Mutations in the SLCO2A1 gene and primary hypertrophic osteoarthropathy: a clinical and biochemical characterization

Pachydermoperiostosis Presenting With End-Stage Kidney Disease

Pachydermoperiostosis, also known as Touraine-Solente-Golé syndrome, is an uncommon hereditary condition. This condition includes skin thickening (pachydermia), abnormalities of the bones (periostosis), and digital clubbing (acropachy). We present a case of complete pachydermoperiostosis who presented with end-stage kidney disease. Chronic tubulointerstitial disease secondary to long-term analgesics and complementary and alternative medications was considered the likely etiology for renal dysfunction. The patient underwent serial hemodialysis followed by arteriovenous fistula surgery. In view of significant synovial inflammation, he was also given a selective COX-2 inhibitor. Pachydermoperiostosis is a rare condition, and although there is no therapy for the condition itself, medicinal or surgical interventions can effectively control its secondary effects.

Clinical and genetic characteristics of Chinese patients diagnosed with chronic enteropathy associated with SLCO2A1 gene

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Chronic enteropathy associated with SLCO2A1 gene is a rare intestinal disease caused by loss-of-function SLCO2A1 mutations, with clinical and genetic characteristics remaining largely unknown, especially in Chinese patients. This study aims to reveal clinical and genetic features of Chinese CEAS patients, highlighting the previously unreported or unemphasized characteristics.

METHODS

We enrolled 12 Chinese patients with chronic enteropathy associated with SLCO2A1 gene admitted to Peking Union Medical College Hospital from January 2018 to December 2022. Clinical and genetic data of these patients were collected and analyzed.

RESULTS

58.3% of patients were male, who also had primary hypertrophic osteoarthropathy, whereas female patients did not have primary hypertrophic osteoarthropathy. Apart from common symptoms associated with anemia and hypoalbuminemia, abdominal pain, ileus, diarrhea, and hematochezia were present. 4 of the 5 female patients had early-onset amenorrhea, though the causal relationship remained to be clarified. Endoscopy and computed tomography enterography revealed that lesions can occur in any part of the digestive tract, most commonly in the ileum. Pathology showed multiple superficial ulcers with adjacent vascular dilatation, and loss of SLCO2A1 expression, particularly in gastrointestinal vascular endothelial cells. Genetic analysis confirmed SLCO2A1 mutations in all patients and identified 11 new SLCO2A1 variants for CEAS.

CONCLUSIONS

This study reports new clinical, pathological, and genetic findings in 12 Chinese patients with chronic enteropathy associated with SLCO2A1 gene. This study provides insights into the pathogenesis of this disease. However, studies with larger sample sizes and more in-depth mechanism research are still required.

Primary hypertrophic osteoarthropathy: genetics, clinical features and management

Primary hypertrophic osteoarthropathy (PHO) is a genetic disorder mainly characterized by clubbing fingers, pachydermia and periostosis. Mutations in the HPGD or SLCO2A1 gene lead to impaired prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) degradation, thus elevating PGE2 levels. The identification of the causative genes has provided a better understanding of the underlying mechanisms. PHO can be divided into three subtypes according to its pathogenic gene and inheritance patterns. The onset age, sex ratio and clinical features differ among subtypes. The synthesis and signaling pathways of PGE2 are outlined in this review. Cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) is the key enzyme that acts as the rate-limiting step for prostaglandin production, thus COX-2 inhibitors have been used to treat this disease. Although this treatment showed effective results, it has side effects that restrain its use. Here, we reviewed the genetics, clinical features, differential diagnosis and current treatment options of PHO according to our many years of clinical research on the disease. We also discussed probable treatment that may be an option in the future.

A patient with pachydermoperiostosis harboring SLCO2A1 variants with a history of differentiating from acromegaly

Pachydermoperiostosis (PDP) is a rare hereditary disease characterized by digital clubbing, pachydermia, and periostosis. We describe a Japanese male patient with PDP who was differentially diagnosed with acromegaly by identification of compound heterozygous variants in SLCO2A1. Recent studies have reported various clinical manifestations, as well as skeletal and dermal features, in patients with PDP. Genetic testing provided not only PDP diagnosis and differentiation from acromegaly, but also information about possible complications and comorbidities throughout life.

Homozygous Missense Variant in the Solute Carrier Organic Anion Transporter 2A1 (SLCO2A1) Gene Underlies Isolated Nail Clubbing

BACKGROUND

Inherited isolated nail clubbing is a very rare Mendelian condition in humans, characterized by enlargement of the terminal segments of fingers and toes with thickened nails. Mutations in two genes have been reported to cause isolated nail clubbing in humans, which are the SLCO2A1 gene and the HPGD gene.

OBJECTIVES

An extended Pakistani family having two affected siblings born of unaffected consanguineous union was included in the study. Predominant isolated congenital nail clubbing (ICNC) without any other systemic abnormalities was observed, which we aimed to characterize at clinico-genetic level.

METHODS

Whole exome coupled with Sanger sequencing were employed to uncover the sequence variant as a cause of the disease. Furthermore, protein modeling was carried out to reveal the predicted possible effect of the mutation at the protein level.

RESULTS

Whole exome sequencing data analysis revealed a novel biallelic sequence variant (c.155T>A; p.Phe52Tyr) in the SLCO2A1 gene. Further, Sanger sequencing analysis validated and confirmed the segregation of the novel variant in the entire family. Subsequently, protein modeling of the wild-type and mutated SLCO2A1 revealed broad-scale change, which might compromise the proteins' secondary structure and function.

CONCLUSION

The present study adds another mutation to the SLCO2A1-related pathophysiology. The involvement of SLCO2A1 in the pathogenesis of ICNC may open exciting perceptions of this gene in nail development/morphogenesis.

Novel pathogenic variants in SLCO2A1 causing autosomal dominant primary hypertrophic osteoarthropathy

Primary hypertrophic osteoarthropathy (PHO), or pachydermoperiostosis, is characterized by a clinical association including digital clubbing, periostosis and pachydermia. SLCO2A1 and HPGD genes are both responsible for PHO. The pathology is classically defined as an autosomal recessive disorder with clinical variability ranging from a mild to more severe phenotype. However, the hypothesis for an autosomal dominant form suggested for a long time was only demonstrated for the first time in 2021 for SLCO2A1. We aimed to detect a second pathogenic variant by a deep sequencing of the entire SLCO2A1 and HPGD genes, associated with functional transcription analysis in PHO patients harboring only one heterozygous variant. Among 10 PHO patients, 4 presented a single pathogenic or probably pathogenic novel variant in SLCO2A1 in heterozygous status (NM_005630.3: c.234+1G > A, c.1523_1524delCT, c.1625G > A and c.31delC), and the others carried homozygous pathogenic variants. For heterozygous forms, we found no additional pathogenic variant in HPGD or SLCO2A1. PHO can be a dominant form with age at disease onset later than that for the recessive form. This dominant form is not exceptional in young adults. In conclusion, both modes of inheritance of PHO explain the clinical variability and the difference in age at disease onset. Molecular analysis is especially required in the incomplete form to distinguish it from secondary hypertrophic osteoarthropathy.

