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Li J, Ma R, Wang X, Lu Y, Chen J, Feng D, Zhou J, Xia K, Klein O, Xie H, Lu P. Sprouty genes regulate activated fibroblasts in mammary epithelial development and breast cancer. Cell Death Dis 2024; 15:256. [PMID: 38600092 PMCID: PMC11006910 DOI: 10.1038/s41419-024-06637-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2023] [Revised: 03/27/2024] [Accepted: 04/02/2024] [Indexed: 04/12/2024]
Abstract
Stromal fibroblasts are a major stem cell niche component essential for organ formation and cancer development. Fibroblast heterogeneity, as revealed by recent advances in single-cell techniques, has raised important questions about the origin, differentiation, and function of fibroblast subtypes. In this study, we show in mammary stromal fibroblasts that loss of the receptor tyrosine kinase (RTK) negative feedback regulators encoded by Spry1, Spry2, and Spry4 causes upregulation of signaling in multiple RTK pathways and increased extracellular matrix remodeling, resulting in accelerated epithelial branching. Single-cell transcriptomic analysis demonstrated that increased production of FGF10 due to Sprouty (Spry) loss results from expansion of a functionally distinct subgroup of fibroblasts with the most potent branching-promoting ability. Compared to their three independent lineage precursors, fibroblasts in this subgroup are "activated," as they are located immediately adjacent to the epithelium that is actively undergoing branching and invasion. Spry genes are downregulated, and activated fibroblasts are expanded, in all three of the major human breast cancer subtypes. Together, our data highlight the regulation of a functional subtype of mammary fibroblasts by Spry genes and their essential role in epithelial morphogenesis and cancer development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiyong Li
- MOE Key Lab of Rare Pediatric Diseases & Hunan Key Laboratory of Medical Genetics of the School of Life Sciences, Hu Nan Sheng, China
- Institute of Cell Biology, University of South China, Hu Nan Sheng, China
- Institute for Future Sciences, Hengyang Medical School, University of South China, Hu Nan Sheng, China
| | - Rongze Ma
- MOE Key Lab of Rare Pediatric Diseases & Hunan Key Laboratory of Medical Genetics of the School of Life Sciences, Hu Nan Sheng, China
- Institute of Cell Biology, University of South China, Hu Nan Sheng, China
- Institute for Future Sciences, Hengyang Medical School, University of South China, Hu Nan Sheng, China
| | - Xuebing Wang
- Institute of Aix-Marseille, Wuhan University of Technology, Wuhan, 430070, China
- School of Chemistry, Chemical Engineering and Life Sciences, Wuhan University of Technology, Wuhan, 430070, China
| | - Yunzhe Lu
- School of Life Science and Technology, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai, 201210, China
| | - Jing Chen
- MOE Key Lab of Rare Pediatric Diseases & Hunan Key Laboratory of Medical Genetics of the School of Life Sciences, Hu Nan Sheng, China
- Institute of Cell Biology, University of South China, Hu Nan Sheng, China
- Institute for Future Sciences, Hengyang Medical School, University of South China, Hu Nan Sheng, China
| | - Deyi Feng
- MOE Key Lab of Rare Pediatric Diseases & Hunan Key Laboratory of Medical Genetics of the School of Life Sciences, Hu Nan Sheng, China
- Institute of Cell Biology, University of South China, Hu Nan Sheng, China
- Institute for Future Sciences, Hengyang Medical School, University of South China, Hu Nan Sheng, China
| | - Jiecan Zhou
- MOE Key Lab of Rare Pediatric Diseases & Hunan Key Laboratory of Medical Genetics of the School of Life Sciences, Hu Nan Sheng, China
- The First Affiliated Hospital, Pharmacy Department, Hengyang Medical School, University of South China, Hu Nan Sheng, China
| | - Kun Xia
- MOE Key Lab of Rare Pediatric Diseases & Hunan Key Laboratory of Medical Genetics of the School of Life Sciences, Hu Nan Sheng, China
- Institute of Cell Biology, University of South China, Hu Nan Sheng, China
| | - Ophir Klein
- Department of Orofacial Sciences and Program in Craniofacial Biology, University of California, San Francisco, UCSF Box 0422, 513 Parnassus Avenue, HSE1508, San Francisco, CA, 94143, California, USA
- Department of Pediatrics and Guerin Children's, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, 8700 Gracie Allen Dr., Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Hao Xie
- Institute of Aix-Marseille, Wuhan University of Technology, Wuhan, 430070, China
- School of Chemistry, Chemical Engineering and Life Sciences, Wuhan University of Technology, Wuhan, 430070, China
| | - Pengfei Lu
- MOE Key Lab of Rare Pediatric Diseases & Hunan Key Laboratory of Medical Genetics of the School of Life Sciences, Hu Nan Sheng, China.
- Institute of Cell Biology, University of South China, Hu Nan Sheng, China.
- Institute for Future Sciences, Hengyang Medical School, University of South China, Hu Nan Sheng, China.
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2
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Githaka JM, Pirayeshfard L, Goping IS. Cancer invasion and metastasis: Insights from murine pubertal mammary gland morphogenesis. Biochim Biophys Acta Gen Subj 2023; 1867:130375. [PMID: 37150225 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbagen.2023.130375] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2022] [Revised: 04/20/2023] [Accepted: 05/02/2023] [Indexed: 05/09/2023]
Abstract
Cancer invasion and metastasis accounts for the majority of cancer related mortality. A better understanding of the players that drive the aberrant invasion and migration of tumors cells will provide critical targets to inhibit metastasis. Postnatal pubertal mammary gland morphogenesis is characterized by highly proliferative, invasive, and migratory normal epithelial cells. Identifying the molecular regulators of pubertal gland development is a promising strategy since tumorigenesis and metastasis is postulated to be a consequence of aberrant reactivation of developmental stages. In this review, we summarize the pubertal morphogenesis regulators that are involved in cancer metastasis and revisit pubertal mammary gland transcriptome profiling to uncover both known and unknown metastasis genes. Our updated list of pubertal morphogenesis regulators shows that most are implicated in invasion and metastasis. This review highlights molecular linkages between development and metastasis and provides a guide for exploring novel metastatic drivers.
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Affiliation(s)
- John Maringa Githaka
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2H7, Canada.
| | - Leila Pirayeshfard
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2H7, Canada
| | - Ing Swie Goping
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2H7, Canada; Department of Oncology, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2H7, Canada.
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3
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Morato A, Accornero P, Hovey RC. ERBB Receptors and Their Ligands in the Developing Mammary Glands of Different Species: Fifteen Characters in Search of an Author. J Mammary Gland Biol Neoplasia 2023; 28:10. [PMID: 37219601 DOI: 10.1007/s10911-023-09538-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2023] [Accepted: 04/26/2023] [Indexed: 05/24/2023] Open
Abstract
The ERBB tyrosine kinase receptors and their ligands belong to a complex family that has diverse biological effects and expression profiles in the developing mammary glands, where its members play an essential role in translating hormone signals into local effects. While our understanding of these processes stems mostly from mouse models, there is the potential for differences in how this family functions in the mammary glands of other species, particularly in light of their unique histomorphological features. Herein we review the postnatal distribution and function of ERBB receptors and their ligands in the mammary glands of rodents and humans, as well as for livestock and companion animals. Our analysis highlights the diverse biology for this family and its members across species, the regulation of their expression, and how their roles and functions might be modulated by varying stromal composition and hormone interactions. Given that ERBB receptors and their ligands have the potential to influence processes ranging from normal mammary development to diseased states such as cancer and/or mastitis, both in human and veterinary medicine, a more complete understanding of their biological functions should help to direct future research and the identification of new therapeutic targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alessia Morato
- Department of Animal Science, University of California, Davis, One Shields Avenue, Davis, CA, 95616, USA.
| | - Paolo Accornero
- Department of Veterinary Science, University of Turin, Largo Paolo Braccini 2, Grugliasco, TO, 10095, Italy
| | - Russell C Hovey
- Department of Animal Science, University of California, Davis, One Shields Avenue, Davis, CA, 95616, USA
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4
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Pargett M, Ram AR, Murthy V, Davies AE. Live-Cell Sender-Receiver Co-cultures for Quantitative Measurement of Paracrine Signaling Dynamics, Gene Expression, and Drug Response. Methods Mol Biol 2023; 2634:285-314. [PMID: 37074584 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-0716-3008-2_13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/20/2023]
Abstract
Paracrine signaling is a fundamental process regulating tissue development, repair, and pathogenesis of diseases such as cancer. Herein we describe a method for quantitatively measuring paracrine signaling dynamics, and resultant gene expression changes, in living cells using genetically encoded signaling reporters and fluorescently tagged gene loci. We discuss considerations for selecting paracrine "sender-receiver" cell pairs, appropriate reporters, the use of this system to ask diverse experimental questions and screen drugs blocking intracellular communication, data collection, and the use of computational approaches to model and interpret these experiments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Pargett
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, USA
| | - Abhineet R Ram
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, USA
| | - Vaibhav Murthy
- Department of Veterinary Biosciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA
- Knight Cancer Institute, Cancer Early Detection Advanced Research Center, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR, USA
| | - Alexander E Davies
- Department of Veterinary Biosciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA.
- Knight Cancer Institute, Cancer Early Detection Advanced Research Center, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR, USA.
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5
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The Mammary Gland: Basic Structure and Molecular Signaling during Development. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23073883. [PMID: 35409243 PMCID: PMC8998991 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23073883] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2022] [Revised: 03/22/2022] [Accepted: 03/30/2022] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
The mammary gland is a compound, branched tubuloalveolar structure and a major characteristic of mammals. The mammary gland has evolved from epidermal apocrine glands, the skin glands as an accessory reproductive organ to support postnatal survival of offspring by producing milk as a source of nutrition. The mammary gland development begins during embryogenesis as a rudimentary structure that grows into an elementary branched ductal tree and is embedded in one end of a larger mammary fat pad at birth. At the onset of ovarian function at puberty, the rudimentary ductal system undergoes dramatic morphogenetic change with ductal elongation and branching. During pregnancy, the alveolar differentiation and tertiary branching are completed, and during lactation, the mature milk-producing glands eventually develop. The early stages of mammary development are hormonal independent, whereas during puberty and pregnancy, mammary gland development is hormonal dependent. We highlight the current understanding of molecular regulators involved during different stages of mammary gland development.
