negative selection, which together may expand and enhance the TCR repertoire. Furthermore, because Aire drives expression of multiple enzymes responsible for production of other non-gene-encoded bioactive molecules, it might have yet other roles in thymus development and function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew D. Taves
- Laboratory of Immune Cell Biology, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Kaitlynn M. Donahue
- Laboratory of Immune Cell Biology, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Jing Bian
- CCR Collaborative Bioinformatics Resource, Center for Cancer Research, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Margaret C. Cam
- CCR Collaborative Bioinformatics Resource, Center for Cancer Research, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Jonathan D. Ashwell
- Laboratory of Immune Cell Biology, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
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Cazzola M, Page CP, Wedzicha JA, Celli BR, Anzueto A, Matera MG. Use of thiols and implications for the use of inhaled corticosteroids in the presence of oxidative stress in COPD. Respir Res 2023; 24:194. [PMID: 37517999 PMCID: PMC10388561 DOI: 10.1186/s12931-023-02500-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2023] [Accepted: 07/25/2023] [Indexed: 08/01/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Oxidative stress and persistent airway inflammation are thought to be important contributors to the development of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). This review summarizes the evidence for targeting oxidative stress and inflammation in patients with COPD with mucolytic/antioxidant thiols and inhaled corticosteroids (ICS), either alone or in combination. MAIN BODY Oxidative stress is increased in COPD, particularly during acute exacerbations. It can be triggered by oxidant air pollutants and cigarette smoke and/or by endogenous reactive oxygen species (ROS) released from mitochondria and activated inflammatory, immune and epithelial cells in the airways, together with a reduction in endogenous antioxidants such as glutathione (GSH). Oxidative stress also drives chronic inflammation and disease progression in the airways by activating intracellular signalling pathways and the release of further inflammatory mediators. ICS are anti-inflammatory agents currently recommended for use with long-acting bronchodilators to prevent exacerbations in patients with moderate-to-severe COPD, especially those with eosinophilic airway inflammation. However, corticosteroids can also increase oxidative stress, which may in turn reduce corticosteroid sensitivity in patients by several mechanisms. Thiol-based agents such as erdosteine, N-acetyl L-cysteine (NAC) and S-carboxymethylcysteine (S-CMC) are mucolytic agents that also act as antioxidants. These agents may reduce oxidative stress directly through the free sulfhydryl groups, serving as a source of reducing equivalents and indirectly though intracellular GSH replenishment. Few studies have compared the effects of corticosteroids and thiol agents on oxidative stress, but there is some evidence for greater antioxidant effects when they are administered together. The current Global Initiative for Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease (GOLD) report supports treatment with antioxidants (erdosteine, NAC, S-CMC) in addition to standard-of-care therapy as they have been demonstrated to reduce COPD exacerbations. However, such studies have demonstrated that NAC and S-CMC reduced the exacerbation risk only in patients not treated with ICS, whereas erdosteine reduced COPD exacerbations irrespective of concomitant ICS use suggesting that erdosteine has additional pharmacological actions to ICS. CONCLUSIONS Further clinical trials of antioxidant agents with and without ICS are needed to better understand the place of thiol-based drugs in the treatment of patients with COPD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mario Cazzola
- Chair of Respiratory Medicine, Department of Experimental Medicine, University of Rome Tor Vergata, Rome, Italy.
| | - Clive P Page
- Sackler Institute of Pulmonary Pharmacology, Institute of Pharmaceutical Science, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Jadwiga A Wedzicha
- Respiratory Medicine Division, National Heart and Lung Institute, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - Bartolome R Celli
- Pulmonary and Critical Care Division, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Antonio Anzueto
- Department of Pulmonary Medicine and Critical Care, University of Texas Health and South Texas Veterans Health Care System, San Antonio, TX, USA
| | - Maria Gabriella Matera
- Unit of Pharmacology, Department of Experimental Medicine, University of Campania Luigi Vanvitelli, Naples, Italy
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Salehzadeh M, Soma KK. Glucocorticoid production in the thymus and brain: Immunosteroids and neurosteroids. Brain Behav Immun Health 2021; 18:100352. [PMID: 34988497 PMCID: PMC8710407 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbih.2021.100352] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2021] [Revised: 09/05/2021] [Accepted: 09/17/2021] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Glucocorticoids (GCs) regulate a myriad of physiological systems, such as the immune and nervous systems. Systemic GC levels in blood are often measured as an indicator of local GC levels in target organs. However, several extra-adrenal organs can produce and metabolize GCs locally. More sensitive and specific methods for GC analysis (i.e., mass spectrometry) allow measurement of local GC levels in small tissue samples with low GC concentrations. Consequently, is it now apparent that systemic GC levels often do not reflect local GC levels. Here, we review the use of systemic GC measurements in clinical and research settings, discuss instances where systemic GC levels do not reflect local GC levels, and present evidence that local GC levels provide useful insights, with a focus on local GC production in the thymus (immunosteroids) and brain (neurosteroids). Lastly, we suggest key areas for further research, such as the roles of immunosteroids and neurosteroids in neonatal programming and the potential clinical relevance of local GC modulators.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melody Salehzadeh
- Department of Zoology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
- Djavad Mowafaghian Centre for Brain Health, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Kiran K Soma
- Department of Zoology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
- Djavad Mowafaghian Centre for Brain Health, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
- Department of Psychology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
- Graduate Program in Neuroscience, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
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Extra-adrenal glucocorticoid biosynthesis: implications for autoimmune and inflammatory disorders. Genes Immun 2020; 21:150-168. [PMID: 32203088 PMCID: PMC7276297 DOI: 10.1038/s41435-020-0096-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2019] [Revised: 03/05/2020] [Accepted: 03/09/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Glucocorticoid synthesis is a complex, multistep process that starts with cholesterol being delivered to the inner membrane of mitochondria by StAR and StAR-related proteins. Here its side chain is cleaved by CYP11A1 producing pregnenolone. Pregnenolone is converted to cortisol by the enzymes 3-βHSD, CYP17A1, CYP21A2 and CYP11B1. Glucocorticoids play a critical role in the regulation of the immune system and exert their action through the glucocorticoid receptor (GR). Although corticosteroids are primarily produced in the adrenal gland, they can also be produced in a number of extra-adrenal tissue including the immune system, skin, brain, and intestine. Glucocorticoid production is regulated by ACTH, CRH, and cytokines such as IL-1, IL-6 and TNFα. The bioavailability of cortisol is also dependent on its interconversion to cortisone which is inactive, by 11βHSD1/2. Local and systemic glucocorticoid biosynthesis can be stimulated by ultraviolet B, explaining its immunosuppressive activity. In this review, we want to emphasize that dysregulation of extra-adrenal glucocorticoid production can play a key role in a variety of autoimmune diseases including multiple sclerosis (MS), lupus erythematosus (LE), rheumatoid arthritis (RA), and skin inflammatory disorders such as psoriasis and atopic dermatitis (AD). Further research on local glucocorticoid production and its bioavailability may open doors into new therapies for autoimmune diseases.