Hereditary Metabolic Bone Diseases: A Review of Pathogenesis, Diagnosis and Management

Hereditary metabolic bone diseases are characterized by genetic abnormalities in skeletal homeostasis and encompass one of the most diverse groups among rare diseases. In this review, we examine 25 selected hereditary metabolic bone diseases and recognized genetic variations of 78 genes that represent each of the three groups, including sclerosing bone disorders, disorders of defective bone mineralization and disorder of bone matrix and cartilage formation. We also review pathophysiology, manifestation and treatment for each disease. Advances in molecular genetics and basic sciences has led to accurate genetic diagnosis and novel effective therapeutic strategies for some diseases. For other diseases, the genetic basis and pathophysiology remain unclear. Further researches are therefore crucial to innovate ways to overcome diagnostic challenges and develop effective treatment options for these orphan diseases.

Utility of next-generation sequencing in genetic testing and counseling of disorders involving the musculoskeletal system—trends observed from a single genetic unit

Background

Disorders involving the musculoskeletal system are often identified with short stature and a range of orthopedic problems. The clinical and genetic heterogeneity of these diseases along with several characteristic overlaps makes definitive diagnosis difficult for clinicians. Hence, using molecular testing in addition to conventional tests becomes essential for appropriate diagnosis and management.

Methods

Comprehensive clinical examination, detailed pretest and posttest counseling, molecular diagnosis with next-generation sequencing (NGS), genotype–phenotype correlation and Sanger sequencing for targeted variant analysis.

Results

This manuscript reports a molecular spectrum of variants in 34 orthopedic cases referred to a single genetic unit attached to a tertiary care hospital. The diagnostic yield of NGS-based tests coupled with genetic counseling and segregation analysis was 79% which included 7 novel variants. In about 53% (i.e. 18/34 cases), molecular testing outcome was actionable since 8 of the 18 underwent prenatal diagnosis, as they were either in their early gestation or had planned a pregnancy subsequent to molecular testing, while ten cases were premaritally/prenatally counseled for the families to take informed decisions as they were in the reproductive age.

Conclusions

The report highlights the importance of NGS-based tests even in a low resource setting as it helps patients, families and healthcare providers in reducing the economic, social and emotional burden of these disorders.

Monoallelic mutations in SLCO2A1 cause autosomal dominant primary hypertrophic osteoarthropathy

Primary hypertrophic osteoarthropathy (PHO) is a rare disease inherited as a recessive or irregular dominant trait and characterized by digital clubbing, pachydermia, and periostosis. Biallelic mutations in HPGD and SLCO2A1, disturbing prostaglandin E₂ (PGE₂ ) catabolism and leading to increased circulating PGE₂ level, cause PHO autosomal recessive 1 (PHOAR1) and PHO autosomal recessive 2 (PHOAR2), respectively. However, no causative genes have been reported for PHO autosomal dominant (PHOAD). Here, we performed Sanger sequencing and whole-genome sequencing (WGS) on DNA samples from seven Chinese PHOAD families; after excluding other single-nucleotide variants (SNVs), structural variations (SVs), and copy number variations (CNVs) in the genomes, we reported six SLCO2A1 monoallelic mutations (c.1660G>A [p.G554R], c.664G>A [p.G222R], c.1106G>A [p.G369D], c.1065dupA [p.Q356TfsX77], c.1293delT [p.S432AfsX48], and c.1807C>T [p.R603X]) in the probands and affected family members. Then, in five other PHO families with probands carrying SLCO2A1 biallelic mutations, we verified that parents with SLCO2A1 monoallelic mutations also displayed PHO manifestations, which further confirmed the pathogenicity of SLCO2A1 monoallelic mutations and illustrated the allelic nature of PHOAD and PHOAR2. Subsequently, through comparison of seven PHOAD probands and 50 PHOAR2 patients, we found onset age in puberty and skewed penetrance rate were similar in both PHO types, but symptoms and signs of PHOAD were milder, including less severe pachydermia (p = .027) and periostosis (p = .005), and less frequent cutis verticis gyrata (p = .011), acne (p = .005), arthralgia (p = .037), and anemia (p = .023). The median urinary PGE₂ level in PHOAD probands was almost half that in PHOAR2 patients (PHOAD 277.58 ng/mmoL creatinine, PHOAR2 473.19 ng/mmoL creatinine; p = .038). Moreover, through the 3-month trial of oral administration of etoricoxib, an effective response similar to that we reported previously in PHOAR2 patients was observed in PHOAD probands. In conclusion, our findings confirm that SLCO2A1 monoallelic mutations are the cause of PHOAD and broaden phenotypic spectrum of PHO. © 2021 American Society for Bone and Mineral Research (ASBMR).

Does Compression Sensory Axonopathy in the Proximal Tibia Contribute to Noncontact Anterior Cruciate Ligament Injury in a Causative Way?-A New Theory for the Injury Mechanism

Anterior cruciate ligament injury occurs when the ligament fibers are stretched, partially torn, or completely torn. The authors propose a new injury mechanism for non-contact anterior cruciate ligament injury of the knee. Accordingly, non-contact anterior cruciate ligament injury could not happen without the acute compression microinjury of the entrapped peripheral proprioceptive sensory axons of the proximal tibia. This would occur under an acute stress response when concomitant microcracks-fractures in the proximal tibia evolve due to the same excessive and repetitive compression forces. The primary damage may occur during eccentric contractions of the acceleration and deceleration moments of strenuous or unaccustomed fatiguing exercise bouts. This primary damage is suggested to be an acute compression/crush axonopathy of the proprioceptive sensory neurons in the proximal tibia. As a result, impaired proprioception could lead to injury of the anterior cruciate ligament as a secondary damage, which is suggested to occur during the deceleration phase. Elevated prostaglandin E2, nitric oxide and glutamate may have a critical neuro-modulatory role in the damage signaling in this dichotomous neuronal injury hypothesis that could lead to mechano-energetic failure, lesion and a cascade of inflammatory events. The presynaptic modulation of the primary sensory axons by the fatigued and microdamaged proprioceptive sensory fibers in the proximal tibia induces the activation of N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors in the dorsal horn of the spinal cord, through a process that could have long term relevance due to its contribution to synaptic plasticity. Luteinizing hormone, through interleukin-1β, stimulates the nerve growth factor-tropomyosin receptor kinase A axis in the ovarian cells and promotes tropomyosin receptor kinase A and nerve growth factor gene expression and prostaglandin E2 release. This luteinizing hormone induced mechanism could further elevate prostaglandin E2 in excess of the levels generated by osteocytes, due to mechanical stress during strenuous athletic moments in the pre-ovulatory phase. This may explain why non-contact anterior cruciate ligament injury is at least three-times more prevalent among female athletes.

Recent advances in studies of SLCO2A1 as a key regulator of the delivery of prostaglandins to their sites of action

Solute carrier organic anion transporter family member 2A1 (SLCO2A1, also known as PGT, OATP2A1, PHOAR2, or SLC21A2) is a plasma membrane transporter consisting of 12 transmembrane domains. It is ubiquitously expressed in tissues, and mediates the membrane transport of prostaglandins (PGs, mainly PGE₂, PGF_2α, PGD₂) and thromboxanes (e.g., TxB₂). SLCO2A1-mediated transport is electrogenic and is facilitated by an outwardly directed gradient of lactate. PGs imported by SLCO2A1 are rapidly oxidized by cytoplasmic 15-hydroxyprostaglandin dehydrogenase (15-PGDH, encoded by HPGD). Accumulated evidence suggests that SLCO2A1 plays critical roles in many physiological processes in mammals, and it is considered a potential pharmacological target for diabetic foot ulcer treatment, antipyresis, and non-hormonal contraception. Furthermore, whole-exome analyses suggest that recessive inheritance of SLCO2A1 mutations is associated with two refractory diseases, primary hypertrophic osteoarthropathy (PHO) and chronic enteropathy associated with SLCO2A1 (CEAS). Intriguingly, SLCO2A1 is also a key component of the Maxi-Cl channel, which regulates fluxes of inorganic and organic anions, including ATP. Further study of the bimodal function of SLCO2A1 as a transporter and ion channel is expected to throw new light on the complex pathology of human diseases. Here, we review and summarize recent information on the molecular functions of SLCO2A1, and we discuss its pathophysiological significance.