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6
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Zapaterini JR, Fonseca ARB, Bidinotto LT, Colombelli KT, Rossi ALD, Kass L, Justulin LA, Barbisan LF. Maternal Low-Protein Diet Deregulates DNA Repair and DNA Replication Pathways in Female Offspring Mammary Gland Leading to Increased Chemically Induced Rat Carcinogenesis in Adulthood. Front Cell Dev Biol 2022; 9:756616. [PMID: 35178394 PMCID: PMC8844450 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2021.756616] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2021] [Accepted: 12/09/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Studies have shown that maternal malnutrition, especially a low-protein diet (LPD), plays a key role in the developmental mechanisms underlying mammary cancer programming in female offspring. However, the molecular pathways associated with this higher susceptibility are still poorly understood. Thus, this study investigated the adverse effects of gestational and lactational low protein intake on gene expression of key pathways involved in mammary tumor initiation after a single dose of N-methyl-N-nitrosourea (MNU) in female offspring rats. Pregnant Sprague-Dawley rats were fed a normal-protein diet (NPD) (17% protein) or LPD (6% protein) from gestational day 1 to postnatal day (PND) 21. After weaning (PND 21), female offspring (n = 5, each diet) were euthanized for histological analysis or received NPD (n = 56 each diet). At PND 28 or 35, female offspring received a single dose of MNU (25 mg/kg body weight) (n = 28 each diet/timepoint). After 24 h, some females (n = 10 each diet/timepoint) were euthanized for histological, immunohistochemical, and molecular analyses at PDN 29 or 36. The remaining animals (n = 18 each diet/timepoint) were euthanized when tumors reached ≥2 cm or at PND 250. Besides the mammary gland development delay observed in LPD 21 and 28 groups, the gene expression profile demonstrated that maternal LPD deregulated 21 genes related to DNA repair and DNA replication pathways in the mammary gland of LPD 35 group after MNU. We further confirmed an increased γ-H2AX (DNA damage biomarker) and in ER-α immunoreactivity in mammary epithelial cells in the LPD group at PND 36. Furthermore, these early postnatal events were followed by significantly higher mammary carcinogenesis susceptibility in offspring at adulthood. Thus, the results indicate that maternal LPD influenced the programming of chemically induced mammary carcinogenesis in female offspring through increase in DNA damage and deregulation of DNA repair and DNA replication pathways. Also, Cidea upregulation gene in the LPD 35 group may suggest that maternal LPD could deregulate genes possibly leading to increased risk of mammary cancer development and/or poor prognosis. These findings increase the body of evidence of early-transcriptional mammary gland changes influenced by maternal LPD, resulting in differential response to breast tumor initiation and susceptibility and may raise discussions about lifelong prevention of breast cancer risk.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joyce R Zapaterini
- Department of Structural and Functional Biology, Institute of Biosciences of Botucatu, São Paulo State University (UNESP), Botucatu, Brazil
| | - Antonio R B Fonseca
- Department of Structural and Functional Biology, Institute of Biosciences of Botucatu, São Paulo State University (UNESP), Botucatu, Brazil
| | - Lucas T Bidinotto
- Molecular Oncology Research Center, Barretos Cancer Hospital, Botucatu, Brazil.,Barretos School of Health Sciences, Dr. Paulo Prata-FACISB, Barretos, Brazil
| | - Ketlin T Colombelli
- Department of Structural and Functional Biology, Institute of Biosciences of Botucatu, São Paulo State University (UNESP), Botucatu, Brazil
| | | | - Laura Kass
- Instituto de Salud y Ambiente del Litoral (UNL-CONICET), Facultad de Bioquímica y Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Nacional del Litoral, Santa Fe, Argentina
| | - Luis A Justulin
- Department of Structural and Functional Biology, Institute of Biosciences of Botucatu, São Paulo State University (UNESP), Botucatu, Brazil
| | - Luis F Barbisan
- Department of Structural and Functional Biology, Institute of Biosciences of Botucatu, São Paulo State University (UNESP), Botucatu, Brazil
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7
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Slepicka PF, Somasundara AVH, Dos Santos CO. The molecular basis of mammary gland development and epithelial differentiation. Semin Cell Dev Biol 2021; 114:93-112. [PMID: 33082117 PMCID: PMC8052380 DOI: 10.1016/j.semcdb.2020.09.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2020] [Revised: 09/28/2020] [Accepted: 09/30/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Our understanding of the molecular events underpinning the development of mammalian organ systems has been increasing rapidly in recent years. With the advent of new and improved next-generation sequencing methods, we are now able to dig deeper than ever before into the genomic and epigenomic events that play critical roles in determining the fates of stem and progenitor cells during the development of an embryo into an adult. In this review, we detail and discuss the genes and pathways that are involved in mammary gland development, from embryogenesis, through maturation into an adult gland, to the role of pregnancy signals in directing the terminal maturation of the mammary gland into a milk producing organ that can nurture the offspring. We also provide an overview of the latest research in the single-cell genomics of mammary gland development, which may help us to understand the lineage commitment of mammary stem cells (MaSCs) into luminal or basal epithelial cells that constitute the mammary gland. Finally, we summarize the use of 3D organoid cultures as a model system to study the molecular events during mammary gland development. Our increased investigation of the molecular requirements for normal mammary gland development will advance the discovery of targets to predict breast cancer risk and the development of new breast cancer therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Priscila Ferreira Slepicka
- Stem Cell Transplantation and Regenerative Medicine, Department of Pediatrics, Stanford University School of Medicine, Palo Alto, CA 94305, USA
| | | | - Camila O Dos Santos
- Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, 1 Bungtown Road, Cold Spring Harbor, NY 11724, USA.
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8
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Morato A, Martignani E, Miretti S, Baratta M, Accornero P. External and internal EGFR-activating signals drive mammary epithelial cells proliferation and viability. Mol Cell Endocrinol 2021; 520:111081. [PMID: 33181234 DOI: 10.1016/j.mce.2020.111081] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2020] [Revised: 10/20/2020] [Accepted: 11/09/2020] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
During puberty, the mammary gland undergoes an intense growth, dependent on the interplay between the Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor (EGFR) in the stroma and different mammary epithelial receptors. We hypothesize that EGFR expressed in the mammary epithelium also has a role in puberty and the epithelial cells can self-sustain by EGFR-mediated autocrine signaling. We adopted mammary cell lines from different species, as in vitro model for the epithelium, and we observed that EGFR-signaling positively affects their survival and proliferation. Once deprived of external growth factors, mammary cells still showed strong Erk 1/2 phosphorylation, abolished upon EGFR inhibition, coupled with a further reduction in survival and proliferation. Based on gene expression analysis, three EGFR-ligands (AREG, EREG and HBEGF) are likely to mediate this autocrine signaling. In conclusion, internal EGFR-activating signals sustain mammary epithelial cell proliferation and survival in vitro.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alessia Morato
- Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Turin, Grugliasco, TO, Italy
| | - Eugenio Martignani
- Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Turin, Grugliasco, TO, Italy
| | - Silvia Miretti
- Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Turin, Grugliasco, TO, Italy
| | - Mario Baratta
- Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Turin, Grugliasco, TO, Italy
| | - Paolo Accornero
- Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Turin, Grugliasco, TO, Italy.
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9
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Julien A, Perrin S, Abou-Khalil R, Colnot C. Renal Capsule Transplantation to Assay Angiogenesis in Skeletal Development and Repair. Methods Mol Biol 2021; 2230:151-165. [PMID: 33197014 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-0716-1028-2_10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Renal capsule transplantation is a very helpful method to grow embryonic tissues or tumors in a vascular environment, allowing for long-term engraftment and biological analyses. This chapter describes the surgical procedure for the transplantation of embryonic skeletal elements in the renal capsule of adult mice and points out the manipulations that can be applied for assaying the role of angiogenesis during bone development and repair.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anais Julien
- INSERM, IMRB, Univ Paris Est Creteil, Creteil, France
| | - Simon Perrin
- INSERM, IMRB, Univ Paris Est Creteil, Creteil, France
| | | | - Céline Colnot
- INSERM, IMRB, Univ Paris Est Creteil, Creteil, France.
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10
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Samocha A, Doh H, Kessenbrock K, Roose JP. Unraveling Heterogeneity in Epithelial Cell Fates of the Mammary Gland and Breast Cancer. Cancers (Basel) 2019; 11:E1423. [PMID: 31554261 PMCID: PMC6826786 DOI: 10.3390/cancers11101423] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2019] [Revised: 09/22/2019] [Accepted: 09/22/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Fluidity in cell fate or heterogeneity in cell identity is an interesting cell biological phenomenon, which at the same time poses a significant obstacle for cancer therapy. The mammary gland seems a relatively straightforward organ with stromal cells and basal- and luminal- epithelial cell types. In reality, the epithelial cell fates are much more complex and heterogeneous, which is the topic of this review. Part of the complexity comes from the dynamic nature of this organ: the primitive epithelial tree undergoes extensively remodeling and expansion during puberty, pregnancy, and lactation and, unlike most other organs, the bulk of mammary gland development occurs late, during puberty. An active cell biological debate has focused on lineage commitment to basal- and luminal- epithelial cell fates by epithelial progenitor and stem cells; processes that are also relevant to cancer biology. In this review, we discuss the current understanding of heterogeneity in mammary gland and recent insights obtained through lineage tracing, signaling assays, and organoid cultures. Lastly, we relate these insights to cancer and ongoing efforts to resolve heterogeneity in breast cancer with single-cell RNAseq approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandr Samocha
- Department of Anatomy, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA.
| | - Hanna Doh
- Department of Anatomy, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA.
| | - Kai Kessenbrock
- Department of Biological Chemistry, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697, USA.
| | - Jeroen P Roose
- Department of Anatomy, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA.
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Luminal MCF-12A & myoepithelial-like Hs 578Bst cells form bilayered acini similar to human breast. Future Sci OA 2018; 4:FSO315. [PMID: 30112185 PMCID: PMC6088263 DOI: 10.4155/fsoa-2018-0010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2018] [Accepted: 05/08/2018] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The epithelium's functional unit is the bilayered acinus, made of a layer of luminal cells, surrounded by a layer of basal cells mainly composed of myoepithelial cells. Aim The aim of this study was to develop a reproducible and manipulable 3D co-culture model of the bilayered acinus in vitro to study the interactions between the two layers. Materials & methods Two different combinations of cell lines were co-cultured in Matrigel: SCp2 and SCg6 mice cells, or MCF-12A and Hs 578Bst human cell lines. Results Confocal microscopy analysis showed that only MCF-12A and Hs 578Bst cells could form some bilayered acini. This in vitro bilayered acini model will allow us to understand the role of interactions between luminal and myoepithelial cells in the normal breast development.