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Hamden JE, Salehzadeh M, Jalabert C, O'Leary TP, Snyder JS, Gomez-Sanchez CE, Soma KK. Measurement of 11-dehydrocorticosterone in mice, rats and songbirds: Effects of age, sex and stress. Gen Comp Endocrinol 2019; 281:173-182. [PMID: 31145891 PMCID: PMC6751571 DOI: 10.1016/j.ygcen.2019.05.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2019] [Revised: 05/02/2019] [Accepted: 05/26/2019] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Glucocorticoids (GCs) are secreted into the blood by the adrenal glands and are also locally-produced by organs such as the lymphoid organs (bone marrow, thymus, and spleen). Corticosterone is the primary circulating GC in many species, including mice, rats and birds. Within lymphoid organs, corticosterone can be locally produced from the inactive metabolite, 11-dehydrocorticosterone (DHC). However, very little is known about endogenous DHC levels, and no immunoassays are currently available to measure DHC. Here, we developed an easy-to-use and inexpensive immunoassay to measure DHC that is accurate, precise, sensitive, and specific. The DHC immunoassay was validated in multiple ways, including comparison with a mass spectrometry assay. After assay validations, we demonstrated the usefulness of this immunoassay by measuring DHC (and corticosterone) in mice, rats and song sparrows. Overall, corticosterone levels were higher than DHC levels across species. In Study 1, using mice, we measured steroids in whole blood and lymphoid organs at postnatal day (PND) 5, PND23, and PND90. Corticosterone and DHC showed distinct tissue-specific patterns across development. In Studies 2 and 3, we measured circulating corticosterone and DHC in adult rats and song sparrows, before and after restraint stress. In rats and song sparrows, restraint stress rapidly increased circulating levels of both steroids. This novel DHC immunoassay revealed major changes in DHC concentrations during development and in response to stress, which have important implications for understanding GC physiology, effects of stress on immune function, and regulation of local GC levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jordan E Hamden
- Department of Zoology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada; Djavad Mowafaghian Centre for Brain Health, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Melody Salehzadeh
- Department of Zoology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada; Djavad Mowafaghian Centre for Brain Health, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Cecilia Jalabert
- Department of Zoology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada; Djavad Mowafaghian Centre for Brain Health, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Timothy P O'Leary
- Djavad Mowafaghian Centre for Brain Health, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada; Department of Psychology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Jason S Snyder
- Djavad Mowafaghian Centre for Brain Health, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada; Department of Psychology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Celso E Gomez-Sanchez
- Endocrine and Research Service, G.V. (Sonny) Montgomery VA Medical Center, Jackson, MS, USA; Division of Endocrinology, University of Mississippi Medical Center, Jackson, MS, USA
| | - Kiran K Soma
- Department of Zoology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada; Djavad Mowafaghian Centre for Brain Health, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada; Department of Psychology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada; Graduate Program in Neuroscience, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada.
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Ahmed A, Schmidt C, Brunner T. Extra-Adrenal Glucocorticoid Synthesis in the Intestinal Mucosa: Between Immune Homeostasis and Immune Escape. Front Immunol 2019; 10:1438. [PMID: 31316505 PMCID: PMC6611402 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2019.01438] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2019] [Accepted: 06/07/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Glucocorticoids (GCs) are steroid hormones predominantly produced in the adrenal glands in response to physiological cues and stress. Adrenal GCs mediate potent anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressive functions. Accumulating evidence in the past two decades has demonstrated other extra-adrenal organs and tissues capable of synthesizing GCs. This review discusses the role and regulation of GC synthesis in the intestinal epithelium in the regulation of normal immune homeostasis, inflammatory diseases of the intestinal mucosa, and the development of intestinal tumors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Asma Ahmed
- Biochemical Pharmacology, Department of Biology, University of Konstanz, Konstanz, Germany
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Khartoum, Khartoum, Sudan
| | - Christian Schmidt
- Biochemical Pharmacology, Department of Biology, University of Konstanz, Konstanz, Germany
| | - Thomas Brunner
- Biochemical Pharmacology, Department of Biology, University of Konstanz, Konstanz, Germany
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Repository corticotropin injection reverses critical elements of the TLR9/B cell receptor activation response in human B cells in vitro. Clin Immunol 2019; 201:70-78. [DOI: 10.1016/j.clim.2019.02.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2018] [Revised: 01/29/2019] [Accepted: 02/20/2019] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
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Ieko T, Sasaki H, Maeda N, Fujiki J, Iwano H, Yokota H. Analysis of Corticosterone and Testosterone Synthesis in Rat Salivary Gland Homogenates. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2019; 10:479. [PMID: 31379745 PMCID: PMC6650613 DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2019.00479] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2019] [Accepted: 07/02/2019] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Extra-adrenal steroid hormone production has been reported in several tissues, the biological role of which is interesting in terms of hormonal regulation of metabolism, growth, and behavior. In this report, we describe for the first time steroidogenesis in rat salivary glands. Enzyme activities associated with corticosterone and testosterone production were detected in rat salivary glands by LC-MS analysis. In tissue homogenates of rat salivary glands, progesterone was produced enzymatically in vitro from pregnenolone in the presence of NADPH and NADH. Deoxycorticosterone was produced from progesterone, corticosterone from deoxycorticosterone, and testosterone from androstenedione (but not pregnenolone from cholesterol) via enzymatic reactions using the same tissue homogenates. Immunoblotting analysis indicated the expression of 11β-hydroxylase (cytochrome P450 11β1; CYP11β1), which mediated the production of corticosterone from deoxycorticosterone. However, CYP family 11 subfamily A member 1 (CYP11A1)-mediated production of pregnenolone from cholesterol was not detected in the salivary glands by immunoblotting using a specific antibody. These results indicate that corticosterone and testosterone are produced from pregnenolone in rat salivary glands. The initial substrate in salivary steroidogenesis and the roles of salivary corticosterone and testosterone are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takahiro Ieko
- Laboratory of Veterinary Biochemistry, Department of Veterinary Medicine, Rakuno Gakuen University, Ebetsu, Japan
| | - Hirokuni Sasaki
- Laboratory of Veterinary Biochemistry, Department of Veterinary Medicine, Rakuno Gakuen University, Ebetsu, Japan
| | - Naoyuki Maeda
- Laboratory of Meat Science and Technology, Department of Food Science and Human Wellness, Rakuno Gakuen University, Ebetsu, Japan
| | - Jumpei Fujiki
- Laboratory of Veterinary Biochemistry, Department of Veterinary Medicine, Rakuno Gakuen University, Ebetsu, Japan
| | - Hidetomo Iwano
- Laboratory of Veterinary Biochemistry, Department of Veterinary Medicine, Rakuno Gakuen University, Ebetsu, Japan
| | - Hiroshi Yokota
- Laboratory of Veterinary Biochemistry, Department of Veterinary Medicine, Rakuno Gakuen University, Ebetsu, Japan
- *Correspondence: Hiroshi Yokota
