In situ chemical reprogramming of astrocytes into neurons: A new hope for the treatment of central neurodegenerative diseases?

Central neurodegenerative disorders (e.g. Alzheimer's disease (AD) and Parkinson's disease (PD)) are tightly associated with extensive neuron loss. Current therapeutic interventions merely mitigate the symptoms of these diseases, falling short of addressing the fundamental issue of neuron loss. Cell reprogramming, involving the transition of a cell from one gene expression profile to another, has made significant strides in the conversion between diverse somatic cell types. This advancement has been facilitated by gene editing techniques or the synergistic application of small molecules, enabling the conversion of glial cells into functional neurons. Despite this progress, the potential for in situ reprogramming of astrocytes in treating neurodegenerative disorders faces challenges such as immune rejection and genotoxicity. A novel avenue emerges through chemical reprogramming of astrocytes utilizing small molecules, circumventing genotoxic effects and unlocking substantial clinical utility. Recent studies have successfully demonstrated the in situ conversion of astrocytes into neurons using small molecules. Nonetheless, these findings have sparked debates, encompassing queries regarding the origin of newborn neurons, pivotal molecular targets, and alterations in metabolic pathways. This review succinctly delineates the background of astrocytes reprogramming, meticulously surveys the principal classes of small molecule combinations employed thus far, and examines the complex signaling pathways they activate. Finally, this article delves into the potential vistas awaiting exploration in the realm of astrocytes chemical reprogramming, heralding a promising future for advancing our understanding and treatment of neurodegenerative diseases.

Generation of functional neurons from adult human mucosal olfactory ensheathing glia by direct lineage conversion

A recent approach to promote central nervous system (CNS) regeneration after injury or disease is direct conversion of somatic cells to neurons. This is achieved by transduction of viral vectors that express neurogenic transcription factors. In this work we propose adult human mucosal olfactory ensheathing glia (hmOEG) as a candidate for direct reprogramming to neurons due to its accessibility and to its well-characterized neuroregenerative capacity. After induction of hmOEG with the single neurogenic transcription factor NEUROD1, the cells under study exhibited morphological and immunolabeling neuronal features, fired action potentials and expressed glutamatergic and GABAergic markers. In addition, after engraftment of transduced hmOEG cells in the mouse hippocampus, these cells showed specific neuronal labeling. Thereby, if we add to the neuroregenerative capacity of hmOEG cultures the conversion to neurons of a fraction of their population through reprogramming techniques, the engraftment of hmOEG and hmOEG-induced neurons could be a procedure to enhance neural repair after central nervous system injury.

Neuronal conversion from glia to replenish the lost neurons

ABSTRACT

Neuronal injury, aging, and cerebrovascular and neurodegenerative diseases such as cerebral infarction, Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, frontotemporal dementia, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, and Huntington's disease are characterized by significant neuronal loss. Unfortunately, the neurons of most mammals including humans do not possess the ability to self-regenerate. Replenishment of lost neurons becomes an appealing therapeutic strategy to reverse the disease phenotype. Transplantation of pluripotent neural stem cells can supplement the missing neurons in the brain, but it carries the risk of causing gene mutation, tumorigenesis, severe inflammation, and obstructive hydrocephalus induced by brain edema. Conversion of neural or non-neural lineage cells into functional neurons is a promising strategy for the diseases involving neuron loss, which may overcome the above-mentioned disadvantages of neural stem cell therapy. Thus far, many strategies to transform astrocytes, fibroblasts, microglia, Müller glia, NG2 cells, and other glial cells to mature and functional neurons, or for the conversion between neuronal subtypes have been developed through the regulation of transcription factors, polypyrimidine tract binding protein 1 (PTBP1), and small chemical molecules or are based on a combination of several factors and the location in the central nervous system. However, some recent papers did not obtain expected results, and discrepancies exist. Therefore, in this review, we discuss the history of neuronal transdifferentiation, summarize the strategies for neuronal replenishment and conversion from glia, especially astrocytes, and point out that biosafety, new strategies, and the accurate origin of the truly converted neurons in vivo should be focused upon in future studies. It also arises the attention of replenishing the lost neurons from glia by gene therapies such as up-regulation of some transcription factors or down-regulation of PTBP1 or drug interference therapies.

Rapid and high-purity differentiation of human medium spiny neurons reveals LMNB1 hypofunction and subtype necessity in modeling Huntington's disease

BACKGROUND

Different neural subtypes are selectively lost in diverse neurodegenerative diseases. Huntington's disease (HD) is an inherited neurodegenerative disease characterized by motor abnormalities that primarily affect the striatum. The Huntingtin (HTT) mutation involves an expanded CAG repeat, leading to insoluble polyQ, which renders GABA+ medium spiny neurons (MSN) more venerable to cell death. Human pluripotent stem cells (hPSCs) technology allows for the construction of disease-specific models, providing valuable cellular models for studying pathogenesis, drug screening, and high-throughput analysis.

METHODS

In this study, we established a method that allows for rapid and efficient generation of MSNs (> 90%) within 21 days from hPSC-derived neural progenitor cells, by introducing a specific combination of transcription factors.

RESULTS

We efficiently induced several neural subtypes, in parallel, based on the same cell source, and revealed that, compared to other neural subtypes, MSNs exhibited higher polyQ aggregation propensity and overexpression toxicity, more severe dysfunction in BDNF/TrkB signaling, greater susceptibility to BDNF withdrawal, and more severe disturbances in nucleocytoplasmic transport (NCT). We further found that the nuclear lamina protein LMNB1 was greatly reduced in HD neurons and mislocalized to the cytoplasm and axons. Knockdown of HTT or treatment with KPT335, an orally selective inhibitor of nuclear export (SINE), effectively attenuated the pathological phenotypes and alleviated neuronal death caused by BDNF withdrawal.

CONCLUSIONS

This study thus establishes an effective method for obtaining MSNs and underscores the necessity of using high-purity MSNs to study HD pathogenesis, especially the MSN-selective vulnerability.

Patient-Derived Cellular Models for Polytarget Precision Medicine in Pantothenate Kinase-Associated Neurodegeneration

The term neurodegeneration with brain iron accumulation (NBIA) brings together a broad set of progressive and disabling neurological genetic disorders in which iron is deposited preferentially in certain areas of the brain. Among NBIA disorders, the most frequent subtype is pantothenate kinase-associated neurodegeneration (PKAN) caused by pathologic variants in the PANK2 gene codifying the enzyme pantothenate kinase 2 (PANK2). To date, there are no effective treatments to stop the progression of these diseases. This review discusses the utility of patient-derived cell models as a valuable tool for the identification of pharmacological or natural compounds for implementing polytarget precision medicine in PKAN. Recently, several studies have described that PKAN patient-derived fibroblasts present the main pathological features associated with the disease including intracellular iron overload. Interestingly, treatment of mutant cell cultures with various supplements such as pantothenate, pantethine, vitamin E, omega 3, α-lipoic acid L-carnitine or thiamine, improved all pathophysiological alterations in PKAN fibroblasts with residual expression of the PANK2 enzyme. The information provided by pharmacological screenings in patient-derived cellular models can help optimize therapeutic strategies in individual PKAN patients.