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12
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Dall GV, Hawthorne S, Seyed-Razavi Y, Vieusseux J, Wu W, Gustafsson JA, Byrne D, Murphy L, Risbridger GP, Britt KL. Estrogen receptor subtypes dictate the proliferative nature of the mammary gland. J Endocrinol 2018; 237:323-336. [PMID: 29636363 DOI: 10.1530/joe-17-0582] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2018] [Accepted: 04/10/2018] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Estrogen induces proliferation of breast epithelial cells and is responsible for breast development at puberty. This tightly regulated control is lost in estrogen-receptor-positive (ER+) breast cancers, which comprise over 70% of all breast cancers. Currently, breast cancer diagnosis and treatment considers only the α isoform of ER; however, there is a second ER, ERβ. Whilst ERα mediates estrogen-driven proliferation of the normal breast in puberty and breast cancers, ERβ has been shown to exert an anti-proliferative effect on the normal breast. It is not known how the expression of each ER (alone or in combination) correlates with the ability of estrogen to induce proliferation in the breast. We assessed the levels of each ER in normal mouse mammary glands subdivided into proliferative and non-proliferative regions. ERα was most abundant in the proliferative regions of younger mice, with ERβ expressed most abundantly in old mice. We correlated this expression profile with function by showing that the ability of estrogen to induce proliferation was reduced in older mice. To show that the ER profile associated with breast cancer risk, we assessed ER expression in parous mice which are known to have a reduced risk of developing ERα breast cancer. ERα expression was significantly decreased yet co-localization analysis revealed ERβ expression increased with parity. Parous mice had less unopposed nuclear ERα expression and increased levels of ERβ. These changes suggest that the nuclear expression of ERs dictates the proliferative nature of the breast and may explain the decreased breast cancer risk with parity.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Samuel Hawthorne
- Department of Anatomy and Developmental BiologyMonash University, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Yashar Seyed-Razavi
- Department of Anatomy and Developmental BiologyMonash University, Melbourne, Australia
| | | | - Wanfu Wu
- Department of Biology and BiochemistryUniversity of Houston, Houston, Texas, USA
| | - Jan-Ake Gustafsson
- Department of Biology and BiochemistryUniversity of Houston, Houston, Texas, USA
| | - David Byrne
- Department of PathologyPeter MacCallum Cancer Centre, Melbourne, Australia
| | | | - Gail P Risbridger
- Peter MacCallum Cancer CentreMelbourne, Australia
- Department of Anatomy and Developmental BiologyMonash University, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Kara L Britt
- Peter MacCallum Cancer CentreMelbourne, Australia
- The Sir Peter MacCallumDepartment of Oncology, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia
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Soady KJ, Tornillo G, Kendrick H, Meniel V, Olijnyk-Dallis D, Morris JS, Stein T, Gusterson BA, Isacke CM, Smalley MJ. The receptor protein tyrosine phosphatase PTPRB negatively regulates FGF2-dependent branching morphogenesis. Development 2017; 144:3777-3788. [PMID: 28870991 PMCID: PMC6126639 DOI: 10.1242/dev.149120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2017] [Accepted: 08/25/2017] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
PTPRB is a transmembrane protein tyrosine phosphatase known to regulate blood vessel remodelling and angiogenesis. Here, we demonstrate that PTPRB negatively regulates branching morphogenesis in the mouse mammary epithelium. We show that Ptprb is highly expressed in adult mammary stem cells and also, although at lower levels, in oestrogen receptor-positive luminal cells. During mammary development, Ptprb expression is downregulated during puberty, a period of extensive ductal outgrowth and branching. In vivo shRNA knockdown of Ptprb in the cleared mammary fat pad transplant assay resulted in smaller epithelial outgrowths with an increased branching density and also increased branching in an in vitro organoid assay. Organoid branching was dependent on stimulation by FGF2, and Ptprb knockdown in mammary epithelial cells resulted in a higher level of fibroblast growth factor receptor (FGFR) activation and ERK1/2 phosphorylation, both at baseline and following FGF2 stimulation. Therefore, PTPRB regulates branching morphogenesis in the mammary epithelium by modulating the response of the FGFR signalling pathway to FGF stimulation. Considering the importance of branching morphogenesis in multiple taxa, our findings have general importance outside mammary developmental biology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kelly J Soady
- Division of Breast Cancer Research, Breast Cancer Now Research Centre, The Institute of Cancer Research, 237 Fulham Road, London SW3 6JB, UK
| | - Giusy Tornillo
- European Cancer Stem Cell Research Institute and Cardiff School of Biosciences, Cardiff University, Hadyn Ellis Building, Maindy Road, Cardiff, CF24 4HQ, UK
| | - Howard Kendrick
- European Cancer Stem Cell Research Institute and Cardiff School of Biosciences, Cardiff University, Hadyn Ellis Building, Maindy Road, Cardiff, CF24 4HQ, UK
| | - Valerie Meniel
- European Cancer Stem Cell Research Institute and Cardiff School of Biosciences, Cardiff University, Hadyn Ellis Building, Maindy Road, Cardiff, CF24 4HQ, UK
| | - Daria Olijnyk-Dallis
- Institute of Cancer Sciences, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, G12 8QQ, UK
| | - Joanna S Morris
- School of Veterinary Medicine, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Bearsden Road, Glasgow, G61 1QH, UK
| | - Torsten Stein
- Institute of Cancer Sciences, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, G12 8QQ, UK
| | - Barry A Gusterson
- Institute of Cancer Sciences, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, G12 8QQ, UK
| | - Clare M Isacke
- Division of Breast Cancer Research, Breast Cancer Now Research Centre, The Institute of Cancer Research, 237 Fulham Road, London SW3 6JB, UK
| | - Matthew J Smalley
- European Cancer Stem Cell Research Institute and Cardiff School of Biosciences, Cardiff University, Hadyn Ellis Building, Maindy Road, Cardiff, CF24 4HQ, UK
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Berryhill GE, Lemay DG, Trott JF, Aimo L, Lock AL, Hovey RC. The Transcriptome of Estrogen-Independent Mammary Growth in Female Mice Reveals That Not All Mammary Glands Are Created Equally. Endocrinology 2017; 158:3126-3139. [PMID: 28938404 PMCID: PMC5659702 DOI: 10.1210/en.2017-00395] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2017] [Accepted: 07/21/2017] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
Allometric growth of ducts in the mammary glands (MGs) is widely held to be estrogen dependent. We previously discovered that the dietary fatty acid trans-10, cis-12 conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) stimulates estrogen-independent allometric growth and terminal end bud formation in ovariectomized mice. Given the similar phenotype induced by estrogen and CLA, we investigated the shared and/or divergent mechanisms underlying these changes. We confirmed MG growth induced by CLA is temporally distinct from that elicited by estrogen. We then used RNA sequencing to compare the transcriptome of the MG during similar proliferative and morphological states. Both estrogen and CLA affected the genes involved in proliferation. The transcriptome for estrogen-treated mice included canonical estrogen-induced genes, including Pgr, Areg, and Foxa1. In contrast, their expression was unchanged by CLA. However, CLA, but not estrogen, altered expression of a unique set of inflammation-associated genes, consistent with stromal changes. This CLA-altered signature included increased expression of epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) pathway components, consistent with the demonstration that CLA-induced MG growth is EGFR dependent. Our findings highlight a unique role for diet-induced inflammation that underlies estrogen-independent MG development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Grace E. Berryhill
- Department of Animal Science, University of California Davis, Davis, California 95616-8521
| | - Danielle G. Lemay
- UC Davis Genome Center, University of California Davis, Davis, California 95616-8521
- US Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Services, Western Human Nutrition Research Center, Davis, California 95616
| | - Josephine F. Trott
- Department of Animal Science, University of California Davis, Davis, California 95616-8521
| | - Lucila Aimo
- Department of Animal Science, University of California Davis, Davis, California 95616-8521
| | - Adam L. Lock
- Department of Animal Science, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan 48824-1225
| | - Russell C. Hovey
- Department of Animal Science, University of California Davis, Davis, California 95616-8521
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15
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Ectodysplasin target gene Fgf20 regulates mammary bud growth and ductal invasion and branching during puberty. Sci Rep 2017; 7:5049. [PMID: 28698625 PMCID: PMC5505952 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-04637-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2016] [Accepted: 05/18/2017] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Mammary gland development begins with the appearance of epithelial placodes that invaginate, sprout, and branch to form small arborized trees by birth. The second phase of ductal growth and branching is driven by the highly invasive structures called terminal end buds (TEBs) that form at ductal tips at the onset of puberty. Ectodysplasin (Eda), a tumor necrosis factor-like ligand, is essential for the development of skin appendages including the breast. In mice, Eda regulates mammary placode formation and branching morphogenesis, but the underlying molecular mechanisms are poorly understood. Fibroblast growth factor (Fgf) receptors have a recognized role in mammary ductal development and stem cell maintenance, but the ligands involved are ill-defined. Here we report that Fgf20 is expressed in embryonic mammary glands and is regulated by the Eda pathway. Fgf20 deficiency does not impede mammary gland induction, but compromises mammary bud growth, as well as TEB formation, ductal outgrowth and branching during puberty. We further show that loss of Fgf20 delays formation of Eda-induced supernumerary mammary buds and normalizes the embryonic and postnatal hyperbranching phenotype of Eda overexpressing mice. These findings identify a hitherto unknown function for Fgf20 in mammary budding and branching morphogenesis.
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16
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Sisto M, Lorusso L, Ingravallo G, Lisi S. Exocrine Gland Morphogenesis: Insights into the Role of Amphiregulin from Development to Disease. Arch Immunol Ther Exp (Warsz) 2017; 65:477-499. [DOI: 10.1007/s00005-017-0478-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2016] [Accepted: 06/02/2017] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
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Santino P, Martignani E, Miretti S, Baratta M, Accornero P. Mechanisms of modulation of the Egr gene family in mammary epithelial cells of different species. Gen Comp Endocrinol 2017; 247:87-96. [PMID: 28118985 DOI: 10.1016/j.ygcen.2017.01.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2016] [Revised: 01/10/2017] [Accepted: 01/20/2017] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
In the adult female, within the estrous cycle, the mammary gland undergoes multiple rounds of growth, with increased cellular proliferation, and involution, with increased apoptosis. The increase in proliferation is elicited by endocrine (Estrogen, Progesterone), as well as locally produced (epidermal growth factor, insulin-like growth factor, etc) growth factors. Among the genes that are modulated during cellular proliferation, immediate early genes play a fundamental role, being rapidly upregulated and then downregulated within the G0/G1 phase of the cell cycle, allowing the progression to the subsequent phases. Egrs (1-4) are immediate early genes that encode for transcription factors that promote, within different cell types and depending on the strength and duration of the stimuli, several different responses like mitogenesis, differentiation, apoptosis or even anti-apoptosis. In this work we have studied the mechanisms of modulation of the Egr family, in mammary epithelial cells of different origin (bovine, canine, feline, murine). Following stimulation with growth medium, Egr mRNA expression showed a strong upregulation reaching a peak at 45-60min, that rapidly declined. Among several cytokines, particularly important for mammary morphogenesis, that we have tested (EGF, IGF-I, insulin, estrogen, progesterone), only EGF upregulated Egrs to levels close to those elicited by growth medium. In order to understand how the Egr transcription factors were regulated, we have inhibited Erk 1/2 and PI3K, molecules that drive two major intracellular signaling pathways. Inhibition of the Erk 1/2 pathway totally abolished Egr upregulation mediated by growth medium or EGF. On the other hand, the PI3K-Akt pathway played a minor role on Egr levels, with a strong inhibitory effect on cat GH2 cells only, that could be ascribed to reduced Erk phosphorylation following PI3K inhibition. Finally we showed that addition of growth medium also upregulated that the mammary luminal marker cytokeratin 18, but only in the murine NMuMG cell line. This is the first manuscript describing how the Egr transcription factors are expressed in mammary epithelial cells of domestic animals and which growth factors and signaling pathways modulate their expression.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Santino
- Dipartimento di Scienze Veterinarie, Largo Braccini 2, 10095 Grugliasco (TO), Italy.
| | - E Martignani
- Dipartimento di Scienze Veterinarie, Largo Braccini 2, 10095 Grugliasco (TO), Italy.
| | - S Miretti
- Dipartimento di Scienze Veterinarie, Largo Braccini 2, 10095 Grugliasco (TO), Italy.
| | - M Baratta
- Dipartimento di Scienze Veterinarie, Largo Braccini 2, 10095 Grugliasco (TO), Italy.
| | - P Accornero
- Dipartimento di Scienze Veterinarie, Largo Braccini 2, 10095 Grugliasco (TO), Italy.