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Huyut Z, Bakan N, Yıldırım S, Alp HH. Effects of the Phosphodiesterase-5 (PDE-5) Inhibitors, Avanafil and Zaprinast, on Bone Remodeling and Oxidative Damage in a Rat Model of Glucocorticoid-Induced Osteoporosis. Med Sci Monit Basic Res 2018; 24:47-58. [PMID: 29557941 PMCID: PMC5865409 DOI: 10.12659/msmbr.908504] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2017] [Accepted: 02/08/2018] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Background The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of the phosphodiesterase-5 (PDE-5) inhibitors, zaprinast and avanafil, on NO signalling pathway, bone mineral density (BMD), epiphyseal bone width, bone marrow angiogenesis, and parameters of oxidative stress in a rat model of glucocorticoid-induced osteoporosis (GIOP). Material/Methods Twenty-four 8-month-old male rats in four groups were given a single daily treatment during a 30-day period: an (untreated) control group (n=6): a dexamethasone-treated group (120 μ/kg) (n=6); a group treated with dexamethasone (120 μ/kg) and zaprinast (10 mg/kg) (n=6): and a group treated with dexamethasone (120 μ/kg) and avanafil (10 mg/kg) (n=6). Rat whole body bone mineral density (BMD) was measured by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DEXA), and bone histology was performed. Also, selected oxidative stress parameters by HPLC method and the other biochemical parameters by ELISA method were measured. Results The GIOP model rats treated with zaprinast and avanafil showed a significant increase in NO, cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP), and protein kinase G (PKG) (NO/cGMP/PKG) signaling-pathway components, and in C-terminal telopeptide of type I collagen (CTX-1), bone marrow angiogenesis, BMD, and epiphyseal bone width, compared with the (untreated) control rats (p<0.05). Levels of pyridinoline (PD) and deoxypyridinoline (DPD) were significantly reduced in the dexamethasone + zaprinast, and dexamethasone + avanafil treatment groups (p<0.05). Malondialdehyde (MDA), ubiquinone-10 (CoQ10), ubiquinol CoQ10 (CoQ10H), and 8-hydroxy-2′-deoxyguanosine (8-OHdG) were significantly increased in the dexamethasone-treated group, compared with the (untreated) controls (p<0.05). Conclusions In the GIOP rat model, markers of oxidative stress and bone atrophy were significantly reduced by treatment with the PDE-5 inhibitors, zaprinast and avanafil.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zübeyir Huyut
- Department of Biochemistry, Medical Faculty, Yuzuncu Yıl University, Van, Turkey
| | - Nuri Bakan
- Department of Biochemistry, Medical Faculty, Ataturk University, Erzurum, Turkey
| | - Serkan Yıldırım
- Department of Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary, Atatürk University, Erzurum, Turkey
| | - Hamit Hakan Alp
- Department of Biochemistry, Medical Faculty, Yuzuncu Yıl University, Van, Turkey
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Mittelstadt PR, Taves MD, Ashwell JD. Cutting Edge: De Novo Glucocorticoid Synthesis by Thymic Epithelial Cells Regulates Antigen-Specific Thymocyte Selection. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2018; 200:1988-1994. [PMID: 29440508 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1701328] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2017] [Accepted: 01/11/2018] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Glucocorticoid (GC) signaling in thymocytes counters negative selection and promotes the generation of a self-tolerant yet Ag-responsive T cell repertoire. Whereas circulating GC are derived from the adrenals, GC are also synthesized de novo in the thymus. The significance of this local production is unknown. In this study we deleted 11β-hydroxylase, the enzyme that catalyzes the last step of GC biosynthesis, in thymic epithelial cells (TEC) or thymocytes. Like GC receptor-deficient T cells, T cells from mice lacking TEC-derived but not thymocyte-derived GC proliferated poorly to alloantigen, had a reduced antiviral response, and exhibited enhanced negative selection. Strikingly, basal expression of GC-responsive genes in thymocytes from mice lacking TEC-derived GC was reduced to the same degree as in GC receptor-deficient thymocytes, indicating that at steady-state the majority of biologically active GC are paracrine in origin. These findings demonstrate the importance of extra-adrenal GC even in the presence of circulating adrenal-derived GC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul R Mittelstadt
- Laboratory of Immune Cell Biology, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892
| | - Matthew D Taves
- Laboratory of Immune Cell Biology, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892
| | - Jonathan D Ashwell
- Laboratory of Immune Cell Biology, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892
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D’Attilio L, Santucci N, Bongiovanni B, Bay ML, Bottasso O. Tuberculosis, the Disrupted Immune-Endocrine Response and the Potential Thymic Repercussion As a Contributing Factor to Disease Physiopathology. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2018; 9:214. [PMID: 29765355 PMCID: PMC5938357 DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2018.00214] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2017] [Accepted: 04/16/2018] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Upon the pathogen encounter, the host seeks to ensure an adequate inflammatory reaction to combat infection but at the same time tries to prevent collateral damage, through several regulatory mechanisms, like an endocrine response involving the production of adrenal steroid hormones. Our studies show that active tuberculosis (TB) patients present an immune-endocrine imbalance characterized by an impaired cellular immunity together with increased plasma levels of cortisol, pro-inflammatory cytokines, and decreased amounts of dehydroepiandrosterone. Studies in patients undergoing specific treatment revealed that cortisol levels remained increased even after several months of initiating therapy. In addition to the well-known metabolic and immunological effects, glucocorticoids are involved in thymic cortical depletion with immature thymocytes being quite sensitive to such an effect. The thymus is a central lymphoid organ supporting thymocyte T-cell development, i.e., lineage commitment, selection events and thymic emigration. While thymic TB is an infrequent manifestation of the disease, several pieces of experimental and clinical evidence point out that the thymus can be infected by mycobacteria. Beyond this, the thymic microenvironment during TB may be also altered because of the immune-hormonal alterations. The thymus may be then an additional target of organ involvement further contributing to a deficient control of infection and disease immunopathology.
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12
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Rocamora-Reverte L, Reichardt HM, Villunger A, Wiegers GJ. T-cell autonomous death induced by regeneration of inert glucocorticoid metabolites. Cell Death Dis 2017; 8:e2948. [PMID: 28726773 PMCID: PMC5550885 DOI: 10.1038/cddis.2017.344] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2016] [Revised: 06/14/2017] [Accepted: 06/20/2017] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Glucocorticoids (GC) are essential regulators of T-cell development and function. Activation of the immune system increases systemic adrenal-derived GC levels which downregulate immune activity as part of a negative feedback control system. Increasing evidence shows, however, that GC can also be derived from extra-adrenal sources such as the thymus or intestine, thus providing local control of GC-mediated effects. The thymus reportedly produces GC, but whether thymic epithelial cells or thymocytes produce GC acting either in an autocrine or paracrine fashion is not clear. We studied the expression of two main enzymes involved in de novo GC synthesis, CYP11A1 and CYP11B1, as well as the expression and activity of HSD11B1, an enzyme catalyzing interconversion of inert GC metabolites with active GC. While we found no evidence of de novo GC synthesis in both thymocytes and peripheral T cells, abundant regeneration of GC from the inactive metabolite 11-dehydrocorticosterone was detectable. Irrespective of their maturation stage, T cells that produced GC in this manner undergo autonomous cell death as this was blocked when glucocorticoid receptor-deficient T cells were treated with GC metabolites. These results indicate that both immature and mature T cells possess the capacity to undergo apoptosis in response to intrinsically generated GC. Consequently, positive selection of thymocytes, as well as survival of peripheral T cells may depend on TCR-induced escape of otherwise HSD11B1-driven autonomous T-cell death.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Holger M Reichardt
- Institute for Cellular and Molecular Immunology, University Medical Center Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Andreas Villunger
- Biocenter, Division of Developmental Immunology, Medical University, Innsbruck, Austria.,Tyrolean Cancer Research Institute, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - GJan Wiegers
- Biocenter, Division of Developmental Immunology, Medical University, Innsbruck, Austria
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Talaber G, Jondal M, Okret S. Local glucocorticoid production in the thymus. Steroids 2015; 103:58-63. [PMID: 26102271 DOI: 10.1016/j.steroids.2015.06.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2014] [Revised: 06/09/2015] [Accepted: 06/15/2015] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Besides generating immunocompetent T lymphocytes, the thymus is an established site of de novo extra-adrenal glucocorticoid (GC) production. Among the compartments of the thymus, both stromal thymic epithelial cells (TECs) and thymocytes secrete biologically active GCs. Locally produced GCs secreted by the various thymic cellular compartments have been suggested to have different impact on thymic homeostasis. TEC-derived GCs may regulate thymocyte differentiation whereas thymocyte-derived GCs might regulate age-dependent involution. However the full biological significance of thymic-derived GCs is still not fully understood. In this review, we summarize and describe recent advances in the understanding of local GC production in the thymus and immunoregulatory steroid production by peripheral T cells and highlight the possible role of local GCs for thymus function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gergely Talaber
- Department of Biosciences and Nutrition, Karolinska Institutet, NOVUM, Huddinge, Sweden.