Polycomb safeguards imaginal disc specification through control of the Vestigial-Scalloped complex

A fundamental goal of developmental biology is to understand how cell and tissue fates are specified. The imaginal discs of Drosophila are excellent model systems for addressing this paradigm as their fate can be redirected when discs regenerate after injury or when key selector genes are misregulated. Here, we show that when Polycomb expression is reduced, the wing selector gene vestigial is ectopically activated. This leads to the inappropriate formation of the Vestigial-Scalloped complex, which forces the eye to transform into a wing. We further demonstrate that disrupting this complex does not simply block wing formation or restore eye development. Instead, immunohistochemistry and high-throughput genomic analysis show that the eye-antennal disc unexpectedly undergoes hyperplastic growth with multiple domains being organized into other imaginal discs and tissues. These findings provide insight into the complex developmental landscape that tissues must navigate before adopting their final fate.

Lineage tracing identifies in vitro microglia-to-neuron conversion by NeuroD1 expression

Neuronal regeneration to replenish lost neurons after injury is critical for brain repair. Microglia, brain-resident macrophages that have the propensity to accumulate at the site of injury, can be a potential source for replenishing lost neurons through fate conversion into neurons, induced by forced expression of neuronal lineage-specific transcription factors. However, it has not been strictly demonstrated that microglia, rather than central nervous system-associated macrophages, such as meningeal macrophages, convert into neurons. Here, we show that NeuroD1-transduced microglia can be successfully converted into neurons in vitro using lineage-mapping strategies. We also found that a chemical cocktail treatment further promoted NeuroD1-induced microglia-to-neuron conversion. NeuroD1 with loss-of-function mutation, on the other hand, failed to induce the neuronal conversion. Our results indicate that microglia are indeed reprogrammed into neurons by NeuroD1 with neurogenic transcriptional activity.

Strategies and mechanisms of neuronal reprogramming

Traumatic injury and neurodegenerative diseases of the central nervous system (CNS) are difficult to treat due to the poorly regenerative nature of neurons. Engrafting neural stem cells into the CNS is a classic approach for neuroregeneration. Despite great advances, stem cell therapy still faces the challenges of overcoming immunorejection and achieving functional integration. Neuronal reprogramming, a recent innovation, converts endogenous non-neuronal cells (e.g., glial cells) into mature neurons in the adult mammalian CNS. In this review, we summarize the progress of neuronal reprogramming research, mainly focusing on strategies and mechanisms of reprogramming. Furthermore, we highlight the advantages of neuronal reprogramming and outline related challenges. Although the significant development has been made in this field, several findings are controversial. Even so, neuronal reprogramming, especially in vivo reprogramming, is expected to become an effective treatment for CNS neurodegenerative diseases.

Polycomb safeguards imaginal disc specification through control of the Vestigial-Scalloped complex

A fundamental goal of developmental biology is to understand how cell and tissue fates are specified. The imaginal discs of Drosophila are excellent model systems for addressing this paradigm as their fate can be redirected when discs regenerate after injury or when key selector genes are mis-regulated. Here, we show that when Polycomb expression is reduced, the wing selector gene vestigial is ectopically activated. This leads to the inappropriate formation of the Vestigial-Scalloped complex which forces the eye to transform into a wing. We further demonstrate that disrupting this complex does not simply block wing formation or restore eye development. Instead, immunohistochemistry and high throughput genomic analysis show that the eye-antennal disc unexpectedly undergoes hyperplastic growth with multiple domains being organized into other imaginal discs and tissues. These findings provide insight into the complex developmental landscape that tissues must navigate before adopting their final fate.

Summary Statement

Here we describe a novel mechanism by which Pc promotes an eye fate during normal development and how the eye is reprogrammed into a wing in its absence.

The bHLH Transcription Factors in Neural Development and Therapeutic Applications for Neurodegenerative Diseases

The development of functional neural circuits in the central nervous system (CNS) requires the production of sufficient numbers of various types of neurons and glial cells, such as astrocytes and oligodendrocytes, at the appropriate periods and regions. Hence, severe neuronal loss of the circuits can cause neurodegenerative diseases such as Huntington's disease (HD), Parkinson's disease (PD), Alzheimer's disease (AD), and Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS). Treatment of such neurodegenerative diseases caused by neuronal loss includes some strategies of cell therapy employing stem cells (such as neural progenitor cells (NPCs)) and gene therapy through cell fate conversion. In this report, we review how bHLH acts as a regulator in neuronal differentiation, reprogramming, and cell fate determination. Moreover, several different researchers are conducting studies to determine the importance of bHLH factors to direct neuronal and glial cell fate specification and differentiation. Therefore, we also investigated the limitations and future directions of conversion or transdifferentiation using bHLH factors.

Expression level of the reprogramming factor NeuroD1 is critical for neuronal conversion efficiency from different cell types

Several transcription factors, including NeuroD1, have been shown to act as neuronal reprogramming factors (RFs) that induce neuronal conversion from somatic cells. However, it remains unexplored whether expression levels of RFs in the original cells affect reprogramming efficiency. Here, we show that the neuronal reprogramming efficiency from two distinct glial cell types, microglia and astrocytes, is substantially dependent on the expression level of NeuroD1: low expression failed to induce neuronal reprogramming, whereas elevated NeuroD1 expression dramatically improved reprogramming efficiency in both cell types. Moreover, even under conditions where NeuroD1 expression was too low to induce effective conversion by itself, combined expression of three RFs (Ascl1, Brn2, and NeuroD1) facilitated the breaking down of cellular barriers, inducing neuronal reprogramming. Thus, our results suggest that a sufficiently high expression level of RFs, or alternatively their combinatorial expression, is the key to achieving efficient neuronal reprogramming from different cells.

Cell Reprogramming for Regeneration and Repair of the Nervous System

A persistent barrier to the cure and treatment of neurological diseases is the limited ability of the central and peripheral nervous systems to undergo neuroregeneration and repair. Recent efforts have turned to regeneration of various cell types through cellular reprogramming of native cells as a promising therapy to replenish lost or diminished cell populations in various neurological diseases. This review provides an in-depth analysis of the current viral vectors, genes of interest, and target cellular populations that have been studied, as well as the challenges and future directions of these novel therapies. Furthermore, the mechanisms by which cellular reprogramming could be optimized as treatment in neurological diseases and a review of the most recent cellular reprogramming in vitro and in vivo studies will also be discussed.