A novel mutation in the SLCO2A1 gene, encoding a prostaglandin transporter, induces chronic enteropathy

Chronic enteropathy associated with SLCO2A1 gene (CEAS) is caused by loss-of-function mutations in SLCO2A1, which encodes a prostaglandin (PG) transporter. In this study, we report a sibling case of CEAS with a novel pathogenic variant of the SLCO2A1 gene. Compound heterozygous variants in SLCO2A1 were identified in an 8-year-old boy and 12-year-old girl, and multiple chronic nonspecific ulcers were observed in the patients using capsule endoscopy. The splice site mutation (c.940 + 1G>A) of the paternal allele was previously reported to be pathogenic, whereas the missense variant (c.1688T>C) of the maternal allele was novel and had not yet been reported. The affected residue (p.Leu563Pro) is located in the 11th transmembrane domain (helix 11) of SLCO2A1. Because SLCO2A1 mediates the uptake and clearance of PGs, the urinary PG metabolites were measured by liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry. The urinary tetranor-prostaglandin E metabolite levels in the patients were significantly higher than those in unaffected individuals. We established cell lines with doxycycline-inducible expression of wild type SLCO2A1 (WT-SLCO2A1) and the L563P mutant. Immunofluorescence staining showed that WT-SLCO2A1 and the L563P mutant were dominantly expressed on the plasma membranes of these cells. Cells expressing WT-SLCO2A1 exhibited time- and dose-dependent uptake of PGE₂, while the mutant did not show any uptake activity. Residue L563 is very close to the putative substrate-binding site in SLCO2A1, R561 in helix 11. However, in a molecular model of SLCO2A1, the side chain of L563 projected outside of helix 11, indicating that L563 is likely not directly involved in substrate binding. Instead, the substitution of Pro may twist the helix and impair the transporter function. In summary, we identified a novel pathogenic variant of SLCO2A1 that caused loss-of-function and induced CEAS.

Obscure gastrointestinal bleeding caused by congenital enteropathy in a Chinese young child-a case report

Background

SLCO2A1 was recently reported to cause nonspecific ulcers at small bowel, it was named as chronic enteropathy associated with SLCO2A1 (CEAS). It was rarely reported beyond the Japanese population.

Case presentation

A 4-year-5-month old girl presented with intractable anemia since 1-year-3-month. Her stool occult blood test was positive and the result of esophagogastroduodenoscopy and colonoscopy were normal. She was considered as obscure gastrointestinal bleeding. The magnetic resonance enterography and ultrasound of small intestinal revealed segmental thickening of small bowel. The capsule endoscopy detected ulcers, erosion and slightly stenosis near the site of junction of jejunum and ileum. She was considered chronic non-specific multiple ulcers of the small intestine and was advised to have whole exon sequencing. She was treated with exclusive enteral nutrition and iron supplement for two months. However, she was not responsive to this treatment, then she had three doses of infliximab. At the same time, the next-generation sequencing of this patient revealed two novel compound heterozygous mutations in SLCO2A1. She was diagnosed with CEAS and was treated with oral mercaptopurine. Her hemoglobin level was stable and the serum albumin level was slightly decreased during the follow up.

Conclusion

CEAS may present as nonspecific small bowel ulcers, and misinterpret as small bowel Crohn’s disease. Genetic tests may help with the precise diagnosis of small bowel ulcers.

Characterization of Mineral and Bone Metabolism Biomarkers in a Chinese Consanguineous Twin Family with Primary Hypertrophic Osteoarthropathy

PURPOSE

Primary hypertrophic osteoarthropathy (PHO) is a rare, autosomal, recessive genetic disease characterized by digital clubbing, periostosis, and pachydermia. The underlying cause for the pathogenesis of this disease is a defect in prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) degradation, caused by mutations in HPGD or SLCO2A1. In this study, we describe the clinical characteristics, SLCO2A1 mutations, and bone metabolic markers of a PHO pedigree from a Chinese consanguineous twin family.

METHODS

Whole blood and urine samples were collected from all the family members. All the exons and exon-intron boundaries of the HPGD and SLCO2A1 genes were amplified using polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and sequenced. The biomarkers of mineral and bone metabolism, including calcium, phosphorus, parathyroid hormone (PTH), 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25(OH)D), bone Gla-protein (BGP), C-terminal telopeptide of type I collagen (β-CTX), and urinary calcium/creatinine ratio (Uca/Ucr) were detected.

RESULTS

A homozygous (nonsense) mutation in the SLCO2A1 gene (c.1807C >T/p.R603 ^∗ ) was detected in the proband. Five heterozygous carriers were also identified among his relatives, including his twin brother. The serum BGP (225.5 ng/ml), β-CTX (4112 pg/ml), and Uca/Ucr (0.63) levels were significantly elevated, while the 25(OH)D (37.1 nmol/L) level was reduced in the proband. The proband's twin brother displayed increased levels of β-CTX (901 pg/ml) and insufficiency of 25(OH)D (67.29 nmol/L), while the other heterozygous carriers only displayed 25(OH)D insufficiency.

CONCLUSION

The patients with PHO displayed an active state of bone reconstruction. There may be a lack of vitamin D, accompanied by an increase in BGP and β-CTX levels. Heterozygous mutations of SLCO2A1 might lead to mild PHO.

Impaired bone microarchitecture in distal interphalangeal joints in patients with primary hypertrophic osteoarthropathy assessed by high-resolution peripheral quantitative computed tomography

This study aimed to investigate the bone impairment in finger joints in PHO patients by HR-pQCT. Results showed distinguished differences in bone architecture and biomechanics parameters at DIPs between PHO patients and healthy controls using HR-pQCT assessment. Besides, serum PGE2, hsCRP and ESR levels were found negatively correlated with total vBMD.

INTRODUCTION

This study aimed to investigate the bone impairment in finger joints in primary hypertrophic osteoarthropathy (PHO) patients firstly by high-resolution peripheral quantitative computed tomography (HR-pQCT).

METHODS

Fifteen PHO patients and 15 healthy controls were enrolled in this study. Bone erosions in hands at distal interphalangeal joints (DIPs) in both PHO patients and controls were evaluated by X-ray. Bone geometry, vBMD, microstructure parameters, and size of individual bone erosion were also measured at the 3rd DIP by HR-pQCT as well. Blood biochemistry levels between the two groups were also compared.

RESULTS

Compared to X-ray, HR-pQCT assessment were more sensitive for detection of bone erosions, with 14 PHO patients by HR-pQCT versus ten PHO patients by X-ray judged at the 3rd DIP. The average depth, width, and volume of erosions size in PHO patients were 1.38 ± 0.80 mm, 0.79 ± 0.27 mm, and 1.71 ± 0.52 mm³, respectively. The bone cross-areas including total area (+ 25.3%, p ≤ 0.05), trabecular area (+ 56.2%, p ≤ 0.05), and cortical perimeter (+ 10.7%, p ≤ 0.05) at the defined region of interest of 3rd DIP was significantly larger than controls. Total vBMD was 11.9% lower in PHO patients compared with the controls (p ≤ 0.05). Biochemical test results showed the increased levels of inflammatory cytokines, bone resorption markers, and joint degeneration markers in PHO patients. Serum prostaglandin PGE2, high-sensitive C-reactive protein (hsCRP) and erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR) levels were found negatively correlated with total vBMD.