| | - Mikael Jondal
- Department of Microbiology, Tumor and Cell Biology, Karolinska Insitutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Sam Okret
- Department of Biosciences and Nutrition, Karolinska Institutet, NOVUM, Huddinge, Sweden
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Yi J, Zhu R, Wu J, Wu J, Xia W, Zhu L, Jiang W, Xiang S, Tan Z. In vivo protective effect of betulinic acid on dexamethasone induced thymocyte apoptosis by reducing oxidative stress. Pharmacol Rep 2015; 68:95-100. [PMID: 26721359 DOI: 10.1016/j.pharep.2015.07.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2015] [Revised: 06/06/2015] [Accepted: 07/01/2015] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Dexamethasone (Dex), a synthetic glucocorticoid, is strictly controlled for use due to its serious side effects, including immune suppression. Betulinic acid (BA), an antioxidant prepared from the white birch, exhibits immunomodulation properties. To assess the implications and investigate the mechanisms of BA-elicited immunomodulation, we hypothesized that Dex induced thymocyte apoptosis via oxidative stress could be lessened by BA. METHODS Mice were given oral doses of BA (0.25, 0.5, and 1.0mg/kg) daily for 14 days, and induced oxidative stress by giving a single dose of Dex intraperitoneal at the dosage of 25mg/kg body weight 8h after the last administration of BA. RESULTS Dex administration alone significantly decreased antioxidant enzyme activities, while significantly increased reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, lipid peroxidation, mitochondrial dysfunctions, caspase-3 activation and cellular apoptosis. However, pretreatment with BA dose-dependently mitigated Dex-induced oxidative damage after 14 days of feeding. In addition to ROS scavenging activity in Dex-induced thymocyte, BA administration decreased lipid peroxidation, up-regulated antioxidant enzymes, restored mitochondrial function, increased Bcl-2 expression but reduced Bax expression, inhibited caspase-3 activation, and improved cell survival. CONCLUSIONS These findings reveal a protective capability of BA against Dex-induced cell death by reducing oxidative stress via mitochondrial mediated signal pathway which could be the potential mechanism underlying BA-elicited immunomodulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jine Yi
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Hunan Agricultural University, Changsha City, China.
| | - Ruocen Zhu
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Hunan Agricultural University, Changsha City, China
| | - Jianping Wu
- Department of Agricultural, Food and Nutritional Science, 4-10 Ag/For Center, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada
| | - Jing Wu
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Hunan Agricultural University, Changsha City, China
| | - Wei Xia
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Hunan Agricultural University, Changsha City, China
| | - Lijuan Zhu
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Hunan Agricultural University, Changsha City, China
| | - Weiwei Jiang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Hunan Agricultural University, Changsha City, China
| | - Siting Xiang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Hunan Agricultural University, Changsha City, China
| | - Zhuliang Tan
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Hunan Agricultural University, Changsha City, China.
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15
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Yi J, Zhu R, Wu J, Wu J, Tan Z. Ameliorative effect of betulinic acid on oxidative damage and apoptosis in the splenocytes of dexamethasone treated mice. Int Immunopharmacol 2015; 27:85-94. [PMID: 25959028 DOI: 10.1016/j.intimp.2015.04.050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2014] [Revised: 04/22/2015] [Accepted: 04/25/2015] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Betulinic acid (BA) is a bioactive pentacyclic triterpene that exhibits a variety of biological activities including antioxidative and immunomodulative properties. The objective of this study was to investigate the potential splenocytes protective effect and underlying mechanism of BA using dexamethasone (Dex)-induced mice as a model system. Pretreatment with BA (0.25, 0.5, and 1.0 mg/kg) dose-dependently ameliorated Dex-induced oxidative damage and apoptosis after 14 days of feeding. In addition to reactive oxygen species scavenging activity in Dex-induced splenocytes, BA administration up-regulated antioxidant enzymes, decreased lipid peroxidation, restored mitochondrial function, decreased the expression of pro-apoptotic protein Bax, prevented the decline of anti-apoptotic protein Bcl-2, inhibited caspase-9 and caspase-3 activation, and improved cell survival. These findings reveal that BA was able to mitigate Dex-induced oxidative stress and might play an important role in repairs of oxidative damage in immunological system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jine Yi
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Hunan Agricultural University, Changsha City 410128, China.
| | - Ruocen Zhu
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Hunan Agricultural University, Changsha City 410128, China
| | - Jing Wu
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Hunan Agricultural University, Changsha City 410128, China
| | - Jianping Wu
- Department of Agricultural, Food and Nutritional Science, 4-10 Ag/For Center, University of Alberta, Edmonton T6G2P5, Canada
| | - Zhuliang Tan
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Hunan Agricultural University, Changsha City 410128, China.
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16
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Talaber G, Tuckermann JP, Okret S. ACTH controls thymocyte homeostasis independent of glucocorticoids. FASEB J 2015; 29:2526-34. [PMID: 25733567 DOI: 10.1096/fj.14-268508] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2014] [Accepted: 02/09/2015] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
It has been known for decades that lowering the circulating glucocorticoid (GC) concentration as in Addison's disease or after removing the adrenals results in thymus enlargement, largely due to thymocyte expansion. This has been attributed to the loss of the proapoptotic effects on thymocytes by adrenal GCs. Here, we test this concept and report that ACTH directly controls thymic growth post-adrenalectomy (ADX) independent of the proapoptotic effect of GCs. This was supported by the finding that ADX caused thymus enlargement and a 1.7-fold (P < 0.001) increase in thymocyte number in GR(LckCre) mice resistant to GC-induced thymocyte apoptosis, similar to the increase seen in wild-type mice (2.2-fold; P < 0.01). We show by immunostaining that melanocortin receptor subtype 2, which selectively binds ACTH, is partly expressed on the thymic epithelium. Furthermore, ACTH in comparison to vehicle induced a 2.0-fold (P < 0.01) increase in fetal thymic organ culture thymocyte numbers in vitro and enhanced 2.2-fold (P < 0.05) the expression of delta-like ligand 4, a factor that supports T-cell development. Additionally, adrenalectomized GR(LckCre) mice treated with ACTH under conditions that repressed endogenous ACTH secretion showed increased thymocyte cellularity (1.9-fold; P < 0.01) and splenic naive T-cell numbers (2.5-fold; P < 0.001) compared to when treated with PBS. Altogether, our results show that ACTH directly controls thymocyte homeostasis independent of GCs. These results revise the old paradigm behind compensatory thymus growth following ADX, now demonstrating that ACTH has a central role in regulating thymocyte expansion when systemic GC concentration is low.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gergely Talaber
- *Department of Biosciences and Nutrition, Karolinska Institutet, Novum, Huddinge, Sweden; and Institute for Comparative Molecular Endocrinology, University of Ulm, Ulm, Germany
| | - Jan Peter Tuckermann
- *Department of Biosciences and Nutrition, Karolinska Institutet, Novum, Huddinge, Sweden; and Institute for Comparative Molecular Endocrinology, University of Ulm, Ulm, Germany
| | - Sam Okret
- *Department of Biosciences and Nutrition, Karolinska Institutet, Novum, Huddinge, Sweden; and Institute for Comparative Molecular Endocrinology, University of Ulm, Ulm, Germany
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17
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Lee JH, Patel K, Tae HJ, Lustig A, Kim JW, Mattson MP, Taub DD. Ghrelin augments murine T-cell proliferation by activation of the phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase, extracellular signal-regulated kinase and protein kinase C signaling pathways. FEBS Lett 2014; 588:4708-19. [PMID: 25447526 DOI: 10.1016/j.febslet.2014.10.044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2014] [Revised: 10/21/2014] [Accepted: 10/27/2014] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Thymic atrophy occurs during normal aging, and is accelerated by exposure to chronic stressors that elevate glucocorticoid levels and impair the naïve T cell output. The orexigenic hormone ghrelin was recently shown to attenuate age-associated thymic atrophy. Here, we report that ghrelin enhances the proliferation of murine CD4+ primary T cells and a CD4+ T-cell line. Ghrelin induced activation of the ERK1/2 and Akt signaling pathways, via upstream activation of phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase and protein kinase C, to enhance T-cell proliferation. Moreover, ghrelin induced expression of the cell cycle proteins cyclin D1, cyclin E, cyclin-dependent kinase 2 (CDK2) and retinoblastoma phosphorylation. Finally, ghrelin activated the above-mentioned signaling pathways and stimulated thymocyte proliferation in young and older mice in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jun Ho Lee
- Laboratory of Molecular Biology and Immunology, National Institute on Aging Intramural Research Program, Baltimore, MD 21224, United States; Department of Biochemistry and Division of Brain Korea 21 Plus Program for Biomedical Science, Korea University College of Medicine, Seoul 136-701, Republic of Korea
| | - Kalpesh Patel
- Laboratory of Molecular Biology and Immunology, National Institute on Aging Intramural Research Program, Baltimore, MD 21224, United States
| | - Hyun Jin Tae
- Laboratory of Cardiovascular Science, National Institute on Aging Intramural Research Program, Baltimore, MD 21224, United States
| | - Ana Lustig
- Laboratory of Molecular Biology and Immunology, National Institute on Aging Intramural Research Program, Baltimore, MD 21224, United States
| | - Jie Wan Kim
- Laboratory of Molecular Biology and Immunology, National Institute on Aging Intramural Research Program, Baltimore, MD 21224, United States
| | - Mark P Mattson
- Laboratory of Neurosciences, National Institute on Aging Intramural Research Program, Baltimore, MD 21224, United States.