The regulatory landscape of neurite development in Caenorhabditis elegans

Neuronal communication requires precise connectivity of neurite projections (axons and dendrites). Developing neurites express cell-surface receptors that interpret extracellular cues to enable correct guidance toward, and connection with, target cells. Spatiotemporal regulation of neurite guidance molecule expression by transcription factors (TFs) is critical for nervous system development and function. Here, we review how neurite development is regulated by TFs in the Caenorhabditis elegans nervous system. By collecting publicly available transcriptome and ChIP-sequencing data, we reveal gene expression dynamics during neurite development, providing insight into transcriptional mechanisms governing construction of the nervous system architecture.

Application of Small Molecules in the Central Nervous System Direct Neuronal Reprogramming

The lack of regenerative capacity of neurons leads to poor prognoses for some neurological disorders. The use of small molecules to directly reprogram somatic cells into neurons provides a new therapeutic strategy for neurological diseases. In this review, the mechanisms of action of different small molecules, the approaches to screening small molecule cocktails, and the methods employed to detect their reprogramming efficiency are discussed, and the studies, focusing on neuronal reprogramming using small molecules in neurological disease models, are collected. Future research efforts are needed to investigate the in vivo mechanisms of small molecule-mediated neuronal reprogramming under pathophysiological states, optimize screening cocktails and dosing regimens, and identify safe and effective delivery routes to promote neural regeneration in different neurological diseases.

Astrocyte Reprogramming in Stroke: Opportunities and Challenges

Stroke is a major cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide. In the early stages of stroke, irreversible damage to neurons leads to high mortality and disability rates in patients. However, there are still no effective prevention and treatment measures for the resulting massive neuronal death in clinical practice. Astrocyte reprogramming has recently attracted much attention as an avenue for increasing neurons in mice after cerebral ischemia. However, the field of astrocyte reprogramming has recently been mired in controversy due to reports questioning whether newborn neurons are derived from astrocyte transformation. To better understand the process and controversies of astrocyte reprogramming, this review introduces the method of astrocyte reprogramming and its application in stroke. By targeting key transcription factors or microRNAs, astrocytes in the mouse brain could be reprogrammed into functional neurons. Additionally, we summarize some of the current controversies over the lack of cell lineage tracing and single-cell sequencing experiments to provide evidence of gene expression profile changes throughout the process of astrocyte reprogramming. Finally, we present recent advances in cell lineage tracing and single-cell sequencing, suggesting that it is possible to characterize the entire process of astrocyte reprogramming by combining these techniques.

Parkinson's disease motor symptoms rescue by CRISPRa-reprogramming astrocytes into GABAergic neurons

Direct reprogramming based on genetic factors resembles a promising strategy to replace lost cells in degenerative diseases such as Parkinson's disease. For this, we developed a knock‐in mouse line carrying a dual dCas9 transactivator system (dCAM) allowing the conditional in vivo activation of endogenous genes. To enable a translational application, we additionally established an AAV‐based strategy carrying intein‐split‐dCas9 in combination with activators (AAV‐dCAS). Both approaches were successful in reprogramming striatal astrocytes into induced GABAergic neurons confirmed by single‐cell transcriptome analysis of reprogrammed neurons in vivo. These GABAergic neurons functionally integrate into striatal circuits, alleviating voluntary motor behavior aspects in a 6‐OHDA Parkinson's disease model. Our results suggest a novel intervention strategy beyond the restoration of dopamine levels. Thus, the AAV‐dCAS approach might enable an alternative route for clinical therapies of Parkinson's disease.

MicroRNA Roles in Cell Reprogramming Mechanisms

Cell reprogramming is a groundbreaking technology that, in few decades, generated a new paradigm in biomedical science. To date we can use cell reprogramming to potentially generate every cell type by converting somatic cells and suitably modulating the expression of key transcription factors. This approach can be used to convert skin fibroblasts into pluripotent stem cells as well as into a variety of differentiated and medically relevant cell types, including cardiomyocytes and neural cells. The molecular mechanisms underlying such striking cell phenotypes are still largely unknown, but in the last decade it has been proven that cell reprogramming approaches are significantly influenced by non-coding RNAs. Specifically, this review will focus on the role of microRNAs in the reprogramming processes that lead to the generation of pluripotent stem cells, neurons, and cardiomyocytes. As highlighted here, non-coding RNA-forced expression can be sufficient to support some cell reprogramming processes, and, therefore, we will also discuss how these molecular determinants could be used in the future for biomedical purposes.

Joint actions of diverse transcription factor families establish neuron-type identities and promote enhancer selectivity

To systematically investigate the complexity of neuron specification regulatory networks, we performed an RNA interference (RNAi) screen against all 875 transcription factors (TFs) encoded in Caenorhabditis elegans genome and searched for defects in nine different neuron types of the monoaminergic (MA) superclass and two cholinergic motoneurons. We identified 91 TF candidates to be required for correct generation of these neuron types, of which 28 were confirmed by mutant analysis. We found that correct reporter expression in each individual neuron type requires at least nine different TFs. Individual neuron types do not usually share TFs involved in their specification but share a common pattern of TFs belonging to the five most common TF families: homeodomain (HD), basic helix loop helix (bHLH), zinc finger (ZF), basic leucine zipper domain (bZIP), and nuclear hormone receptors (NHR). HD TF members are overrepresented, supporting a key role for this family in the establishment of neuronal identities. These five TF families are also prevalent when considering mutant alleles with previously reported neuronal phenotypes in C. elegans, Drosophila, and mouse. In addition, we studied terminal differentiation complexity focusing on the dopaminergic terminal regulatory program. We found two HD TFs (UNC-62 and VAB-3) that work together with known dopaminergic terminal selectors (AST-1, CEH-43, CEH-20). Combined TF binding sites for these five TFs constitute a cis-regulatory signature enriched in the regulatory regions of dopaminergic effector genes. Our results provide new insights on neuron-type regulatory programs in C. elegans that could help better understand neuron specification and evolution of neuron types.

Decoding gene regulation in the fly brain

The Drosophila brain is a frequently used model in neuroscience. Single-cell transcriptome analysis^1-6, three-dimensional morphological classification⁷ and electron microscopy mapping of the connectome^8,9 have revealed an immense diversity of neuronal and glial cell types that underlie an array of functional and behavioural traits in the fly. The identities of these cell types are controlled by gene regulatory networks (GRNs), involving combinations of transcription factors that bind to genomic enhancers to regulate their target genes. Here, to characterize GRNs at the cell-type level in the fly brain, we profiled the chromatin accessibility of 240,919 single cells spanning 9 developmental timepoints and integrated these data with single-cell transcriptomes. We identify more than 95,000 regulatory regions that are used in different neuronal cell types, of which 70,000 are linked to developmental trajectories involving neurogenesis, reprogramming and maturation. For 40 cell types, uniquely accessible regions were associated with their expressed transcription factors and downstream target genes through a combination of motif discovery, network inference and deep learning, creating enhancer GRNs. The enhancer architectures revealed by DeepFlyBrain lead to a better understanding of neuronal regulatory diversity and can be used to design genetic driver lines for cell types at specific timepoints, facilitating their characterization and manipulation.