CONCLUSIONS

This study demonstrated higher sensitivity of the HR-pQCT measurement at DIPs by showing the differences in architecture and biomechanics parameters at DIPs between the PHO patients and healthy controls, which would be of interest clinically to investigate bone deterioration in PHO patients.

Primary hypertrophic osteoarthropathy related gastrointestinal complication has distinctive clinical and pathological characteristics: two cases report and review of the literature

BACKGROUND

Primary hypertrophic osteoarthropathy (PHO) is a rare disease related to HPGD and SLCO2A1 gene mutation. Gastrointestinal involvement of PHO is even rarer with unknown pathogenesis. Clinical features of GI complication in PHO mimics other auto-immune based bowel entities, such as inflammatory bowel diseases and cryptogenic multifocal ulcerous stenosing enteritis (CMUSE). We aimed to analyze the clinical, genetic, radiological and pathological features of Chinese patients with PHO and determine the difference between PHO patients presenting with and without GI involvement.

METHODS

We reported two PHO cases with gastrointestinal involvement and reviewed all the studies of PHO in Chinese population published from January 1, 2000, to April 30, 2018. Clinical and genetic presentations of PHO in Chinese patients were analyzed. We compared the characteristics of those patients with gastrointestinal involvement against those without.

RESULTS

The two patients were both males with complete-form PHO for more than 10 years. GI related symptoms included diarrhea, chronic gastrointestinal hemorrhage, incomplete intestinal obstruction, anemia, and edema, which were unresponsive to etoricoxib treatment. Radiological examinations revealed segmental intestinal stenosis and thickened intestinal wall. Endoscopic findings included multiple ulcers and mucosal inflammation. Both patients had mutations of SLCO2A1 according to sequence analysis. The surgical pathology revealed chronic inflammation involving the intestinal mucosa and submucosa, similar to histological changes in CMUSE. According to the systemic review of 158 Chinese patients with PHO, 17.2% had gastrointestinal involvement, including peptic ulcer, gastric polyps, hypertrophic gastritis, and segmental intestinal stenosis. Patients with gastrointestinal involvement were more likely to have anemia (40.0% vs. 4.5%, P < 0.001), hypoalbuminemia (16.7% vs. 0.9%, P = 0.003), and myelofibrosis (19.0% vs. 0.9%, P = 0.002) than those without. Most patients with gastrointestinal complication had SLCO2A1 mutation (86.7%, 13 /15).

CONCLUSIONS

Digestive tract involvement is uncommon in patients with PHO and often presents with anemia, and hypoalbuminemia resulted from intestinal inflammation. The intestinal pathologic characteristics are distinct from Crohn's disease but similar to CMUSE. Mutations in SLCO2A1 might be the pathogenic cause of GI involvement of PHO. NSAIDs may not be effective for PHO patients with gastrointestinal complications.

Novel SLCO2A1compound heterozygous mutation causing primary hypertrophic osteoarthropathy with Bartter-like hypokalemia in a Chinese family

PURPOSE

Primary hypertrophic osteoarthropathy (PHO) is an inherited disease characterized by digital clubbing, periostosis and pachydermia with defects in the degradation of prostaglandin E2 (PGE2). Mutations in SLCO2A1 gene-encoding prostaglandin transporter (PGT) resulted in PHO, autosomal recessive 2 (PHOAR2). The spectrum of mutations and variable clinical complications of PHOAR2 has been delineated. In this study, we investigated a Chinese PHO family with a manifestation of Bartter-like hypokalemia.

METHODS

Clinical manifestations were collected and genetic analyses were performed in the PHO family.

RESULTS

The 33-year-old male proband had severe hypokalemia due to potassium loss from the kidney, while his brother had mild hypokalemia. After being treated with etoricoxib, the serum potassium level of the patient increased rapidly to the normal range which corresponded with the reduction in his serum PGE2 and PE2 metabolite (PGEM) levels. A novel SLCO2A1 compound heterozygous mutation of p.I284V and p.C459R was identified in two PHO patients in this family.

CONCLUSIONS

The present findings supported that the Bartter-like hypokalemia is a new complication of PHOAR2 caused by the high level of PGE2. Etoricoxib was demonstrated to be effective for the renal hypokalemia in PHO patients.

The first case of primary hypertrophic osteoarthropathy with soft tissue giant tumors caused by HPGD loss-of-function mutation

BACKGROUND

Primary hypertrophic osteoarthropathy (PHO) is a rare genetic multi-organic disease characterized by digital clubbing, periostosis and pachydermia. Two genes, HPGD and SLCO2A1, which encodes 15-hydroxyprostaglandin dehydrogenase (15-PGDH) and prostaglandin transporter (PGT), respectively, have been reported to be related to PHO. Deficiency of aforementioned two genes leads to failure of prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) degradation and thereby elevated levels of PGE2. PGE2 plays an important role in tumorigenesis. Studies revealed a tumor suppressor activity of 15-PGDH in tumors, such as lung, bladder and breast cancers. However, to date, no HPGD-mutated PHO patients presenting concomitant tumor has been documented. In the present study, we reported the first case of HPGD-mutated PHO patient with soft tissue giant tumors at lower legs and evaluated the efficacy of selective COX-2 inhibitor (etoricoxib) treatment in the patient.

METHODS

In this study, we summarized the clinical data, collected the serum and urine samples for biochemical test and analyzed the HPGD gene in our patient.

RESULTS

A common HPGD mutation c.310_311delCT was identified in the patient. In addition to typical clinical features (digital clubbing, periostosis and pachydermia), the patient demonstrated a new clinical manifestation, a giant soft tissue tumor on the left lower leg which has not been reported in HPGD-mutated PHO patient before. After 6-month treatment with etoricoxib, the patient showed decreased PGE2 levels and improved PHO-related symptoms. Though the soft tissue tumor persisted, it seemed to be controlled under the etoricoxib treatment.

CONCLUSION

This finding expanded the clinical spectrum of PHO and provided unique insights into the HPGD-mutated PHO.

Measurement of prostaglandin metabolites is useful in diagnosis of small bowel ulcerations

BACKGROUND

We recently reported on a hereditary enteropathy associated with a gene encoding a prostaglandin transporter and referred to as chronic enteropathy associated with SLCO2A1 gene (CEAS). Crohn’s disease (CD) is a major differential diagnosis of CEAS, because these diseases share some clinical features. Therefore, there is a need to develop a convenient screening test to distinguish CEAS from CD.

AIM

To examine whether prostaglandin E major urinary metabolites (PGE-MUM) can serve as a biomarker to distinguish CEAS from CD.

METHODS

This was a transactional study of 20 patients with CEAS and 98 patients with CD. CEAS was diagnosed by the confirmation of homozygous or compound heterozygous mutation of SLCO2A1. We measured the concentration of PGE-MUM in spot urine by radioimmunoassay, and the concentration was compared between the two groups of patients. We also determined the optimal cut-off value of PGE-MUM to distinguish CEAS from CD by receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve analysis.