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18
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78495111110.3390/cancers9050052" />
Abstract
The epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) is a receptor tyrosine kinase that is commonly upregulated in cancers such as in non-small-cell lung cancer, metastatic colorectal cancer, glioblastoma, head and neck cancer, pancreatic cancer, and breast cancer. Various mechanisms mediate the upregulation of EGFR activity, including common mutations and truncations to its extracellular domain, such as in the EGFRvIII truncations, as well as to its kinase domain, such as the L858R and T790M mutations, or the exon 19 truncation. These EGFR aberrations over-activate downstream pro-oncogenic signaling pathways, including the RAS-RAF-MEK-ERK MAPK and AKT-PI3K-mTOR pathways. These pathways then activate many biological outputs that are beneficial to cancer cell proliferation, including their chronic initiation and progression through the cell cycle. Here, we review the molecular mechanisms that regulate EGFR signal transduction, including the EGFR structure and its mutations, ligand binding and EGFR dimerization, as well as the signaling pathways that lead to G1 cell cycle progression. We focus on the induction of CYCLIN D expression, CDK4/6 activation, and the repression of cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor proteins (CDKi) by EGFR signaling pathways. We also discuss the successes and challenges of EGFR-targeted therapies, and the potential for their use in combination with CDK4/6 inhibitors.
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19
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Wee P, Wang Z. Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor Cell Proliferation Signaling Pathways. Cancers (Basel) 2017; 9:cancers9050052. [PMID: 28513565 PMCID: PMC5447962 DOI: 10.3390/cancers9050052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1001] [Impact Index Per Article: 143.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2017] [Revised: 05/10/2017] [Accepted: 05/10/2017] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) is a receptor tyrosine kinase that is commonly upregulated in cancers such as in non-small-cell lung cancer, metastatic colorectal cancer, glioblastoma, head and neck cancer, pancreatic cancer, and breast cancer. Various mechanisms mediate the upregulation of EGFR activity, including common mutations and truncations to its extracellular domain, such as in the EGFRvIII truncations, as well as to its kinase domain, such as the L858R and T790M mutations, or the exon 19 truncation. These EGFR aberrations over-activate downstream pro-oncogenic signaling pathways, including the RAS-RAF-MEK-ERK MAPK and AKT-PI3K-mTOR pathways. These pathways then activate many biological outputs that are beneficial to cancer cell proliferation, including their chronic initiation and progression through the cell cycle. Here, we review the molecular mechanisms that regulate EGFR signal transduction, including the EGFR structure and its mutations, ligand binding and EGFR dimerization, as well as the signaling pathways that lead to G1 cell cycle progression. We focus on the induction of CYCLIN D expression, CDK4/6 activation, and the repression of cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor proteins (CDKi) by EGFR signaling pathways. We also discuss the successes and challenges of EGFR-targeted therapies, and the potential for their use in combination with CDK4/6 inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ping Wee
- Department of Medical Genetics and Signal Transduction Research Group, Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2H7, Canada.
| | - Zhixiang Wang
- Department of Medical Genetics and Signal Transduction Research Group, Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2H7, Canada.
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20
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Mapes J, Li Q, Kannan A, Anandan L, Laws M, Lydon JP, Bagchi IC, Bagchi MK. CUZD1 is a critical mediator of the JAK/STAT5 signaling pathway that controls mammary gland development during pregnancy. PLoS Genet 2017; 13:e1006654. [PMID: 28278176 PMCID: PMC5363987 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1006654] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2016] [Revised: 03/23/2017] [Accepted: 02/26/2017] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
In the mammary gland, genetic circuits controlled by estrogen, progesterone, and prolactin, act in concert with pathways regulated by members of the epidermal growth factor family to orchestrate growth and morphogenesis during puberty, pregnancy and lactation. However, the precise mechanisms underlying the crosstalk between the hormonal and growth factor pathways remain poorly understood. We have identified the CUB and zona pellucida-like domain-containing protein 1 (CUZD1), expressed in mammary ductal and alveolar epithelium, as a novel mediator of mammary gland proliferation and differentiation during pregnancy and lactation. Cuzd1-null mice exhibited a striking impairment in mammary ductal branching and alveolar development during pregnancy, resulting in a subsequent defect in lactation. Gene expression profiling of mammary epithelium revealed that CUZD1 regulates the expression of a subset of the EGF family growth factors, epiregulin, neuregulin-1, and epigen, which act in an autocrine fashion to activate ErbB1 and ErbB4 receptors. Proteomic studies further revealed that CUZD1 interacts with a complex containing JAK1/JAK2 and STAT5, downstream transducers of prolactin signaling in the mammary gland. In the absence of CUZD1, STAT5 phosphorylation in the mammary epithelium during alveologenesis was abolished. Conversely, elevated expression of Cuzd1 in mammary epithelial cells stimulated prolactin-induced phosphorylation and nuclear translocation of STAT5. Chromatin immunoprecipitation confirmed co-occupancy of phosphorylated STAT5 and CUZD1 in the regulatory regions of epiregulin, a potential regulator of epithelial proliferation, and whey acidic protein, a marker of epithelial differentiation. Collectively, these findings suggest that CUZD1 plays a critical role in prolactin-induced JAK/STAT5 signaling that controls the expression of key STAT5 target genes involved in mammary epithelial proliferation and differentiation during alveolar development. In the mammary gland, genetic circuits controlled by the hormones, estrogen, progesterone and prolactin, act in concert with pathways regulated by members of the epidermal growth factor family to orchestrate growth and morphogenesis during puberty, pregnancy and lactation. We have identified CUZD1 as a novel mediator of prolactin signaling in the steroid hormone-primed mouse mammary gland during pregnancy and lactation. Cuzd1-null mice exhibited a striking impairment in ductal branching and alveolar development during pregnancy, resulting in a subsequent defect in lactation. Administration of prolactin failed to induce proliferation of the mammary epithelium in Cuzd1-null mice. Protein binding studies revealed that CUZD1 interacts with downstream transducers of prolactin signaling, JAK1/JAK2 and STAT5. Additionally, elevated expression of Cuzd1 in mammary epithelial cells stimulated phosphorylation and nuclear translocation of STAT5. CUZD1, therefore, is a critical mediator of prolactin that controls mammary alveolar development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Janelle Mapes
- Department of Molecular and Integrative Physiology, University of Illinois Urbana/Champaign, Urbana, IL, United States of America
| | - Quanxi Li
- Department of Comparative Biosciences, University of Illinois Urbana/Champaign, Urbana, IL, United States of America
| | - Athilakshmi Kannan
- Department of Comparative Biosciences, University of Illinois Urbana/Champaign, Urbana, IL, United States of America
| | - Lavanya Anandan
- Department of Molecular and Integrative Physiology, University of Illinois Urbana/Champaign, Urbana, IL, United States of America
| | - Mary Laws
- Department of Comparative Biosciences, University of Illinois Urbana/Champaign, Urbana, IL, United States of America
| | - John P. Lydon
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, United States of America
| | - Indrani C. Bagchi
- Department of Comparative Biosciences, University of Illinois Urbana/Champaign, Urbana, IL, United States of America
- * E-mail: (ICB); (MKB)
| | - Milan K. Bagchi
- Department of Molecular and Integrative Physiology, University of Illinois Urbana/Champaign, Urbana, IL, United States of America
- * E-mail: (ICB); (MKB)
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21
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McBryan J, Howlin J. Pubertal Mammary Gland Development: Elucidation of In Vivo Morphogenesis Using Murine Models. Methods Mol Biol 2017; 1501:77-114. [PMID: 27796948 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4939-6475-8_3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
During the past 25 years, the combination of increasingly sophisticated gene targeting technology with transplantation techniques has allowed researchers to address a wide array of questions about postnatal mammary gland development. These in turn have significantly contributed to our knowledge of other branched epithelial structures. This review chapter highlights a selection of the mouse models exhibiting a pubertal mammary gland phenotype with a focus on how they have contributed to our overall understanding of in vivo mammary morphogenesis. We discuss mouse models that have enabled us to assign functions to particular genes and proteins and, more importantly, have determined when and where these factors are required for completion of ductal outgrowth and branch patterning. The reason for the success of the mouse mammary gland model is undoubtedly the suitability of the postnatal mammary gland to experimental manipulation. The gland itself is very amenable to investigation and the combination of genetic modification with accessibility to the tissue has allowed an impressive number of studies to inform biology. Excision of the rudimentary epithelial structure postnatally allows genetically modified tissue to be readily transplanted into wild type stroma or vice versa, and has thus defined the contribution of each compartment to particular phenotypes. Similarly, whole gland transplantation has been used to definitively discern local effects from indirect systemic effects of various growth factors and hormones. While appreciative of the power of these tools and techniques, we are also cognizant of some of their limitations, and we discuss some shortcomings and future strategies that can overcome them.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jean McBryan
- Department of Molecular Medicine Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland Education and Research Centre, Beaumont Hospital, Dublin, 9, Ireland
| | - Jillian Howlin
- Division of Oncology-Pathology, Lund University Cancer Center/Medicon Village, Building 404:B2, Scheelevägen 2, 223 81, Lund, Sweden.
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22
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Veltmaat JM. Prenatal Mammary Gland Development in the Mouse: Research Models and Techniques for Its Study from Past to Present. Methods Mol Biol 2017; 1501:21-76. [PMID: 27796947 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4939-6475-8_2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Mammary gland development starts during prenatal life, when at designated positions along the ventrolateral boundary of the embryonic or fetal trunk, surface ectodermal cells coalesce to form primordia for mammary glands, instead of differentiating into epidermis. With the wealth of genetically engineered mice available as research models, our understanding of the prenatal phase of mammary development has recently greatly advanced. This understanding includes the recognition of molecular and mechanistic parallels between prenatal and postnatal mammary morphogenesis and even tumorigenesis, much of which can moreover be extrapolated to human. This makes the murine embryonic mammary gland a useful model for a myriad of questions pertaining to normal and pathological breast development. Hence, unless indicated otherwise, this review describes embryonic mammary gland development in mouse only, and lists mouse models that have been examined for defects in embryonic mammary development. Techniques that originated in the field of developmental biology, such as explant culture and tissue recombination, were adapted specifically to research on the embryonic mammary gland. Detailed protocols for these techniques have recently been published elsewhere. This review describes how the development and adaptation of these techniques moved the field forward from insights on (comparative) morphogenesis of the embryonic mammary gland to the understanding of tissue and molecular interactions and their regulation of morphogenesis and functional development of the embryonic mammary gland. It is here furthermore illustrated how generic molecular biology and biochemistry techniques can be combined with these older, developmental biology techniques, to address relevant research questions. As such, this review should provide a solid starting point for those wishing to familiarize themselves with this fascinating and important subdomain of mammary gland biology, and guide them in designing a relevant research strategy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacqueline M Veltmaat
- Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology, A*STAR (Agency for Science, Technology and Research), Singapore, Singapore.