Human iPSC-Derived Astrocytes: A Powerful Tool to Study Primary Astrocyte Dysfunction in the Pathogenesis of Rare Leukodystrophies

Astrocytes are very versatile cells, endowed with multitasking capacities to ensure brain homeostasis maintenance from brain development to adult life. It has become increasingly evident that astrocytes play a central role in many central nervous system pathologies, not only as regulators of defensive responses against brain insults but also as primary culprits of the disease onset and progression. This is particularly evident in some rare leukodystrophies (LDs) where white matter/myelin deterioration is due to primary astrocyte dysfunctions. Understanding the molecular defects causing these LDs may help clarify astrocyte contribution to myelin formation/maintenance and favor the identification of possible therapeutic targets for LDs and other CNS demyelinating diseases. To date, the pathogenic mechanisms of these LDs are poorly known due to the rarity of the pathological tissue and the failure of the animal models to fully recapitulate the human diseases. Thus, the development of human induced pluripotent stem cells (hiPSC) from patient fibroblasts and their differentiation into astrocytes is a promising approach to overcome these issues. In this review, we discuss the primary role of astrocytes in LD pathogenesis, the experimental models currently available and the advantages, future evolutions, perspectives, and limitations of hiPSC to study pathologies implying astrocyte dysfunctions.

Direct neuronal reprogramming: Fast forward from new concepts toward therapeutic approaches

Differentiated cells have long been considered fixed in their identity. However, about 20 years ago, the first direct conversion of glial cells into neurons in vitro opened the field of "direct neuronal reprogramming." Since then, neuronal reprogramming has achieved the generation of fully functional, mature neurons with remarkable efficiency, even in diseased brain environments. Beyond their clinical implications, these discoveries provided basic insights into crucial mechanisms underlying conversion of specific cell types into neurons and maintenance of neuronal identity. Here we discuss such principles, including the importance of the starter cell for shaping the outcome of neuronal reprogramming. We further highlight technical concerns for in vivo reprogramming and propose a code of conduct to avoid artifacts and pitfalls. We end by pointing out next challenges for development of less invasive cell replacement therapies for humans.

Insights into the molecular mechanisms regulating mammalian hair cell regeneration

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

To give an overview of recent advances in mammalian auditory hair cell regeneration.

RECENT FINDINGS

Supporting cells act as progenitors to regenerate hair cells in the prehearing mammalian cochlea but not in the mature cochlea. To overcome this developmental obstacle, manipulation of multiple genes and intracellular pathways has been investigated, which has obtained promising data. This review focuses on recent advances in auditory hair cell regeneration, including synergic gene regulation associated with Atoh1 and Notch signaling, epigenetics, and functional recovery of regenerated hair cells. Co-manipulation of genes critical for hair cell development and cell cycle re-entry, including Atoh1, Isl1, Pou4f3, Gata3, Gfi1, P27kip1, RB, Myc, and Notch-signaling genes, has generated hair cell-like cells in the adult cochlea both in vitro and in vivo. The epigenetic mechanism has been studied in hair cell development and regeneration. Regeneration of hair cell function has a very limited progress, which lacks in-vitro and in-vivo electrophysiology data.

SUMMARY

Regeneration of adult auditory hair cells remains a major challenge. Manipulation of multiple genes and pathways together with epigenetic regulation might potentially regenerate functional hair cells in the adult mammalian cochlea.

A new era in functional genomics screens

The past 25 years of genomics research first revealed which genes are encoded by the human genome and then a detailed catalogue of human genome variation associated with many diseases. Despite this, the function of many genes and gene regulatory elements remains poorly characterized, which limits our ability to apply these insights to human disease. The advent of new CRISPR functional genomics tools allows for scalable and multiplexable characterization of genes and gene regulatory elements encoded by the human genome. These approaches promise to reveal mechanisms of gene function and regulation, and to enable exploration of how genes work together to modulate complex phenotypes.

Neuronal Cell-type Engineering by Transcriptional Activation

Gene activation with the CRISPR-Cas system has great implications in studying gene function, controlling cellular behavior, and modulating disease progression. In this review, we survey recent studies on targeted gene activation and multiplexed screening for inducing neuronal differentiation using CRISPR-Cas transcriptional activation (CRISPRa) and open reading frame (ORF) expression. Critical technical parameters of CRISPRa and ORF-based strategies for neuronal programming are presented and discussed. In addition, recent progress on in vivo applications of CRISPRa to the nervous system are highlighted. Overall, CRISPRa represents a valuable addition to the experimental toolbox for neuronal cell-type programming.

Astrocyte-derived neurons provide excitatory input to the adult striatal circuitry

Astrocytes have emerged as a potential source for new neurons in the adult mammalian brain. In mice, adult striatal neurogenesis can be stimulated by local damage, which recruits striatal astrocytes into a neurogenic program by suppression of active Notch signaling (J. P. Magnusson et al., Science 346, 237-241 [2014]). Here, we induced adult striatal neurogenesis in the intact mouse brain by the inhibition of Notch signaling in astrocytes. We show that most striatal astrocyte-derived neurons are confined to the anterior medial striatum, do not express established striatal neuronal markers, and exhibit dendritic spines, which are atypical for striatal interneurons. In contrast to striatal neurons generated during development, which are GABAergic or cholinergic, most adult astrocyte-derived striatal neurons possess distinct electrophysiological properties, constituting the only glutamatergic striatal population. Astrocyte-derived neurons integrate into the adult striatal microcircuitry, both receiving and providing synaptic input. The glutamatergic nature of these neurons has the potential to provide excitatory input to the striatal circuitry and may represent an efficient strategy to compensate for reduced neuronal activity caused by aging or lesion-induced neuronal loss.

Cellular identity through the lens of direct lineage reprogramming

Direct lineage reprogramming challenges our traditional view on basic aspects of cellular identity, and in particular on processes crucial for identity acquisition. This is partly because in direct lineage reprogramming but not during natural differentiation processes changing cellular identity can occur in the absence of mitosis. Only recently, technologies emerged to deconstruct the cellular and molecular processes governing the transitory states a cell passes through on the journey from its original identity to the new target cell fate. Here we discuss arising concepts on the nature of these transitory states and the challenges and decisions cells must conquer to reach their new cellular identity.