| | - Dennis D Taub
- Laboratory of Molecular Biology and Immunology, National Institute on Aging Intramural Research Program, Baltimore, MD 21224, United States; Center of Translational Studies, Medical Services, Veteran Affairs Medical Center, Washington, DC 20422, United States.
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18
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Abstract
Glucocorticoids (GC) are steroid hormones with important implications in the treatment of various inflammatory and autoimmune diseases. At the same time GC are known to have numerous side-effects. Endogenous GC are predominantly produced by the adrenal glands, and adrenal-derived GC serve important functions in the regulation of development, metabolism, and immune regulation. The last two decades of research have led to the identification of numerous alternative sources of extra-adrenal GC synthesis. Among other tissues the intestine and lung are capable of locally producing considerable amounts of immunoregulatory GC. This local steroidogenesis in these mucosal tissues appears to be regulated by transcription factors and mediators different from those in the adrenals, likely reflecting an adaptation to the local requirements and conditions. Here we summarize the current knowledge about the extra-adrenal GC synthesis in the mucosal tissues, with special emphasis on the intestinal epithelium, and its implication on the regulation of immune homeostasis and inflammatory processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Feodora Kostadinova
- Biochemical Pharmacology, Department of Biology, University of Konstanz , Germany
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19
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Beukel JC, Grefhorst A, Quarta C, Steenbergen J, Mastroberardino PG, Lombès M, Delhanty PJ, Mazza R, Pagotto U, Lely AJ, Themmen APN. Direct activating effects of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) on brown adipose tissue are attenuated by corticosterone. FASEB J 2014; 28:4857-67. [DOI: 10.1096/fj.14-254839] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Johanna C. Beukel
- Department of Internal MedicineSection of EndocrinologyErasmus University Medical CenterRotterdamThe Netherlands
| | - Aldo Grefhorst
- Department of Internal MedicineSection of EndocrinologyErasmus University Medical CenterRotterdamThe Netherlands
| | - Carmelo Quarta
- Endocrinology UnitDepartment of Medical and Surgical SciencesS.Orsola‐Malpighi HospitalUniversity of BolognaBolognaItaly
- Centro di Ricerca Biomedica ApplicataDepartment of Medical and Surgical SciencesS.Orsola‐Malpighi HospitalUniversity of BolognaBolognaItaly
| | - Jacobie Steenbergen
- Department of Internal MedicineSection of EndocrinologyErasmus University Medical CenterRotterdamThe Netherlands
| | | | - Marc Lombès
- Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (INSERM)Université Paris‐SudFaculté de Médecine Paris‐SudUnité Mixte de Recherche (UMR) S693Le Kremlin BicêtreFrance
| | - Patric J. Delhanty
- Department of Internal MedicineSection of EndocrinologyErasmus University Medical CenterRotterdamThe Netherlands
| | - Roberta Mazza
- Endocrinology UnitDepartment of Medical and Surgical SciencesS.Orsola‐Malpighi HospitalUniversity of BolognaBolognaItaly
- Centro di Ricerca Biomedica ApplicataDepartment of Medical and Surgical SciencesS.Orsola‐Malpighi HospitalUniversity of BolognaBolognaItaly
| | - Uberto Pagotto
- Endocrinology UnitDepartment of Medical and Surgical SciencesS.Orsola‐Malpighi HospitalUniversity of BolognaBolognaItaly
- Centro di Ricerca Biomedica ApplicataDepartment of Medical and Surgical SciencesS.Orsola‐Malpighi HospitalUniversity of BolognaBolognaItaly
| | - Aart Jan Lely
- Department of Internal MedicineSection of EndocrinologyErasmus University Medical CenterRotterdamThe Netherlands
| | - Axel P. N. Themmen
- Department of Internal MedicineSection of EndocrinologyErasmus University Medical CenterRotterdamThe Netherlands
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20
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Feng YL, Tang XL. Effect of glucocorticoid-induced oxidative stress on the expression of Cbfa1. Chem Biol Interact 2013; 207:26-31. [PMID: 24239970 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbi.2013.11.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2013] [Revised: 09/19/2013] [Accepted: 11/05/2013] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Glucocorticoids therapy is strongly limited since extended glucocorticoids can cause serious side effects, including increased susceptibility to develop the bone disease osteoporosis. Despite its side effects recognized importance to clinicians, seldom is known about how glucocorticoids directly impact bone-forming osteoblasts. Previous studies showed that dexamethasone (DEX) induces excessive production of reactive oxygen species (ROS), and causes oxidative stress in rat hippocampal slice cultures. To assess the implications and investigate the mechanisms of glucocorticoid-elicited osteoporosis, we hypothesize that DEX exposure induces oxidative stress which leads to decreased Cbfa1 mRNA expression, and predict that the antioxidant N-acetylcysteine (NAC) mitigates the damaging effects of DEX. Oxidative stress is implicated in osteoporosis. Furthermore, the osteoblast transcriptional factor Cbfa1 is reported to play a protective role against osteoporosis in postmenopausal women. Cells treated with (0.1, 1, 10μM) DEX exhibited signs of oxidative damages including depletion in total antioxidant capacity (T-AOC), increased ROS formation, and enhanced lipid peroxidation. Cbfa1 mRNA expression, by RT-PCR, was significantly reduced after exposure to (0.1, 1, 10μM) DEX. Pretreatment with the antioxidant NAC (2mM) prevented DEX-induced decrease in Cbfa1 mRNA. This study provides insight into the underlying mechanisms of high dose DEX-induced osteotoxicity. DEX (0.1, 1, 10μM) decreases the expression of Cbfa1 mRNA and inhibits differentiation and function of osteoblasts by inducing oxidative stress. The antioxidant NAC can mitigate the oxidative stress damaging effects of DEX. In addition, this study distinguishes itself by identifying Cbfa1 as a target for high dose DEX-induced osteotoxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yan-Ling Feng
- The First Hospital of Lanzhou University, Lanzhou 730000, China
| | - Xu-Lei Tang
- The First Hospital of Lanzhou University, Lanzhou 730000, China.