RESULTS

Twenty Japanese patients with CEAS and 98 patients with CD were enrolled. PGE-MUM concentration in patients with CEAS was significantly higher than that in patients with CD (median 102.7 vs 27.9 μg/g × Cre, P < 0.0001). One log unit increase in PGE-MUM contributed to 7.3 increase in the likelihood for the diagnosis of CEAS [95% confidence interval (CI) 3.2-16.7]. A logistic regression analysis revealed that the association was significant even after adjusting confounding factors (adjusted odds ratio 29.6, 95%CI 4.7-185.7). ROC curve analysis revealed the optimal PGE-MUM cut-off value for the distinction of CEAS from CD to be 48.9 μg/g × Cre with 95.0% sensitivity and 79.6% specificity.

CONCLUSION

PGE-MUM measurement is a convenient, non-invasive and useful test for the distinction of CEAS from CD.

Pseudoacromegaly

Individuals with acromegaloid physical appearance or tall stature may be referred to endocrinologists to exclude growth hormone (GH) excess. While some of these subjects could be healthy individuals with normal variants of growth or physical traits, others will have acromegaly or pituitary gigantism, which are, in general, straightforward diagnoses upon assessment of the GH/IGF-1 axis. However, some patients with physical features resembling acromegaly - usually affecting the face and extremities -, or gigantism - accelerated growth/tall stature - will have no abnormalities in the GH axis. This scenario is termed pseudoacromegaly, and its correct diagnosis can be challenging due to the rarity and variability of these conditions, as well as due to significant overlap in their characteristics. In this review we aim to provide a comprehensive overview of pseudoacromegaly conditions, highlighting their similarities and differences with acromegaly and pituitary gigantism, to aid physicians with the diagnosis of patients with pseudoacromegaly.

Safety and efficacy of cyclooxygenase-2 inhibition for treatment of primary hypertrophic osteoarthropathy: A single-arm intervention trial

Background

Primary hypertrophic osteoarthropathy (PHO) is a rare disease involving joint, bone and skin. Two underlying genes responsible for this disease-hydroxyprostaglandin dehydrogenase (HPGD) and solute carrier organic anion transporter family, member 2A1 (SLCO2A1)-are both associated with aberrant accumulation of prostaglandin E2 (PGE2). Cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) is a key enzyme in PGE2 synthesis. This study was intended to evaluate the safety and efficacy of COX-2 inhibitor in the treatment of PHO.

Methods

We recruited patients presenting to Peking Union Medical Hospital between January 2009 and December 2016 who were diagnosed with PHO. Participants were given the COX-2 inhibitor etoricoxib (60 mg once daily) and followed up for 9 months. Gene analysis was performed at baseline. The following data were collected at baseline and during treatment: visual analogue score (VAS), volume of the distal middle finger (VDMF), knee joint circumference (KJC), serum and urinary levels of prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) and PGE metabolite (PGE-M) and serum levels of inflammatory markers.

Results

A total of 27 patients were recruited, including seven patients with PHO type I (PHOAR1) carrying HPGD gene mutations and 20 patients with PHO type II (PHOAR2) carrying SLCO2A1 gene mutations. After treatment with etoricoxib, the majority of patients experienced resolution of symptoms including pachydermia (60.9%), joint swelling (100%), digital clubbing (74.1%) and hyperhidrosis (55.0%). In both the PHO subtypes, serum and urinary levels of PGE2 were elevated at baseline and declined sharply upon treatment. For PHOAR1 patients, serum and urinary PGE-M levels were relatively low and demonstrated minimal response to COX-2 inhibition. Among PHOAR2 patients, mean serum and urinary levels of PGE-M presented at a high level at baseline and were normalized after 3 months of treatment. No severe adverse effects were reported during the study period.

Conclusions

We found COX-2 inhibitor to be safe and effective for the treatment of PHO in our cohort.

The translational potential of this article

The underlying genes responsible for PHO suggest COX inhibitor as potential therapy, and our study demonstrates the efficacy and safety of this treatment.

A male Korean who was diagnosed with chronic enteropathy associated with SLCO2A1 (CEAS): case report with literature review

Objective

To further disseminate the nomenclature of chronic enteropathy associated with SLCO2A1 (CEAS), especially for physicians in China and Korea where the genetic feature of SLCO2A1 gene mutations related hypertrophic osteoarthropathy and pachydermia had been extensively studied. SLCO2A1 gene mutations related hypertrophic osteoarthropathy and pachydermia had been extensively studied.

Design

A case report with literature review of SLCO2A1 gene mutations-related disorders.

Results

A 38-year-old Korean presented to a tertiary hospital with dizziness, abdominal pain and melena. He had a positive faecal occult blood test on initial workup. Oesophagogastroduodenal endoscopy (OGD), colonoscopy and CT scan were unremarkable and showed no obvious cause for his melena. Capsule endoscope and roentgen barium studies were performed, revealing an erythematous mucosa with ulcers in the jejunum and stenosis to the jejunal–ileal junction. Next-generation sequencing was then performed and discovered point mutations of SLCO2A1 gene’s seven exon (940+1 G>A) and 13 exon (1807 C>T) allele. This Korean patient with CEAS is the first documented case noted outside of the Japanese population.

Conclusion

CEAS is not uniquely found in Japanese individuals. There are lots of similarities between CEAS and primary hypertrophic osteoarthropathy, the two entity may just be the two sides of one same coin. International and multidisciplined efforts are required to further study this complicated disorder.

Novel SLCO2A1 mutations cause gender differentiated pachydermoperiostosis

Primary hypertrophic osteoarthropathy (PHO) is a rare familial disorder with reduced penetrance for females. The genetic mutations associated with PHO have been identified in HPGD and SLCO2A1 which involved in prostaglandin E2 metabolism. Here we report 5 PHO patients from 4 non-consanguineous families. Two heterozygous mutations in solute carrier organic anion transporter family member 2A1 (SLCO2A1) were identified in two brothers by whole-exome sequencing. Three heterozygous mutations and 1 homozygous mutation were identified in other 3 PHO families by Sanger sequencing. However, there was no mutation in HPGD. These findings confirmed that homozygous or compound heterozygous mutations of SLCO2A1 were the pathogenic cause of PHO. A female individual shared the same mutations in SLCO2A1 with her PHO brother but did not have any typical PHO symptoms. The influence of sex hormones on the pathogenesis of PHO and its implication were discussed.

Identification of mutations in the prostaglandin transporter gene SLCO2A1 and phenotypic comparison between two subtypes of primary hypertrophic osteoarthropathy (PHO): A single-center study

Primary hypertrophic osteoarthropathy (PHO) is an inherited disease characterized by digital clubbing, periostosis, and pachydermia. Based on two causative genes, hydroxyprostaglandin dehydrogenase (HPGD) and solute carrier organic anion transporter family member 2A1 (SLCO2A1), PHO is categorized into two subtypes: hypertrophic osteoarthropathy, primary, autosomal recessive 1 (PHOAR1) and hypertrophic osteoarthropathy, primary, autosomal recessive 2 (PHOAR2). In this study, we summarized the clinical manifestations and analyzed SLCO2A1 gene in 23 PHOAR2 patients in our center. As a result, 18 patients displayed complete phenotypes of PHO with digital clubbing, periostosis, and pachydermia. 29 mutations were found in total, and 22 of them were novel mutations including 13 missense, three nonsense, four deletion, one frame-shift and one splicing site mutations. Compared with nine PHOAR1 patients we previously reported, PHO patients with SLCO2A1 mutations were all male and presented with a later onset age. Peptic ulcers and myelofibrosis occurred only in PHOAR2 patients. The urinary level of prostaglandin E2 metabolite (PGEM) is significantly higher in PHOAR2 patients than that in PHOAR1 group. In conclusion, this study was the largest cohort to date to summarize PHOAR2 patients and to assess the phenotypic difference between two subtypes of PHO. The difference of urinary PGEM concentration between two subtypes is helpful for the differential diagnosis of PHO.