Microcephaly, an etiopathogenic vision

Microcephaly is defined by an occipital-frontal head circumference (OFD) 2 standard deviations (SD) smaller than the average expected for age, gender and population. Its incidence has been reported between 1.3 and 150 cases per 100,000 births. Currently, new clinical characteristics, causes and pathophysiological mechanisms related to microcephaly continue to be identified. Its etiology is varied and heterogeneous, with genetic and non-genetic factors that produce alterations in differentiation, proliferation, migration, repair of damage to deoxyribonucleic acid and neuronal apoptosis. It requires a multidisciplinary diagnostic approach that includes a medical history, detailed prenatal and postnatal clinical evaluation, cerebral magnetic resonance imaging, neuropsychological evaluation, and in some cases complementary tests such as metabolic screening, tests to rule out infectious processes and genetic testing. There is no specific treatment or intervention to increase cerebral growth; however, timely intervention strategies and programs can be established to improve motor and neurocognitive development, as well as to provide genetic counseling. The objective of this work is to review the available information and reinforce the proposal to carry out an etiopathogenic approach for microcephaly diagnosis and management.

Enhanced efficiency of nonviral direct neuronal reprogramming on topographical patterns

Nonviral direct neuronal reprogramming holds significant potential in the fields of tissue engineering and regenerative medicine. However, the issue of low reprogramming efficiency poses a major barrier to its application. We propose that topographical cues, which have been applied successfully to enhance lineage-directed differentiation and multipotent stem cell transdifferentiation, could improve nonviral direct neuronal reprogramming efficiency. To investigate, we used a polymer-BAM (Brn2, Ascl1, Myt1l) factor transfection polypex to reprogram primary mouse embryonic fibroblasts. Using a multiarchitecture chip, we screened for patterns that may improve transfection and/or subsequent induced neuron reprogramming efficiency. Selected patterns were then investigated further by analyzing β-tubulin III (TUJ1) and microtubule-associated protein 2 (MAP2) protein expression, cell morphology and electrophysiological function of induced neurons. Certain hierarchical topographies, with nanopatterns imprinted on micropatterns, significantly improved the percentage of TUJ1+ and MAP2+ cells. It is postulated that the microscale base pattern enhances initial BAM expression while the nanoscale sub-pattern promotes subsequent maturation. This is because the base pattern alone increased expression of TUJ1 and MAP2, while the nanoscale pattern was the only pattern yielding induced neurons capable of firing multiple action potentials. Nanoscale patterns also produced the highest fraction of cells showing spontaneous synaptic activity. Overall, reprogramming efficiency with one dose of polyplex on hierarchical patterns was comparable to that of five doses without topography. Thus, topography can enhance nonviral direct reprogramming of fibroblasts into induced neurons.

Pesticides and Parkinson's disease: Current and future perspective

Inappropriate use of pesticides has globally exposed mankind to a number of health hazards. Still their production is rising at the rate of 11 % annually and, has already exceeded more than 5 million tons in 2000 (FAO 2017). Plenty of available data reveals that pesticides exposures through agricultural use and food-preservative residue consumption may lead to neurodegenerative disorders like Parkinson's and Alzheimer's diseases. Parkinson's disease (PD) is a progressive motor impairment and a neurodegenerative disorder, considered as the leading source of motor disability. Pesticides strongly inhibit mitochondrial Complex-I, causing mitochondrial dysfunction and death of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra (SN), thus leading to pathophysiologic implications of PD. Current medical treatment strategies, including pharmacotherapeutics and supportive therapies can only provide symptomatic relief. While complementary and alternative medicines including traditional medicine or acupuncture are considered as beneficial ways of treatment with significant clinical effect. Medically non-responding cases can be treated by surgical means, 'Deep Brain Stimulation'. Cell therapy is also an emerging and promising technology for disease modeling and drug development in PD. Their main aim is to replace and/or support the lost and dying dopaminergic neurons in the SN. Recently I/II clinical phase trial (Japan) have used dopaminergic progenitors generated from induced pluripotent stem (iPS) cells which can unveil a successful cell therapy to treat PD symptoms efficiently. This review focuses on PD caused by pesticides use, current treatment modalities, and ongoing research updates. Since PD is not a cell-autonomous disease rather caused by multiple factors, a combinatorial therapeutic approach may address not only the motor-related symptoms but also non-motor cognitive-behavioral issues.

Regulation of Adult Mammalian Neural Stem Cells and Neurogenesis by Cell Extrinsic and Intrinsic Factors

Tissue-specific stem cells give rise to new functional cells to maintain tissue homeostasis and restore damaged tissue after injury. To ensure proper brain functions in the adult brain, neural stem cells (NSCs) continuously generate newborn neurons that integrate into pre-existing neuronal networks. Proliferation, as well as neurogenesis of NSCs, are exquisitely controlled by extrinsic and intrinsic factors, and their underlying mechanisms have been extensively studied with the goal of enhancing the neurogenic capacity of NSCs for regenerative medicine. However, neurogenesis of endogenous NSCs alone is insufficient to completely repair brains damaged by neurodegenerative diseases and/or injury because neurogenic areas are limited and few neurons are produced in the adult brain. An innovative approach towards replacing damaged neurons is to induce conversion of non-neuronal cells residing in injured sites into neurons by a process referred to as direct reprogramming. This review describes extrinsic and intrinsic factors controlling NSCs and neurogenesis in the adult brain and discusses prospects for their applications. It also describes direct neuronal reprogramming technology holding promise for future clinical applications.

Targeted RNA expression profiling identifies high-grade endometrial stromal sarcoma as a clinically relevant molecular subtype of uterine sarcoma

High-grade endometrial stromal sarcoma (HGESS) may harbor YWHAE-NUTM2A/B fusion, ZC3H7B-BCOR fusion, and BCOR internal tandem duplication (ITD). NTRK3 upregulation and pan-Trk expression were reported in soft tissue lesions that share similar morphology and genetic abnormalities. To confirm these findings in HGESS, differential expression analysis was performed at gene level comparing 11 HGESS with 48 other uterine sarcomas, including 9 low-grade endometrial stromal sarcomas, 23 undifferentiated uterine sarcomas, and 16 leiomyosarcomas, using targeted RNA sequencing data. Pan-Trk immunohistochemistry was performed on 35 HGESS, including 10 tumors with RNA expression data, with genotypes previously confirmed by targeted RNA sequencing, fluorescence in situ hybridization, and/or genomic PCR. Unsupervised hierarchical clustering of the top 25% of differentially expressed probes identified three molecular groups: (1) high NTRK3, FGFR3, RET, BCOR, GLI1, and PTCH1 and low ESR1 expression; (2) low NTRK3, FGFR3, RET, BCOR, GLI1, and PTCH1 and high ESR1 expression; and (3) low NTRK3, FGFR3, RET, BCOR, GLI1, PTCH1, and ESR1 expression. Among HGESS, 64% of tumors clustered in group 1, while 27% clustered in group 2. Cytoplasmic and/or nuclear pan-Trk staining of variable extent and intensity was seen in 91% of HGESS regardless of cyclin D1 and/or BCOR positivity. ER and PR expression was seen in 44% of HGESS despite ESR1 downregulation. Two patients with ER and PR positive but ESR1 downregulated stage I HGESS were treated with endocrine therapy, and both recurred at 12 and 36 months after primary resection. By RNA expression, HGESS appear homogenous and distinct from other uterine sarcomas by activation of kinases, including NTRK3, and sonic hedgehog pathway genes along with downregulation of ESR1. Most HGESS demonstrate pan-Trk staining which may serve as a diagnostic biomarker. ESR1 downregulation is seen in some HGESS that express ER and PR which raises implications in the utility of endocrine therapy in these patients.