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23
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Kersh AE, Sasaki M, Cooper LA, Kissick HT, Pollack BP. Understanding the Impact of ErbB Activating Events and Signal Transduction on Antigen Processing and Presentation: MHC Expression as a Model. Front Pharmacol 2016; 7:327. [PMID: 27729860 PMCID: PMC5052536 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2016.00327] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2016] [Accepted: 09/06/2016] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Advances in molecular pathology have changed the landscape of oncology. The ability to interrogate tissue samples for oncogene amplification, driver mutations, and other molecular alterations provides clinicians with an enormous level of detail about their patient's cancer. In some cases, this information informs treatment decisions, especially those related to targeted anti-cancer therapies. However, in terms of immune-based therapies, it is less clear how to use such information. Likewise, despite studies demonstrating the pivotal role of neoantigens in predicting responsiveness to immune checkpoint blockade, it is not known if the expression of neoantigens impacts the response to targeted therapies despite a growing recognition of their diverse effects on immunity. To realize the promise of 'personalized medicine', it will be important to develop a more integrated understanding of the relationships between oncogenic events and processes governing anti-tumor immunity. One area of investigation to explore such relationships centers on defining how ErbB/HER activation and signal transduction influences antigen processing and presentation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna E Kersh
- Medical Scientist Training Program, Emory University School of Medicine Atlanta, GA, USA
| | | | - Lee A Cooper
- Department of Biomedical Informatics, Emory University School of MedicineAtlanta, GA, USA; Department of Biomedical Engineering, Georgia Institute of TechnologyAtlanta, GA, USA
| | - Haydn T Kissick
- Department of Urology, Emory University School of Medicine Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Brian P Pollack
- Atlanta VA Medical CenterDecatur, GA, USA; Department of Dermatology, Emory University School of MedicineAtlanta, GA, USA
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24
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Chen J, Zeng F, Forrester SJ, Eguchi S, Zhang MZ, Harris RC. Expression and Function of the Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor in Physiology and Disease. Physiol Rev 2016; 96:1025-1069. [DOI: 10.1152/physrev.00030.2015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 103] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) is the prototypical member of a family of membrane-associated intrinsic tyrosine kinase receptors, the ErbB family. EGFR is activated by multiple ligands, including EGF, transforming growth factor (TGF)-α, HB-EGF, betacellulin, amphiregulin, epiregulin, and epigen. EGFR is expressed in multiple organs and plays important roles in proliferation, survival, and differentiation in both development and normal physiology, as well as in pathophysiological conditions. In addition, EGFR transactivation underlies some important biologic consequences in response to many G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) agonists. Aberrant EGFR activation is a significant factor in development and progression of multiple cancers, which has led to development of mechanism-based therapies with specific receptor antibodies and tyrosine kinase inhibitors. This review highlights the current knowledge about mechanisms and roles of EGFR in physiology and disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jianchun Chen
- Departments of Medicine, Cancer Biology, and Molecular Physiology and Biophysics, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine and Nashville Veterans Affairs Hospital, Nashville, Tennessee; and Cardiovascular Research Center, Lewis Katz School of Medicine at Temple University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
| | - Fenghua Zeng
- Departments of Medicine, Cancer Biology, and Molecular Physiology and Biophysics, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine and Nashville Veterans Affairs Hospital, Nashville, Tennessee; and Cardiovascular Research Center, Lewis Katz School of Medicine at Temple University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
| | - Steven J. Forrester
- Departments of Medicine, Cancer Biology, and Molecular Physiology and Biophysics, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine and Nashville Veterans Affairs Hospital, Nashville, Tennessee; and Cardiovascular Research Center, Lewis Katz School of Medicine at Temple University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
| | - Satoru Eguchi
- Departments of Medicine, Cancer Biology, and Molecular Physiology and Biophysics, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine and Nashville Veterans Affairs Hospital, Nashville, Tennessee; and Cardiovascular Research Center, Lewis Katz School of Medicine at Temple University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
| | - Ming-Zhi Zhang
- Departments of Medicine, Cancer Biology, and Molecular Physiology and Biophysics, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine and Nashville Veterans Affairs Hospital, Nashville, Tennessee; and Cardiovascular Research Center, Lewis Katz School of Medicine at Temple University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
| | - Raymond C. Harris
- Departments of Medicine, Cancer Biology, and Molecular Physiology and Biophysics, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine and Nashville Veterans Affairs Hospital, Nashville, Tennessee; and Cardiovascular Research Center, Lewis Katz School of Medicine at Temple University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
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25
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Barberán S, Martín-Durán JM, Cebrià F. Evolution of the EGFR pathway in Metazoa and its diversification in the planarian Schmidtea mediterranea. Sci Rep 2016; 6:28071. [PMID: 27325311 PMCID: PMC4914847 DOI: 10.1038/srep28071] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2016] [Accepted: 05/31/2016] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
The EGFR pathway is an essential signaling system in animals, whose core components are the epidermal growth factors (EGF ligands) and their trans-membrane tyrosine kinase receptors (EGFRs). Despite extensive knowledge in classical model organisms, little is known of the composition and function of the EGFR pathway in most animal lineages. Here, we have performed an extensive search for the presence of EGFRs and EGF ligands in representative species of most major animal clades, with special focus on the planarian Schmidtea mediterranea. With the exception of placozoans and cnidarians, we found that the EGFR pathway is potentially present in all other analyzed animal groups, and has experienced frequent independent expansions. We further characterized the expression domains of the EGFR/EGF identified in S. mediterranea, revealing a wide variety of patterns and localization in almost all planarian tissues. Finally, functional experiments suggest an interaction between one of the previously described receptors, Smed-egfr-5, and the newly found ligand Smed-egf-6. Our findings provide the most comprehensive overview to date of the EGFR pathway, and indicate that the last common metazoan ancestor had an initial complement of one EGFR and one putative EGF ligand, which was often expanded or lost during animal evolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara Barberán
- Department of Genetics, Faculty of Biology, University of Barcelona and Institute of Biomedicine of the University of Barcelona (IBUB), Av. Diagonal 643, edifici Prevosti, planta 1, 08028 Barcelona, Catalunya, Spain
| | - José M Martín-Durán
- Sars International Centre for Marine Molecular Biology, University of Bergen, Thormøhlensgate 55, 5008 Bergen, Norway
| | - Francesc Cebrià
- Department of Genetics, Faculty of Biology, University of Barcelona and Institute of Biomedicine of the University of Barcelona (IBUB), Av. Diagonal 643, edifici Prevosti, planta 1, 08028 Barcelona, Catalunya, Spain
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26
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Butner JD, Cristini V. A modeling approach to study the normal mammary gland growth process. ANNUAL INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE OF THE IEEE ENGINEERING IN MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY SOCIETY. IEEE ENGINEERING IN MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY SOCIETY. ANNUAL INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 2016; 2015:1444-7. [PMID: 26736541 DOI: 10.1109/embc.2015.7318641] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
Terminal end buds (TEBs) are bulb-like structures at the growing tips of elongating mammary ducts, and the growth of a TEB is a complex, organized biological process. In this paper, we present a hybrid continuum-discrete agent-based model to provide quantitative insight into the properties of cell symmetric and asymmetric division on the spatial and developing cell rearrangement within the TEB during ductal elongation. An interplay of endocrine-paracrine signaling and cell lineage has been implemented in the model. Our results show that higher symmetric division rates resulted in more progenitor cells remaining in the TEB, while lower rates resulted in more differentiated cells in the TEB. Moreover, pure proliferation alone was enough to result in ductal elongation in the absence of any cellular migration, a result consistent with current experimental data. This model can also serve as a platform to study how mutation-induced phenotypic changes contribute to developmental defects in mammary gland development.
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27
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Zong Y, Goldstein AS, Witte ON. Tissue Recombination Models for the Study of Epithelial Cancer. Cold Spring Harb Protoc 2015; 2015:pdb.top069880. [PMID: 26631129 DOI: 10.1101/pdb.top069880] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Animal models of cancer provide fundamental insight into the cellular and molecular mechanisms of human cancer development. As an alternative to genetically engineered mouse models, increasing evidence shows that tissue recombination and transplantation models represent an efficient approach to faithfully recapitulate solid epithelial cancer in mice. Cancer can be rapidly initiated through lentiviral delivery of defined genetic alterations into target cells that are grown in a physiological milieu with an appropriate epithelial-stromal interaction. Through genetic manipulation of distinct subpopulations of epithelial cells and mesenchymal cells, this powerful system can readily test both cell-autonomous roles of genetic events in the epithelial compartment and the paracrine effects of the microenvironment. Here we review the recent advances in mouse models of several epithelial cancers achieved using orthotopic transplantation and tissue recombination strategies, with an emphasis on the dissociated cell in vivo prostate regeneration model to investigate prostate cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yang Zong
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90095
| | - Andrew S Goldstein
- Department of Molecular and Medical Pharmacology, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90095; Department of Urology, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90095; Jonsson Comprehensive Cancer Center, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90095; Eli and Edythe Broad Center of Regenerative Medicine and Stem Cell Research, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90095
| | - Owen N Witte
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90095; Department of Molecular and Medical Pharmacology, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90095; Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Molecular Genetics, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90095; Jonsson Comprehensive Cancer Center, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90095; Eli and Edythe Broad Center of Regenerative Medicine and Stem Cell Research, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90095
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28
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Silencing Estrogen Receptor-β with siRNA in Cultured Cells. Methods Mol Biol 2015. [PMID: 26585149 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4939-3127-9_28] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register]
Abstract
Estrogen receptors α and β (ERα and ERβ) are the two genomic estrogen receptors. ERβ was the second of these receptors to be discovered; its structure is similar to that of ERα but they are different in histological distribution. However, the functions of ERα versus ERβ are still unclear. The ability of small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) to silence gene expression has proven to be invaluable for studying gene function in cultured mammalian cells. This chapter describes the use of siRNA to inhibit the expression of ERβ in renal cell carcinoma (RCC) and to further the understanding of ERβ function in RCC.
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Brisken C, Ataca D. Endocrine hormones and local signals during the development of the mouse mammary gland. WILEY INTERDISCIPLINARY REVIEWS-DEVELOPMENTAL BIOLOGY 2015; 4:181-95. [PMID: 25645332 DOI: 10.1002/wdev.172] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2014] [Revised: 12/02/2014] [Accepted: 12/08/2014] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Most of mammary gland development occurs postnatally under the control of female reproductive hormones, which in turn interact with other endocrine factors. While hormones impinge on many tissues and trigger very complex biological responses, tissue recombination experiments with hormone receptor-deficient mammary epithelia revealed eminent roles for estrogens, progesterone, and prolactin receptor (PrlR) signaling that are intrinsic to the mammary epithelium. A subset of the luminal mammary epithelial cells expresses the estrogen receptor α (ERα), the progesterone receptor (PR), and the PrlR and act as sensor cells. These cells convert the detected systemic signals into local signals that are developmental stage-dependent and may be direct, juxtacrine, or paracrine. This setup ensures that the original input is amplified and that the biological responses of multiple cell types can be coordinated. Some key mediators of hormone action have been identified such as Wnt, EGFR, IGFR, and RANK signaling. Multiple signaling pathways such as FGF, Hedgehog, and Notch signaling participate in driving different aspects of mammary gland development locally but how they link to the hormonal control remains to be elucidated. An increasing number of endocrine factors are appearing to have a role in mammary gland development, the adipose tissue is increasingly recognized to play a role in endocrine regulation, and a complex role of the immune system with multiple different cell types is being revealed. For further resources related to this article, please visit the WIREs website.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cathrin Brisken
- ISREC - Swiss Institute for Experimental Cancer Research, School of Life Sciences, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland
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30
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Abou-Khalil R, Colnot C. Renal capsule transplantations to assay skeletal angiogenesis. Methods Mol Biol 2014; 1130:99-110. [PMID: 24482168 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-62703-989-5_8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/24/2023]
Abstract
Renal capsule transplantation is a very helpful method to grow embryonic tissues or tumors in a vascular environment, allowing long-term engraftment and biological analyses. This chapter describes the surgical procedure for the transplantation of embryonic skeletal elements in the renal capsule of adult mice and points out the manipulations that can be applied for assaying the role of angiogenesis during bone development.