Roles of Organic Anion Transporting Polypeptide 2A1 (OATP2A1/SLCO2A1) in Regulating the Pathophysiological Actions of Prostaglandins

Solute carrier organic anion transporter family member 2A1 (OATP2A1, encoded by the SLCO2A1 gene), which was initially identified as prostaglandin transporter (PGT), is expressed ubiquitously in tissues and mediates the distribution of prostanoids, such as PGE₂, PGF_2α, PGD₂ and TxB₂. It is well known to play a key role in the metabolic clearance of prostaglandins, which are taken up into the cell by OATP2A1 and then oxidatively inactivated by 15-ketoprostaglandin dehydrogenase (encoded by HPGD); indeed, OATP2A1-mediated uptake is the rate-limiting step of PGE₂ catabolism. Consequently, since OATP2A1 activity is required for termination of prostaglandin signaling via prostanoid receptors, its inhibition can enhance such signaling. On the other hand, OATP2A1 can also function as an organic anion exchanger, mediating efflux of prostaglandins in exchange for import of anions such as lactate, and in this context, it plays a role in the release of newly synthesized prostaglandins from cells. These different functions likely operate in different compartments within the cell. OATP2A1 is reported to function at cytoplasmic vesicle/organelle membranes. As a regulator of the levels of physiologically active prostaglandins, OATP2A1 is implicated in diverse physiological and pathophysiological processes in many organs. Recently, whole exome analysis has revealed that recessive mutations in SLCO2A1 cause refractory diseases in humans, including primary hypertrophic osteoarthropathy (PHO) and chronic non-specific ulcers in small intestine (CNSU). Here, we review and summarize recent information on the molecular functions of OATP2A1 and on its physiological and pathological significance.

Increased levels of prostaglandin E-major urinary metabolite (PGE-MUM) in active mesenteric panniculitis patients: A case report

RATIONALE

Mesenteric panniculitis (MP) is a rare disease with abdominal and systemic symptoms and is characterized by nonspecific inflammation, fat necrosis, and fibrosis in mesenteric fat. Active inflammatory responses may increase levels of prostaglandin E-major urinary metabolite (PGE-MUM), which was reported to reflect the disease activity of ulcerative colitis and chronic fibrosing interstitial pneumonia. We recently experienced a case with elevated PGE-MUM at the time of diagnosis of MP and we investigated the potential of PGE-MUM as a biomarker.

PATIENT CONCERN

In this report we described 2 active mesenteric panniculitis patients with high PGE-MUM levels.

DIAGNOSES

Mesenteric panniculitis INTERVENTIONS:: Both MP patients were measured the levels of PGE-MUM.

OUTCOMES

Both MP patients exhibited high levels of PGE-MUM before treatment. In one, the levels were sensitively correlated with clinical symptoms and serological markers on steroids.

LESSONS

The study observations suggest the potential of PGE-MUM to reflect the disease activity of MP. To verify its use, more findings based on clinical studies should be accumulated.

Chronic Enteropathy Associated With SLCO2A1 Gene [CEAS]-Characterisation of an Enteric Disorder to be Considered in the Differential Diagnosis of Crohn's Disease

Small intestinal ulcers include mucosal damage caused by drugs, particularly nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs [NSAIDs], infectious diseases, and idiopathic inflammatory bowel disease. Previously, a group of Japanese investigators reported an unusual and uncommon type of enteritis and referred to the condition as chronic nonspecific multiple ulcers of the small intestine [CNSU]. CNSU is characterised by chronic blood and protein loss through persistent small intestinal ulcers. Recently, four candidate mutations in the solute carrier organic anion transporter family, member 2A1 [SLCO2A1] gene, encoding a prostaglandin transporter, were identified by whole-exome sequencing in patients with CNSU. However, because the name 'CNSU' was somewhat ambiguous, the more appropriate nomenclature of 'chronic enteropathy associated with the SLCO2A1 gene' [CEAS] has been suggested. CEAS ulcers are characterised by multiple, circular or eccentric oblique, shallow lesions with discrete margins. The most frequently affected site of CEAS is the ileum, in contrast to 'cryptogenic multifocal ulcerous stenosing enteritis [CMUSE]', for which the most frequent site is the jejunum. Impaired prostaglandin utilisation is thought to cause the small intestinal mucosal damage observed in CEAS, CMUSE, and NSAID-induced enteropathy. This review article focuses on endoscopic and clinical features of genetically diagnosed CEAS, accumulated in a nationwide survey, and illustrates the observations in the format of an atlas.

Clinical, Biochemical, and Genetic Features of 41 Han Chinese Families With Primary Hypertrophic Osteoarthropathy, and Their Therapeutic Response to Etoricoxib: Results From a Six-Month Prospective Clinical Intervention

Primary hypertrophic osteoarthropathy (PHO) is a rare inherited disease caused by genetic defects in the prostaglandin metabolism pathway; disturbed prostaglandin E₂ (PGE₂ ) catabolism resulting in increased PGE₂ level is suggested in the pathogenesis. Forty-three Han Chinese patients with PHO were studied and 41 of them were treated. Mutations in the HPGD gene, causing hypertrophic osteoarthropathy, primary, autosomal recessive 1 (PHOAR1; OMIM 259100), were identified in seven patients, and mutations in the SLCO2A1 gene, causing hypertrophic osteoarthropathy, primary, autosomal recessive 2 (PHOAR2; OMIM 614441), were identified in 36 patients. Clinical phenotypes of PHO varied, ranging from mild isolated finger clubbing to severe pachydermia and disabling joint swelling, even within families. Circulating PGE₂ metabolism features of PHOAR2 were different from those of PHOAR1. Different frequency and severity of pachydermia between the subgroups were also indicated. A percentage of PHOAR2 patients suffered from gastrointestinal hemorrhage, but this symptom was not observed in the PHOAR1 subgroup. Clinical evidence highlighted the essential role of sex hormones in prostaglandin transporter regulation with respect to PHOAR2 onset, although no significant associations of urinary PGE₂ or PGE-M with sex hormones were identified. Treatment with etoricoxib, a selective cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitor, was proved to be beneficial and safe. We detected its notable efficacy in decreasing urinary PGE₂ levels in the majority of the enrolled patients during 6 months of intervention; clinical phenotypes assessed, including pachydermia, finger clubbing, and joint swelling, were improved. We found no visible evidence of a positive effect of etoricoxib on periostosis; however, significant links between urinary PGE₂ and serum bone turnover markers indicated a potential role of decreased PGE₂ in periostosis management. This is the largest reported cohort of subjects genetically diagnosed with PHO. For the first time, we systematically investigated the biochemical and clinical differences between PHOAR1 and PHOAR2, and prospectively showed the positive efficacy and safety of etoricoxib for PHO patients. © 2017 American Society for Bone and Mineral Research.