microRNAs (miR 9, 124, 155 and 224) transdifferentiate mouse macrophages to neurons

Development is an irreversible process of differentiating the undifferentiated cells to functional cells. Brain development involves generation of cells with varied phenotype and functions, which is limited during adulthood, stress, damage/degeneration. Cellular reprogramming makes differentiation reversible process with reprogramming somatic/stem cells to alternative fate with/without stem cells. Exogenously expressed transcription factors or small molecule inhibitors have driven reprogramming of stem/somatic cells to neurons providing alternative approach for pre-clinical/clinical testing and therapeutics. Here in, we report a novel approach of microRNA (miR)- induced trans-differentiation of macrophages (CD11b high) to induced neuronal cells (iNCs) (neuronal markershigh- Nestin, Nurr1, Map2, NSE, Tubb3 and Mash1) without exogenous use of transcription factors. miR 9, 124, 155 and 224 successfully transdifferentiated macrophages to neurons with transient stem cell-like phenotype. We report trans differentiation efficacy 18% and 21% with miR 124 and miR 155. in silico(String 10.0, miR gator, mESAdb, TargetScan 7.0) and experimental analysis indicate that the reprogramming involves alteration of pluripotencygenes like Oct4, Sox2, Klf4, Nanog and pluripotency miR, miR 302. iNCs also shifted to G0 phase indicating manipulation of cell cycle by these miRs. Further, CD133+ intermediate cells obtained during current protocol could be differentiated to iNCs using miRs. The syanpsin⁺ neurons were functionally active and displayed intracellular Ca⁺² evoke on activation. miRs could also transdifferentiate bone marrow-derived macrophages and peripheral blood mononuclear cells to neuronal cells. The current protocol could be employed for direct in vivo reprogramming of macrophages to neurons without teratoma formation for transplantation and clinical studies.

Decoding Neuronal Diversification by Multiplexed Single-cell RNA-Seq

Cellular reprogramming is driven by a defined set of transcription factors; however, the regulatory logic that underlies cell-type specification and diversification remains elusive. Single-cell RNA-seq provides unprecedented coverage to measure dynamic molecular changes at the single-cell resolution. Here, we multiplex and ectopically express 20 pro-neuronal transcription factors in human dermal fibroblasts and demonstrate a widespread diversification of neurons based on cell morphology and canonical neuronal marker expressions. Single-cell RNA-seq analysis reveals diverse and distinct neuronal subtypes, including reprogramming processes that strongly correlate with the developing brain. Gene mapping of 20 exogenous pro-neuronal transcription factors further unveiled key determinants responsible for neuronal lineage specification and a regulatory logic dictating neuronal diversification, including glutamatergic and cholinergic neurons. The multiplex scRNA-seq approach is a robust and scalable approach to elucidate lineage and cellular specification across various biological systems.

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Multiplexed scRNA-seq approach reveals combinations of genes to induce neuronal diversification

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Neuronal diversification is deterministic early in the reprogramming process

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PAX6 drives induced neurons away from fibroblasts

Molecular Mechanisms Underlying Ascl1-Mediated Astrocyte-to-Neuron Conversion

Direct neuronal reprogramming potentially provides valuable sources for cell-based therapies. Proneural gene Ascl1 converts astrocytes into induced neuronal (iN) cells efficiently both in vitro and in vivo. However, the underlying mechanisms are largely unknown. By combining RNA sequencing and chromatin immunoprecipitation followed by high-throughput sequencing, we found that the expression of 1,501 genes was markedly changed during the early stages of Ascl1-induced astrocyte-to-neuron conversion and that the regulatory regions of 107 differentially expressed genes were directly bound by ASCL1. Among Ascl1's direct targets, Klf10 regulates the neuritogenesis of iN cells at the early stage, Myt1 and Myt1l are critical for the electrophysiological maturation of iN cells, and Neurod4 and Chd7 are required for the efficient conversion of astrocytes into neurons. Together, this study provides more insights into understanding the molecular mechanisms underlying Ascl1-mediated astrocyte-to-neuron conversion and will be of value for the application of direct neuronal reprogramming.

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RNA-seq and ChIP-seq were used to study Ascl1-induced astrocyte-to-neuron conversion

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Early Klf10 regulates neuritogenesis and electrophysiological properties of iN cells

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Myt1 and Myt1l are critical for the electrophysiological maturation of iN cells

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Neurod4 and Chd7 are required for efficient conversion of astrocytes to neurons

Neurothreads: Development of supportive carriers for mature dopaminergic neuron differentiation and implantation

In this study we present the use of elastic macroporous cryogels for differentiation and transplantation of mature neurons. We develop a coating suitable for long-term neuronal culture, including stem cell differentiation, by covalent immobilization of neural adhesion proteins. In the context of cell therapy for Parkinson's disease, we show compatibility with established dopaminergic differentiation of both immortalized mesencephalic progenitors - LUHMES - and human embryonic stem cells (hESCs). We adjust structural properties of the biomaterial to create carriers - Neurothreads - favourable for cell viability during transplantation. Finally, we show feasibility of preservation of mature neurons, supported by Neurothreads, one month after in-vivo transplantation. Preliminary data suggests that the Neurothread approach could provide more mature and less proliferative cells in vivo.

Neurod4 converts endogenous neural stem cells to neurons with synaptic formation after spinal cord injury

The transcriptome analysis of injured Xenopus laevis tadpole and mice suggested that Neurod4L.S., a basic-helix-loop-helix transcription factor, was the most promising transcription factor to exert neuroregeneration after spinal cord injury (SCI) in mammals. We generated a pseudotyped retroviral vector with the neurotropic lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (LCMV) envelope to deliver murine Neurod4 to mice undergoing SCI. SCI induced ependymal cells to neural stem cells (NSCs) in the central canal. The LCMV envelope-based pseudotypedvector preferentially introduced Neurod4 into activated NSCs, which converted to neurons with axonal regrowth and suppressed the scar-forming glial lineage. Neurod4-induced inhibitory neurons predominantly projected to the subsynaptic domains of motor neurons at the epicenter, and Neurod4-induced excitatory neurons predominantly projected to subsynaptic domains of motor neurons caudal to the injury site suggesting the formation of functional synapses. Thus, Neurod4 is a potential therapeutic factor that can improve anatomical and functional recovery after SCI.