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21
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Talabér G, Jondal M, Okret S. Extra-adrenal glucocorticoid synthesis: immune regulation and aspects on local organ homeostasis. Mol Cell Endocrinol 2013; 380:89-98. [PMID: 23707789 DOI: 10.1016/j.mce.2013.05.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2012] [Revised: 04/22/2013] [Accepted: 05/07/2013] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Systemic glucocorticoids (GCs) mainly originate from de novo synthesis in the adrenal cortex under the control of the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal (HPA)-axis. However, research during the last 1-2 decades has revealed that additional organs express the necessary enzymes and have the capacity for de novo synthesis of biologically active GCs. This includes the thymus, intestine, skin and the brain. Recent research has also revealed that locally synthesized GCs most likely act in a paracrine or autocrine manner and have significant physiological roles in local homeostasis, cell development and immune cell activation. In this review, we summarize the nature, regulation and known physiological roles of extra-adrenal GC synthesis. We specifically focus on the thymus in which GC production (by both developing thymocytes and epithelial cells) has a role in the maintenance of proper immunological function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gergely Talabér
- Department of Biosciences and Nutrition, Karolinska Institutet, Novum, SE-141 83 Huddinge, Sweden
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22
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Provost PR, Boucher E, Tremblay Y. Glucocorticoid metabolism in the developing lung: adrenal-like synthesis pathway. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 2013; 138:72-80. [PMID: 23537622 DOI: 10.1016/j.jsbmb.2013.03.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2012] [Revised: 03/05/2013] [Accepted: 03/18/2013] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Glucocorticoids (GCs) are essential to normal lung development. They participate in the regulation of important developmental events including morphological changes, and lung maturation leading to the surge of surfactant synthesis by type II epithelial cells. Antenatal GC is administered to mothers at risk of premature delivery to reduce the risk of respiratory distress syndrome (RDS). Sex differences were reported in RDS, in the efficiency of antenatal GC treatment independently of surfactant levels, and in surfactant lipid synthesis. Type II epithelial cell maturation is regulated by epithelial-fibroblast cell-cell communication and involves paracrine factors secreted by fibroblasts under the stimulatory effect of GC. This positive action of GC can be inhibited by androgens through the androgen receptor (AR) present in fibroblasts. In fact, lung development is regulated not only by GC and androgens but also by GC and androgen metabolisms within the developing lung. We recently reviewed the metabolism of androgens in the fetal lung [45]. Here, we review multiple aspects of GC metabolism in the developing lung including inactivation and re-activation by 11β-HSDs, synthesis from the adrenal-like synthesis pathway expressed within the lung and the putative role of CRH and ACTH originating from lung in the regulation of this pathway. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled 'Pregnancy and Steroids'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pierre R Provost
- Reproduction Axis, Perinatal and Child Health, Rm T-1-49, CHUQ Research Center, Québec City, Québec, Canada; Department of Obstetrics/Gynecology & Reproduction, Faculty of Medicine, Laval University, Québec City, Québec, Canada; Centre de Recherche en Biologie de la Reproduction (CRBR), Laval University, Québec City, Québec, Canada
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23
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Blandino P, Hueston CM, Barnum CJ, Bishop C, Deak T. The impact of ventral noradrenergic bundle lesions on increased IL-1 in the PVN and hormonal responses to stress in male sprague dawley rats. Endocrinology 2013; 154:2489-500. [PMID: 23671261 DOI: 10.1210/en.2013-1075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The impact of acute stress on inflammatory signaling within the central nervous system is of interest because these factors influence neuroendocrine function both directly and indirectly. Exposure to certain stressors increases expression of the proinflammatory cytokine, Il-1β in the hypothalamus. Increased IL-1 is reciprocally regulated by norepinephrine (stimulatory) and corticosterone (inhibitory), yet neural pathways underlying increased IL-1 have not been clarified. These experiments explored the impact of bilateral lesions of the ventral noradrenergic bundle (VNAB) on IL-1 expression in the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus (PVN) after foot shock. Adult male Sprague Dawley rats received bilateral 6-hydroxydopamine lesions of the VNAB (VNABx) and were exposed to intermittent foot shock. VNABx depleted approximately 64% of norepinephrine in the PVN and attenuated the IL-1 response produced by foot shock. However, characterization of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal response, a crucial prerequisite for interpreting the effect of VNABx on IL-1 expression, revealed a profound dissociation between ACTH and corticosterone. Specifically, VNABx blocked the intronic CRH response in the PVN and the increase in plasma ACTH, whereas corticosterone was unaffected at all time points examined. Additionally, foot shock led to a rapid and profound increase in cyclooxygenase-2 and IL-1 expression within the adrenal glands, whereas more subtle effects were observed in the pituitary gland. Together the findings were the 1) demonstration that exposure to acute stress increased expression of inflammatory factors more broadly throughout the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis; 2) implication of a modest role for norepinephrine-containing fibers of the VNAB as an upstream regulator of PVN IL-1; and 3) suggestion of an ACTH-independent mechanism controlling the release of corticosterone in VNABx rats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter Blandino
- Behavioral Neuroscience Program, Department of Psychology, Binghamton University, Binghamton, NY 13902-6000, USA
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24
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Influence of the HPA axis on the inflammatory response in cutaneous wounds with the use of 670-nm laser photobiomodulation. JOURNAL OF PHOTOCHEMISTRY AND PHOTOBIOLOGY B-BIOLOGY 2012; 116:114-20. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jphotobiol.2012.05.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2011] [Revised: 05/25/2012] [Accepted: 05/28/2012] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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25
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End-point effector stress mediators in neuroimmune interactions: their role in immune system homeostasis and autoimmune pathology. Immunol Res 2012; 52:64-80. [PMID: 22396175 DOI: 10.1007/s12026-012-8275-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Much evidence has identified a direct anatomical and functional link between the brain and the immune system, with glucocorticoids (GCs), catecholamines (CAs), and neuropeptide Y (NPY) as its end-point mediators. This suggests the important role of these mediators in immune system homeostasis and the pathogenesis of inflammatory autoimmune diseases. However, although it is clear that these mediators can modulate lymphocyte maturation and the activity of distinct immune cell types, their putative role in the pathogenesis of autoimmune disease is not yet completely understood. We have contributed to this field by discovering the influence of CAs and GCs on fine-tuning thymocyte negative selection and, in particular, by pointing to the putative CA-mediated mechanisms underlying this influence. Furthermore, we have shown that CAs are implicated in the regulation of regulatory T-cell development in the thymus. Moreover, our investigations related to macrophage biology emphasize the complex interaction between GCs, CAs and NPY in the modulation of macrophage functions and their putative significance for the pathogenesis of autoimmune inflammatory diseases.