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31
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Helle J, Kräker K, Bader MI, Keiler AM, Zierau O, Vollmer G, Welsh J, Kretzschmar G. Assessment of the proliferative capacity of the flavanones 8-prenylnaringenin, 6-(1.1-dimethylallyl)naringenin and naringenin in MCF-7 cells and the rat mammary gland. Mol Cell Endocrinol 2014; 392:125-35. [PMID: 24859648 DOI: 10.1016/j.mce.2014.05.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2014] [Revised: 04/09/2014] [Accepted: 05/08/2014] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
8-Prenylnaringenin (8-PN) and naringenin (Nar) are phytoestrogens found in food items and nutritional supplements, while 6-(1.1-dimethylallyl)naringenin (6-DMAN) is a component of an African plant. Besides their assumed beneficial effects they may promote mammary and endometrial cancer. We therefore assessed their proliferative and estrogenic potential on the mammary gland in vitro and in vivo. In competitive estrogen receptor (ER) ligand binding assays 8-PN displayed a high relative binding affinity for both ERs with a preference for ERα and had the strongest mitotic effect on MCF-7 cells among the test substances. In a three day exposure in young adult ovariectomized female rats 15 mg/kg 8-PN had the highest capacity to increase the number of terminal end buds (TEB) in the mammary gland and stimulated expression of proliferation markers in epithelial ductal cells, followed by 6-DMAN and Nar, but overall their capacity to stimulate proliferation was weak in comparison to 17β-Estradiol (E2).
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Affiliation(s)
- Janina Helle
- Institute of Zoology, Technische Universität Dresden, Zellescher Weg 20b, 01062 Dresden, Germany.
| | - Kristin Kräker
- Institute of Zoology, Technische Universität Dresden, Zellescher Weg 20b, 01062 Dresden, Germany
| | - Manuela I Bader
- Institute of Zoology, Technische Universität Dresden, Zellescher Weg 20b, 01062 Dresden, Germany
| | - Annekathrin M Keiler
- Institute of Zoology, Technische Universität Dresden, Zellescher Weg 20b, 01062 Dresden, Germany
| | - Oliver Zierau
- Institute of Zoology, Technische Universität Dresden, Zellescher Weg 20b, 01062 Dresden, Germany
| | - Günter Vollmer
- Institute of Zoology, Technische Universität Dresden, Zellescher Weg 20b, 01062 Dresden, Germany
| | - JoEllen Welsh
- Gen(*)NY(*)Sis Center for Excellence in Cancer Genomics (Cancer Research Center), University at Albany, One Discovery Drive, Rensselaer, NY 12144-2345, United States
| | - Georg Kretzschmar
- Institute of Zoology, Technische Universität Dresden, Zellescher Weg 20b, 01062 Dresden, Germany
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32
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Need EF, Atashgaran V, Ingman WV, Dasari P. Hormonal regulation of the immune microenvironment in the mammary gland. J Mammary Gland Biol Neoplasia 2014; 19:229-39. [PMID: 24993978 DOI: 10.1007/s10911-014-9324-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2014] [Accepted: 06/16/2014] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
It is well established that the development and homeostasis of the mammary gland are highly dependent upon the actions of ovarian hormones progesterone and estrogen, as well as the availability of prolactin for the pregnant and lactating gland. More recently it has become apparent that immune system cells and cytokines play essential roles in both mammary gland development as well as breast cancer. Here, we review hormonal effects on mammary gland biology during puberty, menstrual cycling, pregnancy, lactation and involution, and dissect how hormonal control of the immune system may contribute to mammary development at each stage via cytokine secretion and recruitment of macrophages, eosinophils, mast cells and lymphocytes. Collectively, these alterations may create an immunotolerant or inflammatory immune environment at specific developmental stages or phases of the menstrual cycle. Of particular interest for further research is investigation of the combinatorial actions of progesterone and estrogen during the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle and key developmental points where the immune system may play an active role both in mammary development as well as in the creation of an immunotolerant environment, thereby affecting breast cancer risk.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eleanor F Need
- Discipline of Surgery, School of Medicine, The Queen Elizabeth Hospital, University of Adelaide, DX465702, 28 Woodville Road, Woodville, SA, 5011, Australia
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33
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Unsworth A, Anderson R, Britt K. Stromal fibroblasts and the immune microenvironment: partners in mammary gland biology and pathology? J Mammary Gland Biol Neoplasia 2014; 19:169-82. [PMID: 24984900 DOI: 10.1007/s10911-014-9326-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2014] [Accepted: 06/25/2014] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The microenvironment of a tumor has emerged recently as a critical contributor to the development of cancer. Within this environment, fibroblasts and immune cells are the cell lineages that seem to be active mediators of tumour development. The activated fibroblasts that are also present during wound healing and chronic inflammation have been studied extensively. Their activation leads to altered gene expression profiles that markedly increase growth factor and cytokine secretion, leading to major alterations in the immune cell microenvironment. To better understand normal tissue development, wound healing and the chronic inflammation that leads to cancer, we review here information available on the role of fibroblasts and immune cells in normal breast development and in cancer. We also discuss the immunogenicity of breast cancer compared to other cancers and the contribution of the immune microenvironment to the initiation, progression and metastasis of tumors. Also reviewed is the limited knowledge on the role of immune cells and fibroblasts in normal development and whether the risk of cancer increases when their control is not tightly regulated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ashleigh Unsworth
- Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, 7 St Andrews Place East, Melbourne, 3002, Australia
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34
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Zou MR, Cao J, Liu Z, Huh SJ, Polyak K, Yan Q. Histone demethylase jumonji AT-rich interactive domain 1B (JARID1B) controls mammary gland development by regulating key developmental and lineage specification genes. J Biol Chem 2014; 289:17620-33. [PMID: 24802759 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m114.570853] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
The JmjC domain-containing H3K4 histone demethylase jumonji AT-rich interactive domain 1B (JARID1B) (also known as KDM5B and PLU1) is overexpressed in breast cancer and is a potential target for breast cancer treatment. To investigate the in vivo function of JARID1B, we developed Jarid1b(-/-) mice and characterized their phenotypes in detail. Unlike previously reported Jarid1b(-/-) strains, the majority of these Jarid1b(-/-) mice were viable beyond embryonic and neonatal stages. This allowed us to further examine phenotypes associated with the loss of JARID1B in pubertal development and pregnancy. These Jarid1b(-/-) mice exhibited decreased body weight, premature mortality, decreased female fertility, and delayed mammary gland development. Related to these phenotypes, JARID1B loss decreased serum estrogen level and reduced mammary epithelial cell proliferation in early puberty. In mammary epithelial cells, JARID1B loss diminished the expression of key regulators for mammary morphogenesis and luminal lineage specification, including FOXA1 and estrogen receptor α. Mechanistically, JARID1B was required for GATA3 recruitment to the Foxa1 promoter to activate Foxa1 expression. These results indicate that JARID1B positively regulates mammary ductal development through both extrinsic and cell-autonomous mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mike Ran Zou
- From the Department of Pathology, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut 06520
| | - Jian Cao
- From the Department of Pathology, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut 06520
| | - Zongzhi Liu
- From the Department of Pathology, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut 06520
| | - Sung Jin Huh
- Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute and Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02215, and
| | - Kornelia Polyak
- Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute and Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02215, and Harvard Stem Cell Institute, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138
| | - Qin Yan
- From the Department of Pathology, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut 06520,
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35
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Vapola MH, Rokka A, Sormunen RT, Alhonen L, Schmitz W, Conzelmann E, Wärri A, Grunau S, Antonenkov VD, Hiltunen JK. Peroxisomal membrane channel Pxmp2 in the mammary fat pad is essential for stromal lipid homeostasis and for development of mammary gland epithelium in mice. Dev Biol 2014; 391:66-80. [PMID: 24726525 DOI: 10.1016/j.ydbio.2014.03.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2013] [Revised: 03/25/2014] [Accepted: 03/26/2014] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
To understand the functional role of the peroxisomal membrane channel Pxmp2, mice with a targeted disruption of the Pxmp2 gene were generated. These mice were viable, grew and bred normally. However, Pxmp2(-/-) female mice were unable to nurse their pups. Lactating mammary gland epithelium displayed secretory lipid droplets and milk proteins, but the size of the ductal system was greatly reduced. Examination of mammary gland development revealed that retarded mammary ductal outgrowth was due to reduced proliferation of epithelial cells during puberty. Transplantation experiments established the Pxmp2(-/-) mammary stroma as a tissue responsible for suppression of epithelial growth. Morphological and biochemical examination confirmed the presence of peroxisomes in the mammary fat pad adipocytes, and functional Pxmp2 was detected in the stroma of wild-type mammary glands. Deletion of Pxmp2 led to an elevation in the expression of peroxisomal proteins in the mammary fat pad but not in liver or kidney of transgenic mice. Lipidomics of Pxmp2(-/-)mammary fat pad showed a decrease in the content of myristic acid (C14), a principal substrate for protein myristoylation and a potential peroxisomal β-oxidation product. Analysis of complex lipids revealed a reduced concentration of a variety of diacylglycerols and phospholipids containing mostly polyunsaturated fatty acids that may be caused by activation of lipid peroxidation. However, an antioxidant-containing diet did not stimulate mammary epithelial proliferation in Pxmp2(-/-) mice. The results point to disturbances of lipid metabolism in the mammary fat pad that in turn may result in abnormal epithelial growth. The work reveals impaired mammary gland development as a new category of peroxisomal disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miia H Vapola
- Faculty of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine and Biocenter Oulu, University of Oulu, P.O Box 3000, FI-90014 Oulu, Finland
| | - Aare Rokka
- Faculty of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine and Biocenter Oulu, University of Oulu, P.O Box 3000, FI-90014 Oulu, Finland
| | - Raija T Sormunen
- Department of Pathology and Biocenter Oulu, University of Oulu, FI-90014 Oulu, Finland
| | - Leena Alhonen
- A.I. Virtanen Institute for Molecular Sciences, University of Kuopio, FI-70211 Kuopio, Finland
| | - Werner Schmitz
- Theodor-Boveri-Institut fȕr Biowissenschaften (Biocentrum) der Universität Wurzburg, D-97074 Wurzburg, Germany
| | - Ernst Conzelmann
- Theodor-Boveri-Institut fȕr Biowissenschaften (Biocentrum) der Universität Wurzburg, D-97074 Wurzburg, Germany
| | - Anni Wärri
- Georgetown University Medical Center, Department of Oncology, Washington, DC 20057, USA
| | - Silke Grunau
- Faculty of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine and Biocenter Oulu, University of Oulu, P.O Box 3000, FI-90014 Oulu, Finland
| | - Vasily D Antonenkov
- Faculty of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine and Biocenter Oulu, University of Oulu, P.O Box 3000, FI-90014 Oulu, Finland.
| | - J Kalervo Hiltunen
- Faculty of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine and Biocenter Oulu, University of Oulu, P.O Box 3000, FI-90014 Oulu, Finland.