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Neurod4 is predominantly expressed in injured Xenopus laevis tadpole

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An LCMV-based pseudotyped retroviral vector has tropism to neural stem cells

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Neurod4 converts endogenous neural stem cells to neurons after spinal cord injury

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The new excitatory and inhibitory synaptic formation leads to functional recovery

Direct In Vitro Reprogramming of Astrocytes into Induced Neurons

Spontaneous neuronal replacement is almost absent in the postnatal mammalian nervous system. However, several studies have shown that both early postnatal and adult astroglia can be reprogrammed in vitro or in vivo by forced expression of proneural transcription factors, such as Neurogenin-2 or Achaete-scute homolog 1 (Ascl1), to acquire a neuronal fate. The reprogramming process stably induces properties such as distinctly neuronal morphology, expression of neuron-specific proteins, and the gain of mature neuronal functional features. Direct conversion of astroglia into neurons thus possesses potential as a basis for cell-based strategies against neurological diseases. In this chapter, we describe a well-established protocol used for direct reprogramming of postnatal cortical astrocytes into functional neurons in vitro and discuss available tools and approaches to dissect molecular and cell biological mechanisms underlying the reprogramming process.

Bcl-2-Assisted Reprogramming of Mouse Astrocytes and Human Fibroblasts into Induced Neurons

Direct neuronal reprogramming is a promising strategy to generate various types of neurons that are, otherwise, inaccessible for researchers. However, the efficiency of neuronal conversion is highly dependent on the transcription factor used, the identity of the initial cells to convert, their species' background, and the neuronal subtype to which cells will convert. Regardless of these conditioning factors, the apoptotic regulator Bcl-2 acts as a pan-neuronal reprogramming enhancer. Bcl-2 mediates its effect in reprogramming by preventing an overshot of oxidative stress during the acquisition of a neuronal oxidative metabolism, thus reducing cell death by ferroptosis and facilitating the phenotypic conversion. In this chapter, we outline two methods to obtain either mouse or human neurons derived from postnatal astrocytes and skin fibroblasts, respectively. The overall reprogramming strategy is based on the co-expression of Bcl-2 and the transcription factor Neurog2 that produces mostly excitatory neurons. However, the method can be easily adapted to achieve alternative neuronal subtypes by using additional transcription factors, such as Isl1 for motor neurons. Therefore, our approaches provide solid but flexible platforms to obtain human and mouse induced neurons in vitro that can be applied to basic or translational research.

Neuronal differentiation strategies: insights from single-cell sequencing and machine learning

Neuronal replacement therapies rely on the in vitro differentiation of specific cell types from embryonic or induced pluripotent stem cells, or on the direct reprogramming of differentiated adult cells via the expression of transcription factors or signaling molecules. The factors used to induce differentiation or reprogramming are often identified by informed guesses based on differential gene expression or known roles for these factors during development. Moreover, differentiation protocols usually result in partly differentiated cells or the production of a mix of cell types. In this Hypothesis article, we suggest that, to overcome these inefficiencies and improve neuronal differentiation protocols, we need to take into account the developmental history of the desired cell types. Specifically, we present a strategy that uses single-cell sequencing techniques combined with machine learning as a principled method to select a sequence of programming factors that are important not only in adult neurons but also during differentiation.

Prospects of Directly Reprogrammed Adult Human Neurons for Neurodegenerative Disease Modeling and Drug Discovery: iN vs. iPSCs Models

A reliable disease model is critical to the study of specific disease mechanisms as well as for the discovery and development of new drugs. Despite providing crucial insights into the mechanisms of neurodegenerative diseases, translation of this information to develop therapeutics in clinical trials have been unsuccessful. Reprogramming technology to convert adult somatic cells to induced Pluripotent Stem Cells (iPSCs) or directly reprogramming adult somatic cells to induced Neurons (iN), has allowed for the creation of better models to understand the molecular mechanisms and design of new drugs. In recent times, iPSC technology has been commonly used for modeling neurodegenerative diseases and drug discovery. However, several technological challenges have limited the application of iN. As evidence suggests, iN for the modeling of neurodegenerative disorders is advantageous compared to those derived from iPSCs. In this review, we will compare iPSCs and iN models for neurodegenerative diseases and their potential applications in the future.

Epigenetic regulation of neural lineage elaboration: Implications for therapeutic reprogramming

The vulnerability of the mammalian brain is mainly due to its limited ability to generate new neurons once fully matured. Direct conversion of non-neuronal cells to neurons opens up a new avenue for therapeutic intervention and has made great strides also for in vivo applications in the injured brain. These great achievements raise the issue of adequate identity and chromatin hallmarks of the induced neurons. This may be particularly important, as aberrant epigenetic settings may reveal their adverse effects only in certain brain activity states. Therefore, we review here the knowledge about epigenetic memory and partially resetting of chromatin hallmarks from other reprogramming fields, before moving to the knowledge in direct neuronal reprogramming, which is still limited. Most importantly, novel tools are available now to manipulate specific epigenetic marks at specific sites of the genome. Applying these will eventually allow erasing aberrant epigenetic memory and paving the way towards new therapeutic approaches for brain repair.

Direct Reprogramming of Human Fetal- and Stem Cell-Derived Glial Progenitor Cells into Midbrain Dopaminergic Neurons

Human glial progenitor cells (hGPCs) are promising cellular substrates to explore for the in situ production of new neurons for brain repair. Proof of concept for direct neuronal reprogramming of glial progenitors has been obtained in mouse models in vivo, but conversion using human cells has not yet been demonstrated. Such studies have been difficult to perform since hGPCs are born late during human fetal development, with limited accessibility for in vitro culture. In this study, we show proof of concept of hGPC conversion using fetal cells and also establish a renewable and reproducible stem cell-based hGPC system for direct neural conversion in vitro. Using this system, we have identified optimal combinations of fate determinants for the efficient dopaminergic (DA) conversion of hGPCs, thereby yielding a therapeutically relevant cell type that selectively degenerates in Parkinson's disease. The induced DA neurons show a progressive, subtype-specific phenotypic maturation and acquire functional electrophysiological properties indicative of DA phenotype.