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26
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Pilipović I, Radojević K, Perišić M, Leposavić G. Glucocorticoid-catecholamine interplay within the composite thymopoietic regulatory network. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2012; 1261:34-41. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1749-6632.2012.06623.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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27
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Pilipović I, Radojević K, Perišić M, Kosec D, Nacka-Aleksić M, Djikić J, Leposavić G. Catecholaminergic signalling through thymic nerve fibres, thymocytes and stromal cells is dependent on both circulating and locally synthesized glucocorticoids. Exp Physiol 2012; 97:1211-23. [PMID: 22562811 DOI: 10.1113/expphysiol.2012.064899] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Glucocorticoids have been shown to modulate the expression of noradrenaline metabolizing enzymes and β(2)- and α(1B)-adrenoceptors in a tissue- and cell- specific manner. In the thymus, apart from extensive sympathetic innervation, a regulatory network has been identified that encompasses catecholamine-containing non-lymphoid and lymphoid cells. We examined a putative role of adrenal- and thymus-derived glucocorticoids in modulation of rat thymic noradrenaline levels and adrenoceptor expression. Seven days postadrenalectomy, the thymic levels of mRNAs encoding tyrosine hydroxylase, dopamine β-hydroxylase, monoamine oxidase-A and, consequently, noradrenaline were decreased. Catecholamine content was diminished in autofluorescent nerve fibres (judging by the intensity of fluorescence) and thymocytes (considering HPLC measurements of noradrenaline and the frequency of tyrosine hydroxylase-positive cells), while it remained unaltered in non-lymphoid autofluorescent cells. In addition, adrenalectomy diminished the thymocyte expression of β(2)- and α(1B)-adrenoceptors at both mRNA and protein levels. Administration of ketoconazole (an inhibitor of glucocorticoid synthesis/action; 25 mg kg(-1) day(-1), s.c.) to glucocorticoid-deprived rats increased the thymic levels of tyrosine hydroxylase, dopamine β-hydroxylase and, consequently, noradrenaline. The increased intensity of the autofluorescent cell fluorescence in ketoconazole-treated rats indicated an increase in their catecholamine content, and suggested differential glucocorticoid-mediated regulation of catecholamines in thymic lymphoid and non-lymphoid cells. In addition, ketoconazole increased the thymocyte expression of α(1B)-adrenoceptors. Thus, this study indicates that in the thymus, as in some other tissues, glucocorticoids not only act in concert with cateholamines, but they may modulate catecholamine action by tuning thymic catecholamine metabolism and adrenoceptor expression in a cell-specific manner. Additionally, the study indicates a role of thymus-derived glucocorticoids in this modulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- I Pilipović
- Immunology Research Centre ‘Branislav Jankovi´c’, Institute of Virology, Vaccines and Sera ‘Torlak’, Belgrade, Serbia
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28
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Leposavić G, Pilipović I, Perišić M. Cellular and nerve fibre catecholaminergic thymic network: steroid hormone dependent activity. Physiol Res 2011; 60:S71-82. [PMID: 21777027 DOI: 10.33549/physiolres.932175] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
The thymus plays a critical role in establishing and maintaining the peripheral T-cell pool. It does so by providing a microenvironment within which T-cell precursors differentiate and undergo selection processes to create a functional population of major histocompatibility complex-restricted, self-tolerant T cells. These cells are central to adaptive immunity. Thymic T-cell development is influenced by locally produced soluble factors and cell-to-cell interactions, as well as by sympathetic noradrenergic and endocrine system signalling. Thymic lymphoid and non-lymphoid cells have been shown not only to express beta- and alpha(1)- adrenoceptors (ARs), but also to synthesize catecholamines (CAs). Thus, it is suggested that CAs influence T-cell development via both neurocrine/endocrine and autocrine/paracrine action, and that they serve as immunotransmitters between thymocytes and nerves. CAs acting at multiple sites along the thymocyte developmental route affect T-cell generation not only numerically, but also qualitatively. Thymic CA level and synthesis, as well as AR expression exhibit sex steroid-mediated sexual dimorphism. Moreover, the influence of CAs on T-cell development exhibits glucocorticoid-dependent plasticity. This review summarizes recent findings in this field and our current understanding of complex and multifaceted neuroendocrine-immune communications at thymic level.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Leposavić
- Immunology Research Centre Branislav Janković, Institute of Virology, Vaccines and Sera Torlak, Belgrade, Serbia.
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29
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Taves MD, Gomez-Sanchez CE, Soma KK. Extra-adrenal glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids: evidence for local synthesis, regulation, and function. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 2011; 301:E11-24. [PMID: 21540450 PMCID: PMC3275156 DOI: 10.1152/ajpendo.00100.2011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 189] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
Glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids are steroid hormones classically thought to be secreted exclusively by the adrenal glands. However, recent evidence has shown that corticosteroids can also be locally synthesized in various other tissues, including primary lymphoid organs, intestine, skin, brain, and possibly heart. Evidence for local synthesis includes detection of steroidogenic enzymes and high local corticosteroid levels, even after adrenalectomy. Local synthesis creates high corticosteroid concentrations in extra-adrenal organs, sometimes much higher than circulating concentrations. Interestingly, local corticosteroid synthesis can be regulated via locally expressed mediators of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis or renin-angiotensin system (RAS). In some tissues (e.g., skin), these local control pathways might form miniature analogs of the pathways that regulate adrenal corticosteroid production. Locally synthesized glucocorticoids regulate activation of immune cells, while locally synthesized mineralocorticoids regulate blood volume and pressure. The physiological importance of extra-adrenal glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids has been shown, because inhibition of local synthesis has major effects even in adrenal-intact subjects. In sum, while adrenal secretion of glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids into the blood coordinates multiple organ systems, local synthesis of corticosteroids results in high spatial specificity of steroid action. Taken together, studies of these five major organ systems challenge the conventional understanding of corticosteroid biosynthesis and function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew D Taves
- Department of Psychology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada.
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Chen Y, Qiao S, Tuckermann J, Okret S, Jondal M. Thymus‐derived glucocorticoids mediate androgen effects on thymocyte homeostasis. FASEB J 2010. [DOI: 10.1096/fj.10.168724] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Yongwen Chen
- Department of Biosciences and NutritionKarolinska Institutet Stockholm Sweden
- Department of Microbiology Tumor, and Cell BiologyKarolinska Institutet Stockholm Sweden
| | - Shengjun Qiao
- Department of Biosciences and NutritionKarolinska Institutet Stockholm Sweden
- Department of Microbiology Tumor, and Cell BiologyKarolinska Institutet Stockholm Sweden
| | - Jan Tuckermann
- Department of Biosciences and NutritionKarolinska Institutet Stockholm Sweden
- Leibnitz Institute for Age Research‐Fritz Lipmann Institute (FLI) Jena Germany
| | - Sam Okret
- Department of Biosciences and NutritionKarolinska Institutet Stockholm Sweden
| | - Mikael Jondal
- Department of Microbiology Tumor, and Cell BiologyKarolinska Institutet Stockholm Sweden
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The role of endogenous glucocorticoids in lymphocyte development in melanocortin receptor 2-deficient mice. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2010; 403:253-7. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2010.11.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2010] [Accepted: 11/01/2010] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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Wiegers GJ, Kaufmann M, Tischner D, Villunger A. Shaping the T‐cell repertoire: a matter of life and death. Immunol Cell Biol 2010; 89:33-9. [DOI: 10.1038/icb.2010.127] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- G Jan Wiegers
- Division of Developmental Immunology, Biocenter, Medical University Innsbruck Innsbruck Austria
| | - Manuel Kaufmann
- Division of Developmental Immunology, Biocenter, Medical University Innsbruck Innsbruck Austria
| | - Denise Tischner
- Division of Developmental Immunology, Biocenter, Medical University Innsbruck Innsbruck Austria
| | - Andreas Villunger
- Division of Developmental Immunology, Biocenter, Medical University Innsbruck Innsbruck Austria
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Chen Y, Qiao S, Tuckermann J, Okret S, Jondal M. Thymus-derived glucocorticoids mediate androgen effects on thymocyte homeostasis. FASEB J 2010; 24:5043-51. [PMID: 20798244 DOI: 10.1096/fj.10-168724] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
Androgens contribute to the involution process of the aging thymus gland. However, molecular mechanisms behind this effect remain largely unknown. We have investigated the influence of testosterone on the ectopic synthesis of glucocorticoids (GCs) in thymocytes, an activity recently shown by us to be important for the homeostatic regulation of these cells. Castration, which leads to a strong increase in thymus tissue and function, was associated with a reduced GC release from thymocytes caused by down-regulated expression of several enzymes involved in GC synthesis, without affecting GC synthesis in the adrenals. Testosterone treatment of castrated male mice reversed these effects, also without affecting adrenal GC synthesis. The effects of testosterone in castrated mice on thymocyte homeostasis and GC release were strongly reduced in mice pretreated with the CYP11B1 enzyme inhibitor metyrapone, acting on the last step in the corticosterone synthesis. The androgen-induced thymic involution was dependent on GC action, because this was completely absent in mice lacking GC receptor (GR) expression specifically in thymocytes. We provide here an unrecognized mechanism how androgens contribute to thymic involution by stimulating local synthesis and release of GCs in the thymus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yongwen Chen
- Department of Bioscience and Nutrition, Karolinska Institutet, SE-141 83 Huddinge, Stockholm, Sweden.