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36
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Ozaki N, Fukuchi Y, Tomiyoshi SR, Uehara H, Ida S, Wang J, Araki K, Sibilia M, Baba H, Yamamura KI, Ohmuraya M. Autophagy regulation in pancreatic acinar cells is independent of epidermal growth factor receptor signaling. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2014; 446:224-30. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2014.02.111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2014] [Accepted: 02/21/2014] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
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37
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Macias H, Hinck L. Mammary gland development. WILEY INTERDISCIPLINARY REVIEWS-DEVELOPMENTAL BIOLOGY 2014; 1:533-57. [PMID: 22844349 DOI: 10.1002/wdev.35] [Citation(s) in RCA: 484] [Impact Index Per Article: 48.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The mammary gland develops through several distinct stages. The first transpires in the embryo as the ectoderm forms a mammary line that resolves into placodes. Regulated by epithelial–mesenchymal interactions, the placodes descend into the underlying mesenchyme and produce the rudimentary ductal structure of the gland present at birth. Subsequent stages of development—pubertal growth, pregnancy, lactation, and involution—occur postnatally under the regulation of hormones. Puberty initiates branching morphogenesis, which requires growth hormone (GH) and estrogen, as well as insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF1), to create a ductal tree that fills the fat pad. Upon pregnancy, the combined actions of progesterone and prolactin generate alveoli, which secrete milk during lactation. Lack of demand for milk at weaning initiates the process of involution whereby the gland is remodeled back to its prepregnancy state. These processes require numerous signaling pathways that have distinct regulatory functions at different stages of gland development. Signaling pathways also regulate a specialized subpopulation of mammary stem cells that fuel the dramatic changes in the gland occurring with each pregnancy. Our knowledge of mammary gland development and mammary stem cell biology has significantly contributed to our understanding of breast cancer and has advanced the discovery of therapies to treat this disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hector Macias
- Department of Molecular, Cell and Developmental Biology, University of California, Santa Cruz, CA, USA
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38
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Menezes ME, Das SK, Emdad L, Windle JJ, Wang XY, Sarkar D, Fisher PB. Genetically engineered mice as experimental tools to dissect the critical events in breast cancer. Adv Cancer Res 2014; 121:331-382. [PMID: 24889535 PMCID: PMC4349377 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-800249-0.00008-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Elucidating the mechanism of pathogenesis of breast cancer has greatly benefited from breakthrough advances in both genetically engineered mouse (GEM) models and xenograft transplantation technologies. The vast array of breast cancer mouse models currently available is testimony to the complexity of mammary tumorigenesis and attempts by investigators to accurately portray the heterogeneity and intricacies of this disease. Distinct molecular changes that drive various aspects of tumorigenesis, such as alterations in tumor cell proliferation and apoptosis, invasion and metastasis, angiogenesis, and drug resistance have been evaluated using the currently available GEM breast cancer models. GEM breast cancer models are also being exploited to evaluate and validate the efficacy of novel therapeutics, vaccines, and imaging modalities for potential use in the clinic. This review provides a synopsis of the various GEM models that are expanding our knowledge of the nuances of breast cancer development and progression and can be instrumental in the development of novel prevention and therapeutic approaches for this disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mitchell E Menezes
- Department of Human and Molecular Genetics, Virginia Commonwealth University, School of Medicine, Richmond, Virginia, USA
| | - Swadesh K Das
- Department of Human and Molecular Genetics, Virginia Commonwealth University, School of Medicine, Richmond, Virginia, USA; VCU Institute of Molecular Medicine, Virginia Commonwealth University, School of Medicine, Richmond, Virginia, USA
| | - Luni Emdad
- Department of Human and Molecular Genetics, Virginia Commonwealth University, School of Medicine, Richmond, Virginia, USA; VCU Institute of Molecular Medicine, Virginia Commonwealth University, School of Medicine, Richmond, Virginia, USA; VCU Massey Cancer Center, Virginia Commonwealth University, School of Medicine, Richmond, Virginia, USA
| | - Jolene J Windle
- Department of Human and Molecular Genetics, Virginia Commonwealth University, School of Medicine, Richmond, Virginia, USA; VCU Institute of Molecular Medicine, Virginia Commonwealth University, School of Medicine, Richmond, Virginia, USA; VCU Massey Cancer Center, Virginia Commonwealth University, School of Medicine, Richmond, Virginia, USA
| | - Xiang-Yang Wang
- Department of Human and Molecular Genetics, Virginia Commonwealth University, School of Medicine, Richmond, Virginia, USA; VCU Institute of Molecular Medicine, Virginia Commonwealth University, School of Medicine, Richmond, Virginia, USA; VCU Massey Cancer Center, Virginia Commonwealth University, School of Medicine, Richmond, Virginia, USA
| | - Devanand Sarkar
- Department of Human and Molecular Genetics, Virginia Commonwealth University, School of Medicine, Richmond, Virginia, USA; VCU Institute of Molecular Medicine, Virginia Commonwealth University, School of Medicine, Richmond, Virginia, USA; VCU Massey Cancer Center, Virginia Commonwealth University, School of Medicine, Richmond, Virginia, USA
| | - Paul B Fisher
- Department of Human and Molecular Genetics, Virginia Commonwealth University, School of Medicine, Richmond, Virginia, USA; VCU Institute of Molecular Medicine, Virginia Commonwealth University, School of Medicine, Richmond, Virginia, USA; VCU Massey Cancer Center, Virginia Commonwealth University, School of Medicine, Richmond, Virginia, USA.
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Rauner G, Leviav A, Mavor E, Barash I. Development of Foreign Mammary Epithelial Morphology in the Stroma of Immunodeficient Mice. PLoS One 2013; 8:e68637. [PMID: 23825700 PMCID: PMC3688997 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0068637] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2013] [Accepted: 06/03/2013] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Systemic growth and branching stimuli, and appropriate interactions with the host stroma are essential for the development of foreign epithelia in the mammary gland of immunodeficient mice. These factors were manipulated to promote and investigate the generation of representative bovine epithelial morphology in the transplanted mouse mammary stroma. The bovine mammary epithelium is unique in its commitment to rapid proliferation and high rate of differentiation. Its morphological organization within a fibrotic stroma resembles that of the human breast, and differs significantly from the rudimentary ductal network that penetrates a fatty stroma in mice. Transplantation of bovine mammary epithelial cells into the cleared mammary fat pad of NOD-SCID mice led to continuous growth of epithelial structures. Multilayered hollow spheres developed within fibrotic areas, but in contrast to mice, no epithelial organization was formed between adipocytes. The multilayered spheres shared characteristics with the heifer gland’s epithelium, including lumen size, cell proliferation, cytokeratin orientation, estrogen/progesterone receptor expression and localization, and milk protein synthesis. However, they did not extend into the mouse fat pad via ductal morphology. Pre-transplantation of fibroblasts increased the number of spheres, but did not promote extension of bovine morphology. The bovine cells preserved their fate and rarely participated in chimeric mouse–bovine outgrowths. Nevertheless, a single case of terminal ductal lobuloalveolar unit (TDLU) development was recorded in mice treated with estrogen and progesterone, implying the feasibility of this representative bovine morphology’s development. In vitro extension of these studies revealed paracrine inhibition of bovine epithelial mammosphere development by adipocytes, which was also generalized to breast epithelial mammosphere formation. The rescue of mammosphere development by fibroblast growth factor administration evidences an active equilibrium between inhibitory and supportive effects exerted by the adipose and fibrotic regions of the stroma, respectively, which determines the development of foreign epithelium.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gat Rauner
- Institute of Animal Science, ARO, The Volcani Center, Bet-Dagan, Israel
- The Robert H. Smith Faculty of Agriculture, Food and Environment, the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Amos Leviav
- Department of Plastic Surgery, Kaplan Medical Center, Rehovot, Israel
| | - Eliezer Mavor
- Department of Surgery, Kaplan Medical Center, Rehovot, Israel
| | - Itamar Barash
- Institute of Animal Science, ARO, The Volcani Center, Bet-Dagan, Israel
- * E-mail:
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40
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Cunha GR. Tissue recombination techniques for mouse embryonic mammary glands. J Mammary Gland Biol Neoplasia 2013; 18:221-5. [PMID: 23686553 DOI: 10.1007/s10911-013-9295-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/26/2012] [Accepted: 04/09/2013] [Indexed: 10/26/2022] Open
Abstract
This review gives detailed technical protocols for dissection of embryonic mammary rudiments and preparation of tissue recombinants composed of embryonic mouse mammary mesenchyme and epithelium. This experimental protocol was used in several seminal experiments that have greatly increased our understanding of embryonic mammary gland development, including the finding that mammary mesenchyme induces and specifies mammary epithelial identity. Analysis of mesenchymal-epithelial interactions has facilitated identification of molecular mediators of cell-cell interactions, in particular the tissue-specific roles of genes expressed in mesenchyme and epithelium during embryonic development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gerald R Cunha
- Department of Urology, University of California, Box 0738, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA.
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41
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Aupperlee MD, Leipprandt JR, Bennett JM, Schwartz RC, Haslam SZ. Amphiregulin mediates progesterone-induced mammary ductal development during puberty. Breast Cancer Res 2013; 15:R44. [PMID: 23705924 PMCID: PMC3738150 DOI: 10.1186/bcr3431] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2012] [Accepted: 05/25/2013] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction Puberty is a period of increased susceptibility to factors that cause increased
breast cancer risk in adulthood. Mammary end buds (EBs) that develop during
puberty are believed to be the targets of breast cancer initiation. Whereas the
role of estrogen (E) has been extensively studied in pubertal mammary gland
development, the role of progesterone (P) during puberty is less defined. Methods Pubertal and prepubertal ovariectomized mice were treated with vehicle control
(C), E, P, or E+P. Mammary glands from these mice were analyzed for changes in
morphology, proliferation, and expression of the downstream targets amphiregulin
(AREG) and receptor activator of NF-κB ligand (RANKL). Results P, acting specifically through the progesterone receptor, induced increases in
mammary gland proliferation and EB formation that were associated with increased
AREG expression in ducts and EBs. E, acting specifically through the estrogen
receptor, produced similar responses also mediated by AREG. Blocking AREG action
by treatment with an EGFR inhibitor completely abrogated the effect of P on EB
formation and proliferation and significantly reduced proliferation within ducts.
P also increased expression of RANKL, primarily in ducts. Treatment with RANK-Fc,
an inhibitor of RANKL, reduced P-dependent proliferation in ducts and to a lesser
extent in EB, but did not cause EB regression. Conclusions These results demonstrate a novel P-specific effect through AREG to cause EB
formation and proliferation in the developing mammary gland both before and during
puberty. Thus, hormones and/or factors in addition to E that upregulate AREG can
promote mammary gland development and have the potential to affect breast cancer
risk associated with pubertal mammary gland development.