Recent advance in the pharmacogenomics of human Solute Carrier Transporters (SLCs) in drug disposition

Drug pharmacokinetics is influenced by the function of metabolising enzymes and influx/efflux transporters. Genetic variability of these genes is known to impact on clinical therapies. Solute Carrier Transporters (SLCs) are the primary influx transporters responsible for the cellular uptake of drug molecules, which consequently, impact on drug efficacy and toxicity. The Organic Anion Transporting Polypeptides (OATPs), Organic Anion Transporters (OATs) and Organic Cation Transporters (OCTs/OCTNs) are the most important SLCs involved in drug disposition. The information regarding the influence of SLC polymorphisms on drug pharmacokinetics is limited and remains a hot topic of pharmaceutical research. This review summarises the recent advance in the pharmacogenomics of SLCs with an emphasis on human OATPs, OATs and OCTs/OCTNs. Our current appreciation of the degree of variability in these transporters may contribute to better understanding the inter-patient variation of therapies and thus, guide the optimisation of clinical treatments.

Pediatric-onset Chronic Nonspecific Multiple Ulcers of Small Intestine: A Nationwide Survey and Genetic Study in Japan

We performed a Japanese nationwide survey of pediatric-onset chronic nonspecific multiple ulcers of the small intestine between January 2000 and July 2013 in 176 institutions of pediatric surgery or pediatric gastroenterology and clarified the clinical features associated with genetic abnormalities in the Solute Carrier Organic Anion Transporter Family, Member 2A1 (SLCO2A1) gene. A total of 4 cases (3 girls and 1 boy) were diagnosed in this series, which had to be differentiated from Crohn disease, Behçet disease, tuberculosis, or drug-induced enteropathy. Clinical symptoms appeared in infants and accurate diagnosis required several years. Medical therapies for inflammatory bowel disease were administered in all patients; however, 2 of the 4 patients had mutation in the SLCO2A1 gene which are responsible for primary hypertrophic osteoarthopathy, and underwent strictureplasty or ileal resection after long-term follow-up. Pediatric gastroenterologists should include this new entity in the differential diagnosis of small intestinal ulcers and inflammatory bowel disease.

Identification of two novel mutations in the SLCO2A1 prostaglandin transporter gene in a Chinese patient with primary hypertrophic osteoarthropathy

Primary hypertrophic osteoarthropathy (PHO), which is a rare multi‑organic disease characterized by digital clubbing, pachydermia and periosteal reaction, typically begins during childhood or adolescence and progresses gradually over years prior to disease stabilization. To date, only two genes have been reported to be associated with PHO, 15‑hydroxyprostaglandin dehydrogenase and solute carrier organic anion transporter family, member 2A1 (SLCO2A1). However, the pathogenesis and the functions of the underlying genes remain to be fully elucidated. In the present study, a 20‑year‑old Chinese patient with PHO was investigated using sequence analysis of PHO genes and bioinformatics analysis. A novel, compound heterozygous mutation in the SLCO2A1 gene was identified, which contained two novel mutations: c.349delC (p.L117SfsX56) in exon 3 and c.1286A>G (p.Y429C) in exon 9. These two novel genotypes in PHO are the first, to the best of our knowledge, to be reported in PHO. This finding expands the mutation spectrum of PHO, which contributes to improving genetic diagnosis and future genetic counseling, and provides clues to the phenotype‑genotype associations.

Identification of the Mutations in the Prostaglandin Transporter Gene, SLCO2A1 and Clinical Characterization in Korean Patients with Pachydermoperiostosis

Pachydermoperiostosis (PDP), or primary hypertrophic osteoarthropathy, is a rare genetic disease affecting both skin and bones. Both autosomal dominant with incomplete penetrance and recessive inheritance of PDP have been previously confirmed. Recently, hydroxyprostaglandin dehydrogenase (HPGD) and solute carrier organic anion transporter family member 2A1 (SLCO2A1) were reported as pathogenic genes responsible for PDP. Both genes are involved in prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) degradation. We aimed to identify responsible genes for PDP and the clinical features in Korean patients with PDP. Six affected individuals and their available healthy family members from three unrelated Korean families with PDP were studied. All of the patients displayed complete phenotypes of PDP with finger clubbing, pachydermia, and periostosis. Mutation analysis revealed a novel heterozygous mutation in the SLCO2A1 gene at nucleotide 302 causing a substitution of the amino acid isoleucine to serine at codon 101 (p.IIe101Ser) in affected individuals. We also identified known SLCO2A1 mutations, one homozygous for c.940+1G>A, and another compound heterozygous for c.940+1G>A and c.1807C>T (p.Arg603*) from two PDP families. Genetic analyses of the PDP patients showed no abnormality in the HPGD gene. Our study further supports the role of mutations in the SLCO2A1 gene in the pathogenesis of PDP and could provide additional clues to the genotype-phenotype relations of PDP.

Hypertrophic Osteoarthropathy and Follicular Thyroid Cancer: A Rare Paraneoplastic Syndrome

BACKGROUND

Hypertrophic osteoarthropathy (HOA) is a rare condition characterized by bone and joint pain and digital clubbing usually associated with bronchopulmonary diseases. Primary HOA is rare and the pathogenesis remains unclear.

OBJECTIVES

Cases of HOA as a paraneoplastic syndrome associated with thyroid carcinoma are very rare - only 2 cases have been described in the literature.

RESULTS

We present the first case of a 40-year-old patient affected by HOA associated with invasive differentiated follicular thyroid carcinoma operated in 2 stages. Both operations were followed by radioiodine ablation, and then a rapid unresectable local recurrence developed requiring cervical radiotherapy (70 Gy). A second treatment with 100 mCi of (131)I confirmed it was a refractory thyroid cancer. Further surgery confirmed a poorly differentiated follicular cancer and 12 cycles of chemotherapy by gemcitabine and oxaliplatin followed. During the 8 years of follow-up, cervical recurrence was stable, but severe episodes of hemoptysis occurred requiring iterative embolization of the bronchial and tracheal arteries. Other lung diseases were excluded. Digital clubbing appeared, which was associated with arthritis, bone pain and inflammatory syndrome. X-rays and magnetic resonance imaging found periosteal apposition in the long bones; bone scintigraphy confirmed the HOA diagnosis. Other causes of arthritis were eliminated. She was treated with colchicine, corticosteroids and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, but only the combination of methotrexate and hydroxychloroquine reduced the morphine requirements.

CONCLUSION

HOA is exceptionally associated with thyroid cancer and we raised the hypothesis of the secretion of a circulating factor in a patient with invasive and recurrent follicular thyroid cancer, refractory to radioiodine.

A Hereditary Enteropathy Caused by Mutations in the SLCO2A1 Gene, Encoding a Prostaglandin Transporter

Previously, we proposed a rare autosomal recessive inherited enteropathy characterized by persistent blood and protein loss from the small intestine as chronic nonspecific multiple ulcers of the small intestine (CNSU). By whole-exome sequencing in five Japanese patients with CNSU and one unaffected individual, we found four candidate mutations in the SLCO2A1 gene, encoding a prostaglandin transporter. The pathogenicity of the mutations was supported by segregation analysis and genotyping data in controls. By Sanger sequencing of the coding regions, 11 of 12 other CNSU patients and 2 of 603 patients with a diagnosis of Crohn’s disease were found to have homozygous or compound heterozygous SLCO2A1 mutations. In total, we identified recessive SLCO2A1 mutations located at seven sites. Using RT-PCR, we demonstrated that the identified splice-site mutations altered the RNA splicing, and introduced a premature stop codon. Tracer prostaglandin E2 uptake analysis showed that the mutant SLCO2A1 protein for each mutation exhibited impaired prostaglandin transport. Immunohistochemistry and immunofluorescence analyses revealed that SLCO2A1 protein was expressed on the cellular membrane of vascular endothelial cells in the small intestinal mucosa in control subjects, but was not detected in affected individuals. These findings indicate that loss-of-function mutations in the SLCO2A1 gene encoding a prostaglandin transporter cause the hereditary enteropathy CNSU. We suggest a more appropriate nomenclature of “chronic enteropathy associated with SLCO2A1 gene” (CEAS).