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Slominski AT, Janjetovic Z, Fuller BE, Zmijewski MA, Tuckey RC, Nguyen MN, Sweatman T, Li W, Zjawiony J, Miller D, Chen TC, Lozanski G, Holick MF. Products of vitamin D3 or 7-dehydrocholesterol metabolism by cytochrome P450scc show anti-leukemia effects, having low or absent calcemic activity. PLoS One 2010; 5:e9907. [PMID: 20360850 PMCID: PMC2845617 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0009907] [Citation(s) in RCA: 125] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2009] [Accepted: 02/26/2010] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Cytochrome P450scc metabolizes vitamin D3 to 20-hydroxyvitamin D3 (20(OH)D3) and 20,23(OH)2D3, as well as 1-hydroxyvitamin D3 to 1α,20-dihydroxyvitamin D3 (1,20(OH)2D3). It also cleaves the side chain of 7-dehydrocholesterol producing 7-dehydropregnenolone (7DHP), which can be transformed to 20(OH)7DHP. UVB induces transformation of the steroidal 5,7-dienes to pregnacalciferol (pD) and a lumisterol-like compounds (pL). Methods and Findings To define the biological significance of these P450scc-initiated pathways, we tested the effects of their 5,7-diene precursors and secosteroidal products on leukemia cell differentiation and proliferation in comparison to 1α,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 (1,25(OH)2D3). These secosteroids inhibited proliferation and induced erythroid differentiation of K562 human chronic myeloid and MEL mouse leukemia cells with 20(OH)D3 and 20,23(OH)2D3 being either equipotent or slightly less potent than 1,25(OH)2D3, while 1,20(OH)2D3, pD and pL compounds were slightly or moderately less potent. The compounds also inhibited proliferation and induced monocytic differentiation of HL-60 promyelocytic and U937 promonocytic human leukemia cells. Among them 1,25(OH)2D3 was the most potent, 20(OH)D3, 20,23(OH)2D3 and 1,20(OH)2D3 were less active, and pD and pL compounds were the least potent. Since it had been previously proven that secosteroids without the side chain (pD) have no effect on systemic calcium levels we performed additional testing in rats and found that 20(OH)D3 had no calcemic activity at concentration as high as 1 µg/kg, whereas, 1,20(OH)2D3 was slightly to moderately calcemic and 1,25(OH)2D3 had strong calcemic activity. Conclusions We identified novel secosteroids that are excellent candidates for anti-leukemia therapy with 20(OH)D3 deserving special attention because of its relatively high potency and lack of calcemic activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrzej T Slominski
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, Tennessee, United States of America.
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Larkin JW, Binks SL, Li Y, Selvage D. The role of oestradiol in sexually dimorphic hypothalamic-pituitary-adrena axis responses to intracerebroventricular ethanol administration in the rat. J Neuroendocrinol 2010; 22:24-32. [PMID: 19912475 PMCID: PMC2818645 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2826.2009.01934.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Systemic ethanol (EtOH) administration activates the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis of rats in a sexually dimorphic manner. The present studies tested the role played by the central nervous system (CNS) in this phenomenon. To localise the effects of the drug to the brain, we utilised an experimental paradigm whereby a small, nontoxic amount of the drug was delivered via intracerebroventricular (i.c.v.) injection. EtoH administered i.c.v. rapidly diffuses throughout the cerebrospinal fluid and brain, and does not cause neuronal damage or have any long-term physiological or behavioural effects. Experimental groups included intact males, intact cycling females, and ovariectomised (OVX) animals with or without replacement oestradiol (E(2)). Intracerebroventricular EtOH-induced HPA hormonal activation was determined by measuring plasma adrenocorticotrophin (ACTH) levels. Activation of brain areas that both regulate HPA function and are responsive to gonadal hormones was determined using expression of the transcription factor c-fos (Fos) as a marker of neuronal activity. We observed sex- and oestrous cycle- dependent differences in HPA activation by EtOH as measured by both these parameters. ACTH secretion was highest in females in pro-oestrus or oestrus, just prior to or after the endogenous peak of E(2), as was Fos expression in the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus (PVN) and the locus coreuleus (LC) of the brainstem. In OVX animals, E(2) replacement caused an increase in PVN and LC Fos expression in response to i.c.v. EtOH compared to OVX controls, but a decrease in ACTH secretion. Taken together, these results indicate that at the level of the CNS, EtOH stimulates HPA activity more robustly at times when the effects of E(2) are high, but that E(2) alone is not responsible for this effect. The data further suggest that the LC plays an important role in the circuitry, which appears to be different from that activated following the systemic administration of EtOH.
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Affiliation(s)
- J W Larkin
- Department of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, Idaho State University, Pocatello, ID, USA
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Boldizsar F, Talaber G, Szabo M, Bartis D, Palinkas L, Nemeth P, Berki T. Emerging pathways of non-genomic glucocorticoid (GC) signalling in T cells. Immunobiology 2009; 215:521-6. [PMID: 19906460 DOI: 10.1016/j.imbio.2009.10.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2009] [Revised: 10/09/2009] [Accepted: 10/13/2009] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
In the last decade new glucocorticoid (GC)-signalling mechanisms have emerged. The evolving field of non-genomic GC actions was precipitated from two major directions: (i) some rapid/acute clinical GC applications could not be explained based on the relatively slowly appearing genomic GC action and (ii) accumulating evidence came to light about the discrepancy in the apoptosis sensitivity and GR expression of thymocytes and other lymphoid cell types. Herein, we attempt to sample the latest information in the field of non-genomic GC signalling in T cells, and correlate it with results from our laboratory. We discuss some aspects of the regulation of thymocyte apoptosis by GCs, paying special interest to the potential role(s) of mitochondrial GR signalling. The interplay between the T cell receptor (TcR) and glucocorticoid receptor (GR) signalling pathways is described in more detail, focusing on ZAP-70, which is a novel target of rapid GC action.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ferenc Boldizsar
- Department of Immunology and Biotechnology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Pecs, Pecs, Hungary.
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