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42
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Basham KJ, Kieffer C, Shelton DN, Leonard CJ, Bhonde VR, Vankayalapati H, Milash B, Bearss DJ, Looper RE, Welm BE. Chemical genetic screen reveals a role for desmosomal adhesion in mammary branching morphogenesis. J Biol Chem 2012; 288:2261-70. [PMID: 23212921 PMCID: PMC3554898 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m112.411033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
During the process of branching morphogenesis, the mammary gland undergoes distinct phases of remodeling to form an elaborate ductal network that ultimately produces and delivers milk to newborn animals. These developmental events rely on tight regulation of critical cellular pathways, many of which are probably disrupted during initiation and progression of breast cancer. Transgenic mouse and in vitro organoid models previously identified growth factor signaling as a key regulator of mammary branching, but the functional downstream targets of these pathways remain unclear. Here, we used purified primary mammary epithelial cells stimulated with fibroblast growth factor-2 (FGF2) to model mammary branching morphogenesis in vitro. We employed a forward chemical genetic approach to identify modulators of this process and describe a potent compound, 1023, that blocks FGF2-induced branching. In primary mammary epithelial cells, we used lentivirus-mediated knockdown of the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AHR) to demonstrate that 1023 acts through AHR to block branching. Using 1023 as a tool, we identified desmosomal adhesion as a novel target of AHR signaling and show that desmosomes are critical for AHR agonists to block branching. Our findings support a functional role for desmosomes during mammary morphogenesis and also in blocking FGF-induced invasion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kaitlin J Basham
- Department of Oncological Sciences, Huntsman Cancer Institute, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah 84112, USA
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Yang TL, Lin L, Hsiao YC, Lee HW, Young TH. Chitosan Biomaterials Induce Branching Morphogenesis in a Model of Tissue-Engineered Glandular Organs in Serum-Free Conditions. Tissue Eng Part A 2012; 18:2220-30. [DOI: 10.1089/ten.tea.2011.0527] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Tsung-Lin Yang
- Department of Otolaryngology, National Taiwan University Hospital and College of Medicine, Taipei, Taiwan
- Research Center for Developmental Biology and Regenerative Medicine, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Lin Lin
- Institute of Biomedical Engineering, College of Medicine and College of Engineering, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Ya-Chuan Hsiao
- Department of Ophthalmology, Zhongxing Branch, Taipei City Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan
- Department of Ophthalmology, College of Medicine, National Yang-Ming University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Hao-Wei Lee
- Institute of Biomedical Engineering, College of Medicine and College of Engineering, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Tai-Horng Young
- Institute of Biomedical Engineering, College of Medicine and College of Engineering, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan
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Tanos T, Rojo L, Echeverria P, Brisken C. ER and PR signaling nodes during mammary gland development. Breast Cancer Res 2012; 14:210. [PMID: 22809143 PMCID: PMC3680919 DOI: 10.1186/bcr3166] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
The ovarian hormones estrogen and progesterone orchestrate postnatal mammary gland development and are implicated in breast cancer. Most of our understanding of the molecular mechanisms of estrogen receptor (ER) and progesterone receptor (PR) signaling stems from in vitro studies with hormone receptor-positive cell lines. They have shown that ER and PR regulate gene transcription either by binding to DNA response elements directly or via other transcription factors and recruiting co-regulators. In addition they cross-talk with other signaling pathways through nongenomic mechanisms. Mouse genetics combined with tissue recombination techniques have provided insights about the action of these two hormones in vivo. It has emerged that hormones act on a subset of mammary epithelial cells and relegate biological functions to paracrine factors. With regards to hormonal signaling in breast carcinomas, global gene expression analyses have led to the identification of gene expression signatures that are characteristic of ERα-positive tumors that have stipulated functional studies of hitherto poorly understood transcription factors. Here, we highlight what has been learned about ER and PR signaling nodes in these different systems and attempt to lay out in which way the insights may converge.
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Mitrani E, Pearlman A, Stern B, Miari R, Goltsman H, Kunicher N, Panet A. Biopump: Autologous skin-derived micro-organ genetically engineered to provide sustained continuous secretion of therapeutic proteins. Dermatol Ther 2012; 24:489-97. [PMID: 22353155 DOI: 10.1111/j.1529-8019.2012.01457.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
A novel approach for sustained production of therapeutic proteins is described, using genetic modification of intact autologous micro-organ tissue explants from the subject's own skin. The skin-derived micro-organ can be maintained viable ex vivo for extended periods and is transduced with a transgene encoding a desired therapeutic protein, resulting in protein-secreting micro-organ (biopump (BP)). The daily protein production from each BP is quantified, enabling drug dosing by subcutaneous implantation of the requisite number of BPs into the patient to provide continuous production to the circulation of a known amount of the therapeutic protein. Each implanted BP remains localized and is accessible, to enable removal or ablation if needed. Examples from preclinical and clinical studies are presented, including use of associated virus vector 1 and helper-dependent adenoviral vectors producing BPs to provide long-term sustained secretion of recombinant interferon-α and erythropoietin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eduardo Mitrani
- Department of Cell Biology, the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Israel
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46
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Joshi PA, Di Grappa MA, Khokha R. Active allies: hormones, stem cells and the niche in adult mammopoiesis. Trends Endocrinol Metab 2012; 23:299-309. [PMID: 22613704 DOI: 10.1016/j.tem.2012.04.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2012] [Revised: 04/09/2012] [Accepted: 04/10/2012] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
Adult stem cells are recruited in response to specific physiological demands to regenerate, repair or maintain essential cellular components of tissues, while preserving self-renewal capacity. Signals that activate adult stem cells are not simply cell autonomous and stem cells are part of a larger dynamic framework, the stem cell 'niche', which integrates systemic and local cues to sustain stem cell functionality. The mammary stem cell niche responds readily to hormonal stimuli, generating pertinent signals that activate stem cells, culminating in stem cell expansion and tissue growth. We review here current knowledge of the mammary stem cell niche with attention to the potent stimulation rendered by ovarian hormones, relevant cellular and molecular players, and the implication of a deregulated niche, for breast cancer risk.
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Affiliation(s)
- Purna A Joshi
- Ontario Cancer Insitute, 610 University Avenue, Toronto, ON M5G 2M9, Canada
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Met signaling regulates growth, repopulating potential and basal cell-fate commitment of mammary luminal progenitors: implications for basal-like breast cancer. Oncogene 2012; 32:1428-40. [PMID: 22562252 DOI: 10.1038/onc.2012.154] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Basal-like breast cancer is an aggressive subtype of mammary carcinoma. Despite expressing basal markers, typical of mammary stem cells, this tumor has been proposed to originate from luminal progenitors, which are downstream of stem cells along the mammary epithelial hierarchy. This suggests that committed luminal progenitors may reacquire basal, stem-like characteristics, but the mechanisms that regulate this transition remain unclear. Using mouse models, we found that luminal progenitors express high levels of the Met receptor for hepatocyte growth factor (HGF), as compared with the other mammary epithelial sub-populations. Constitutive activation of Met led luminal progenitors to attain stem cell properties, including enhanced clonogenic activity in vitro and de novo ability to reconstitute mammary glands in repopulation assays in vivo. Moreover, in response to Met signaling, luminal progenitors gave rise to hyperplastic ductal morphogenesis and preferentially underwent basal lineage commitment at the expense of luminal cell-fate specification. Opposite and symmetric results were produced by systemic pharmacological inhibition of Met. Hence, Met signaling targets luminal progenitors for expansion, impairs their differentiation toward the mature luminal phenotype and enables their commitment toward the basal lineage. These results emphasize a critical role for Met in promoting deregulated proliferation and basal plasticity of normal luminal progenitors in the mammary gland, a complex of events that may be required for sustaining the functional and phenotypic properties of basal-like breast tumors.
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Abstract
The ramified architectures of organs such as the mammary gland and lung are generated via branching morphogenesis, a developmental process through which individual cells bud and pinch off of pre-existing epithelial sheets. Although specified by signaling programs, organ development requires integration of all aspects of the microenvironment. We describe the essential role of endogenous cellular contractility in the formation of branching tubes. We also highlight the role of exogenous forces in normal and aberrant branching.
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Affiliation(s)
- Celeste M Nelson
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey 08544, USA.
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49
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Smith BA, Welm AL, Welm BE. On the shoulders of giants: a historical perspective of unique experimental methods in mammary gland research. Semin Cell Dev Biol 2012; 23:583-90. [PMID: 22425744 DOI: 10.1016/j.semcdb.2012.03.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2011] [Revised: 03/02/2012] [Accepted: 03/02/2012] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
While most organs undergo development in utero, the mouse mammary gland orchestrates five major developmental stages following birth: pre-puberty, puberty, pregnancy, lactation, and involution. Induced by both local and systemic factors, these five developmental stages transpire with dramatic alterations in glandular morphology and cellular function. As an experimental system, the mammary gland provides remarkable accessibility to processes regulating stem cell function, hormone response, and epithelial-stromal-extracellular matrix interactions. This review will provide a historical perspective of the unique in vitro and in vivo techniques used to study the mammary gland and how these methods have provided valuable insight into the biology of this organ.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brittni A Smith
- Department of Oncological Sciences, Huntsman Cancer Institute, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT 84112 USA
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50
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Ching S, Kashinkunti S, Niehaus MD, Zinser GM. Mammary adipocytes bioactivate 25-hydroxyvitamin D₃ and signal via vitamin D₃ receptor, modulating mammary epithelial cell growth. J Cell Biochem 2012; 112:3393-405. [PMID: 21769914 DOI: 10.1002/jcb.23273] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
The vitamin D(3) receptor (VDR) is present in all microenvironments of the breast, yet it is hypothesized to signal through the epithelium to regulate hormone induced growth and differentiation. However, the influence or contribution of the other microenvironments within the breast that express VDR, like the breast adipose tissue, are yet to be investigated. We hypothesized that the breast adipocytes express the signaling components necessary to participate in vitamin D(3) synthesis and signaling via VDR, modulating ductal epithelial cell growth and differentiation. We utilized human primary breast adipocytes and VDR wild type (WT) and knockout (KO) mice to address whether breast adipocytes participate in vitamin D(3) -induced growth regulation of the ductal epithelium. We report in this study that breast primary adipocytes express VDR, CYP27B1 (1α-hydroxylase, 1α-OHase), the enzyme that generates the biologically active VDR ligand, 1α,25-dihydroxyvitamin D(3) (1,25D(3) ), and CYP24 (24-hydroxylase, 24-OHase), a VDR-1,25D(3) induced target gene. Furthermore, the breast adipocytes participate in bioactivating 25-hydroxyvitamin D(3) (25D(3) ) to the active ligand, 1,25D(3) , and secreting it to the surrounding microenvironment. In support of this concept, we report that purified mammary ductal epithelial fragments (organoids) from VDR KO mice, co-cultured with WT breast adipocytes, were growth inhibited upon treatment with 25D(3) or 1,25D(3) compared to vehicle alone. Collectively, these results demonstrate that breast adipocytes bioactivate 25D(3) to 1,25D(3) , signal via VDR within the adipocytes, and release an inhibitory factor that regulates ductal epithelial cell growth, suggesting that breast adipose tissue contributes to vitamin D(3) -induced growth regulation of ductal epithelium.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen Ching
- Department of Environmental Health, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio 45267, USA
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