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Human glial progenitors (hGPCs) can be directly converted into functional neurons

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Specific transcription factor combinations result in dopaminergic conversion

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Reprogrammed neurons show subtype-specific and functional maturation over time

Reprogramming of Differentiated Mammalian and Human Retinal Pigment Epithelium: Current Achievements and Prospects

Abstract

Impairment of the homeostatic and functional integrity of the retina and retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) is the main cause of some degenerative diseases of the human eye, which are accompanied by loss of eyesight. Despite the significant progress made over the past decades in the development of new methods for treatment for this pathology, there are still several complications when using surgical methods for correction of eyesight and so far insurmountable limitations in the applications of modern approaches, such as gene therapy and genetic engineering. One of the promising approaches to the treatment of degenerative diseases of the retina may be an approach based on the application of regenerative capacities of its endogenous cells with high plasticity, in particular, of RPE cells and Müller glia. Currently, vertebrate RPE cells are of great interest as a source of new photoreceptors and other neurons in the degrading retina in vivo. In this regard, the possibilities of their direct reprogramming by genetic, epigenetic, and chemical methods and their combination are being investigated. This review focuses on research in gene-directed reprogramming of vertebrate RPE cells into retinal neurons, with detailed analysis of the genes used as the main reprogramming factors, comparative analysis, and extrapolation of experimental data from animals to humans. Also, this review covers studies on the application of alternative approaches to gene-directed reprogramming, such as chemical-mediated reprogramming with the use of cocktails of therapeutic low-molecular-weight compounds and microRNAs. In general, the research results indicate the complexity of the process for direct reprogramming of human RPE cells into retinal neurons. However, taking into account the results of direct reprogramming of vertebrate cells and the accessibility of human RPE cells for various vectors that deliver a variety of molecules to cells, such as transcription factors, chimeric endonucleases, recombinant proteins, and low-weight molecular compounds, the most optimal combination of factors for the successful conversion of human RPE cells to retinal neurons can be suggested.

Conversion of Astrocytes and Fibroblasts into Functional Noradrenergic Neurons

Dysfunction of noradrenergic (NA) neurons is associated with a number of neuronal disorders. Diverse neuronal subtypes can be generated by direct reprogramming. However, it is still unknown how to convert non-neuronal cells into NA neurons. Here, we show that seven transcription factors (TFs) (Ascl1, Phox2b, AP-2α, Gata3, Hand2, Nurr1, and Phox2a) are able to convert astrocytes and fibroblasts into induced NA (iNA) neurons. These iNA neurons express the genes required for the biosynthesis, release, and re-uptake of noradrenaline. Moreover, iNA neurons fire action potentials, receive synaptic inputs, and control the beating rate of co-cultured ventricular myocytes. Furthermore, iNA neurons survive and integrate into neural circuits after transplantation. Last, human fibroblasts can be converted into functional iNA neurons as well. Together, iNA neurons are generated by direct reprogramming, and they could be potentially useful for disease modeling and cell-based therapies.

3Scover: Identifying Safeguard TF from Cell Type-TF Specificity Network by an Extended Minimum Set Cover Model

Transcription factors (TFs) define cellular identity either by activating target cell program or by silencing donor program as demonstrated by intensive cell reprogramming studies. Here, we propose an extended minimum set cover model with stable selection (3Scover) to systematically identify silencing TFs, named safeguard TFs, from omics data. First, a cell type-TF specificity network is constructed to systematically link cell types with their specifically expressed TFs. Then we search the minimum TF set to cover this network with “many but one specificity” characteristic and integrate many subsampling models for a stable solution. 3Scover identified 30 safeguard TFs in human and mouse. These safeguard TFs are significantly enriched in the experimentally discovered reprogramming panel with their protein-protein interactors. In addition, they tend to interact closely with chromatin regulators, negatively regulate transcription, and function earlier in development. Collectively, 3Scover allows us to probe master TFs and combinatorial regulation in controlling cell identity.

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Cell type-TF specificity networks reveal the relationships among TF and cell identity

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3SCover extracts safeguard TFs by “many but one specificity” and parsimony principle

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Safeguard TFs are enriched in reprogramming panel and interact closely with CR

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Safeguard TFs are conserved in mouse and human

Natural and forced neurogenesis in the adult brain: Mechanisms and their possible application to treat neurological disorders

Neural stem cells (NSCs) in the adult hippocampus generate new neurons via a process referred to as neurogenesis, supporting cognitive functions. Since altered neurogenesis has been reportedly associated with several diseases such as epilepsy, the molecular basis of NSC activity is an important focus in the study of neurogenesis. Furthermore, facilitation of neurogenesis in the injured brain would be an ideal approach to replenish lost neurons for damage recovery. However, natural neurogenesis by endogenous NSCs in the adult brain is insufficient for complete recovery after severe injury. Recent advances in understanding forced neurogenesis from brain-resident non-neuronal cells by direct reprogramming and clearing hurdles to achieve it have improved the ability to replace damaged neurons in the brain. In this review, we describe molecular mechanisms underlying natural and forced neurogenesis, and discuss future directions for treatments of diseases in the central nervous system.

Adult Neurogenesis in the Context of Brain Repair and Functional Relevance

Urodeles and some fishes possess a remarkable capacity to regenerate their limbs/fins, a property that correlates with their additional ability to regenerate large areas of the brain and/or produce a variety of new neurons during adulthood. In contrast, neurogenesis in adult mammals is apparently restricted to two main regions, the subventricular zone of lateral ventricles and the subgranular zone of the hippocampus. There, astrocyte-like neural stem cells (NSCs) reside and derive into new neurons. Although it is becoming apparent that other brain regions carry out neurogenesis, in many cases, its functional significance is controversial, particularly, because very few putative NSCs capable of deriving into new neurons have been found. Hence, is renewal of certain neurons a requirement for a healthy brain? Are there specific physiological conditions that stimulate neurogenesis in a particular region? Does the complexity of the brain demand reduced neurogenesis? In this study, we review the production of new neurons in the vertebrate adult brain in the context of a possible functional relevance. In addition, we consider the intrinsic properties of potential cellular sources of new neurons, as well as the contribution of the milieu surrounding them to estimate the reparative capacity of the brain upon injury or a neurodegenerative condition. The conclusion of this review should bring into debate the potential and convenience of promoting neuronal regeneration in the adult human brain.

Understanding and Modulating Immunity With Cell Reprogramming

Cell reprogramming concepts have been classically developed in the fields of developmental and stem cell biology and are currently being explored for regenerative medicine, given its potential to generate desired cell types for replacement therapy. Cell fate can be experimentally reversed or modified by enforced expression of lineage specific transcription factors leading to pluripotency or attainment of another somatic cell type identity. The possibility to reprogram fibroblasts into induced dendritic cells (DC) competent for antigen presentation creates a paradigm shift for understanding and modulating the immune system with direct cell reprogramming. PU.1, IRF8, and BATF3 were identified as sufficient and necessary to impose DC fate in unrelated cell types, taking advantage of Clec9a, a C-type lectin receptor with restricted expression in conventional DC type 1. The identification of such minimal gene regulatory networks helps to elucidate the molecular mechanisms governing development and lineage heterogeneity along the hematopoietic hierarchy. Furthermore, the generation of patient-tailored reprogrammed immune cells provides new and exciting tools for the expanding field of cancer immunotherapy. Here, we summarize cell reprogramming concepts and experimental approaches, review current knowledge at the intersection of cell reprogramming with hematopoiesis, and propose how cell fate engineering can be merged to immunology, opening new opportunities to understand the immune system in health and disease.