Advanced diagnostic innovations such as capsule endoscopy and balloon endoscopy have provided better understanding of endoscopic findings of small bowel diseases. However, it remains difficult to diagnose small intestinal diseases such as Crohn’s disease, intestinal tuberculosis, and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug-induced enteropathy by the endoscopic findings alone. We previously reported a rare autosomal recessive inherited enteropathy characterized by persistent blood and protein loss from the small intestine. This enteropathy has an intractable clinical course with ineffectiveness of immunosuppressive treatment. In this study, we identified recessive mutations in the SLCO2A1 gene, encoding a prostaglandin transporter, as causative variants of this disorder by exome sequencing of four families, and showed that this disease is distinct from Crohn’s disease. We also showed that the mutations found in the patients caused functional impairment of prostaglandin E2 uptake within cells. The present findings suggest that genetic analysis together with detailed clinical information is invaluable for diagnosis of the disease, and that there may be a concept of enteropathy referred to as “prostaglandin-associated enteropathy”, irrespective of ethnic background.

A Common Mutation and a Novel Mutation in the HPGD Gene in Nine Patients with Primary Hypertrophic Osteoarthropathy

Primary hypertrophic osteoarthropathy (PHO) is a hereditary bone disease characterized by digital clubbing, periostosis, and pachydermia. The HPGD gene encoding 15-prostaglandin dehydrogenase and SLCO2A1 encoding one type of prostaglandin transporter were found to be responsible for PHO. Mutations of either gene would lead to increased level of prostaglandin E2 (PGE2), which might contribute to the constellation of the symptoms. The aim of the study was to analyze the HPGD gene and the clinical characteristics in nine patients with the diagnosis of PHO. Nine patients, (eight males and one female) including two siblings and seven sporadic cases, were enrolled in the study. Clinical features were summarized, and blood and urine samples were collected. Sanger method was used to sequence the HPGD gene to detect mutations. Urinary PGE2 and prostaglandin metabolite (PGE-M) levels for each patient were measured and compared to the healthy controls. A recurrent c.310_311delCT mutation was identified in all patients, of which six were homozygous, two were heterozygous, and one was compound heterozygous with this mutation and a novel heterozygous missense mutation c.488G>A (p.R163H). The levels of PGE2 in urine were much higher than normal in all patients, along with lower PGE-M levels. In conclusion, nine PHO patients were characterized by typical clinical manifestations including digital clubbing, periostosis, and pachydermia. A common mutation and a novel mutation in HPGD gene were identified to be responsible for the disease, and c.310_311delCT mutation is likely to be a hot-spot mutation site for Asian PHO patients.

Inhibition of the Prostaglandin Transporter PGT Lowers Blood Pressure in Hypertensive Rats and Mice

Inhibiting the synthesis of endogenous prostaglandins with nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs exacerbates arterial hypertension. We hypothesized that the converse, i.e., raising the level of endogenous prostaglandins, might have anti-hypertensive effects. To accomplish this, we focused on inhibiting the prostaglandin transporter PGT (SLCO2A1), which is the obligatory first step in the inactivation of several common PGs. We first examined the role of PGT in controlling arterial blood pressure blood pressure using anesthetized rats. The high-affinity PGT inhibitor T26A sensitized the ability of exogenous PGE₂ to lower blood pressure, confirming both inhibition of PGT by T26A and the vasodepressor action of PGE₂ T26A administered alone to anesthetized rats dose-dependently lowered blood pressure, and did so to a greater degree in spontaneously hypertensive rats than in Wistar-Kyoto control rats. In mice, T26A added chronically to the drinking water increased the urinary excretion and plasma concentration of PGE₂ over several days, confirming that T26A is orally active in antagonizing PGT. T26A given orally to hypertensive mice normalized blood pressure. T26A increased urinary sodium excretion in mice and, when added to the medium bathing isolated mouse aortas, T26A increased the net release of PGE₂ induced by arachidonic acid, inhibited serotonin-induced vasoconstriction, and potentiated vasodilation induced by exogenous PGE₂. We conclude that pharmacologically inhibiting PGT-mediated prostaglandin metabolism lowers blood pressure, probably by prostaglandin-induced natriuresis and vasodilation. PGT is a novel therapeutic target for treating hypertension.

Inactivating mutation in the prostaglandin transporter gene, SLCO2A1, associated with familial digital clubbing, colon neoplasia, and NSAID resistance

HPGDand SLCO2A1 genes encode components of the prostaglandin catabolic pathway, with HPGD encoding the degradative enzyme 15-hydroxyprostaglandin dehydrogenase (15-PGDH), and SLCO2A1 encoding the prostaglandin transporter PGT that brings substrate to 15-PGDH. HPGD-null mice show increased prostaglandin E2 (PGE2), marked susceptibility to developing colon tumors, and resistance to colon tumor prevention by nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAID). But in humans, HPGD and SLCO2A1 mutations have only been associated with familial digital clubbing. We, here, characterize a family with digital clubbing and early-onset colon neoplasia. Whole-exome sequencing identified a heterozygous nonsense mutation (G104X) in the SLCO2A1 gene segregating in 3 males with digital clubbing. Two of these males further demonstrated notably early-onset colon neoplasia, 1 with an early-onset colon cancer and another with an early-onset sessile serrated colon adenoma. Two females also carried the mutation, and both these women developed sessile serrated colon adenomas without any digital clubbing. Males with clubbing also showed marked elevations in the levels of urinary prostaglandin E2 metabolite, PGE-M, whereas, female mutation carriers were in the normal range. Furthermore, in the male proband, urinary PGE-M remained markedly elevated during NSAID treatment with either celecoxib or sulindac. Thus, in this human kindred, a null SLCO2A1 allele mimics the phenotype of the related HPGD-null mouse, with increased prostaglandin levels that cannot be normalized by NSAID therapy, plus with increased colon neoplasia. The development of early-onset colon neoplasia in male and female human SLCO2A1 mutation carriers suggests that disordered prostaglandin catabolism can mediate inherited susceptibility to colon neoplasia in man.

Two novel mutations in the SLCO2A1 gene in a Chinese patient with primary hypertrophic osteoarthropathy

Primary hypertrophic osteoarthropathy (PHO) is a rare monogenetic disease characterized by digital clubbing, periostosis and pachydermia. Mutations in the 15-hydroxy-prostaglandin dehydrogenase (HPGD) gene and solute carrier organic anion transporter family member 2A1 (SLCO2A1) gene have been shown to be associated with PHO. Here, we described clinical characteristics in a Chinese patient with PHO, and identified two novel mutations in SLCO2A1: a heterozygous guanine-to-thymidine transition at the invariant -1 position of the acceptor site of intron 2 (c.235-1G>T) and a heterozygous missense mutation p.Pro219Leu (c.656C>T) in exon 5.