1
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Cho CJ, Brown JW, Mills JC. Origins of cancer: ain't it just mature cells misbehaving? EMBO J 2024; 43:2530-2551. [PMID: 38773319 DOI: 10.1038/s44318-024-00099-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2023] [Revised: 03/15/2024] [Accepted: 03/22/2024] [Indexed: 05/23/2024] Open
Abstract
A pervasive view is that undifferentiated stem cells are alone responsible for generating all other cells and are the origins of cancer. However, emerging evidence demonstrates fully differentiated cells are plastic, can be coaxed to proliferate, and also play essential roles in tissue maintenance, regeneration, and tumorigenesis. Here, we review the mechanisms governing how differentiated cells become cancer cells. First, we examine the unique characteristics of differentiated cell division, focusing on why differentiated cells are more susceptible than stem cells to accumulating mutations. Next, we investigate why the evolution of multicellularity in animals likely required plastic differentiated cells that maintain the capacity to return to the cell cycle and required the tumor suppressor p53. Finally, we examine an example of an evolutionarily conserved program for the plasticity of differentiated cells, paligenosis, which helps explain the origins of cancers that arise in adults. Altogether, we highlight new perspectives for understanding the development of cancer and new strategies for preventing carcinogenic cellular transformations from occurring.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charles J Cho
- Section of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Department of Medicine, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Jeffrey W Brown
- Division of Gastroenterology, Department of Medicine, Washington University in St. Louis, School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Jason C Mills
- Section of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Department of Medicine, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA.
- Department of Pathology & Immunology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA.
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA.
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2
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Takeuchi F, Kato N. Ploidy inference from single-cell data: application to human and mouse cell atlases. Genetics 2024; 227:iyae061. [PMID: 38651869 PMCID: PMC11151930 DOI: 10.1093/genetics/iyae061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2024] [Revised: 03/18/2024] [Accepted: 04/09/2024] [Indexed: 04/25/2024] Open
Abstract
Ploidy is relevant to numerous biological phenomena, including development, metabolism, and tissue regeneration. Single-cell RNA-seq and other omics studies are revolutionizing our understanding of biology, yet they have largely overlooked ploidy. This is likely due to the additional assay step required for ploidy measurement. Here, we developed a statistical method to infer ploidy from single-cell ATAC-seq data, addressing this gap. When applied to data from human and mouse cell atlases, our method enabled systematic detection of polyploidy across diverse cell types. This method allows for the integration of ploidy analysis into single-cell studies. Additionally, this method can be adapted to detect the proliferating stage in the cell cycle and copy number variations in cancer cells. The software is implemented as the scPloidy package of the R software and is freely available from CRAN.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fumihiko Takeuchi
- Baker Department of Cardiometabolic Health, Melbourne Medical School, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC 3010, Australia
- Systems Genomics Laboratory, Baker Heart and Diabetes Institute, Melbourne, VIC 3004, Australia
- Department of Gene Diagnostics and Therapeutics, Research Institute, National Center for Global Health and Medicine, Tokyo 162-8655, Japan
| | - Norihiro Kato
- Department of Gene Diagnostics and Therapeutics, Research Institute, National Center for Global Health and Medicine, Tokyo 162-8655, Japan
- Department of Clinical Genome Informatics, Graduate School of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan
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3
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Zhao Y, He S, Zhao M, Huang Q. Surviving the Storm: The Role of Poly- and Depolyploidization in Tissues and Tumors. ADVANCED SCIENCE (WEINHEIM, BADEN-WURTTEMBERG, GERMANY) 2024; 11:e2306318. [PMID: 38629780 PMCID: PMC11199982 DOI: 10.1002/advs.202306318] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2023] [Revised: 03/18/2024] [Indexed: 06/27/2024]
Abstract
Polyploidization and depolyploidization are critical processes in the normal development and tissue homeostasis of diploid organisms. Recent investigations have revealed that polyaneuploid cancer cells (PACCs) exploit this ploidy variation as a survival strategy against anticancer treatment and for the repopulation of tumors. Unscheduled polyploidization and chromosomal instability in PACCs enhance malignancy and treatment resistance. However, their inability to undergo mitosis causes catastrophic cellular death in most PACCs. Adaptive ploid reversal mechanisms, such as multipolar mitosis, centrosome clustering, meiosis-like division, and amitosis, counteract this lethal outcome and drive cancer relapse. The purpose of this work is to focus on PACCs induced by cytotoxic therapy, highlighting the latest discoveries in ploidy dynamics in physiological and pathological contexts. Specifically, by emphasizing the role of "poly-depolyploidization" in tumor progression, the aim is to identify novel therapeutic targets or paradigms for combating diseases associated with aberrant ploidies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yucui Zhao
- Cancer CenterShanghai General HospitalShanghai Jiao Tong University School of MedicineShanghai201620China
- Department of Radiation OncologySecond Affiliated HospitalZhejiang University School of MedicineHangzhou310009China
| | - Sijia He
- Cancer CenterShanghai General HospitalShanghai Jiao Tong University School of MedicineShanghai201620China
| | - Minghui Zhao
- Cancer CenterShanghai General HospitalShanghai Jiao Tong University School of MedicineShanghai201620China
- Department of Radiation OncologyFirst Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing Medical UniversityNanjing210029China
| | - Qian Huang
- Cancer CenterShanghai General HospitalShanghai Jiao Tong University School of MedicineShanghai201620China
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Pancreatic DiseasesShanghai General HospitalShanghai Jiao Tong University School of MedicineShanghai201620China
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4
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Conway PJ, Dao J, Kovalskyy D, Mahadevan D, Dray E. Polyploidy in Cancer: Causal Mechanisms, Cancer-Specific Consequences, and Emerging Treatments. Mol Cancer Ther 2024; 23:638-647. [PMID: 38315992 PMCID: PMC11174144 DOI: 10.1158/1535-7163.mct-23-0578] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2023] [Revised: 11/19/2023] [Accepted: 01/30/2024] [Indexed: 02/07/2024]
Abstract
Drug resistance is the major determinant for metastatic disease and fatalities, across all cancers. Depending on the tissue of origin and the therapeutic course, a variety of biological mechanisms can support and sustain drug resistance. Although genetic mutations and gene silencing through epigenetic mechanisms are major culprits in targeted therapy, drug efflux and polyploidization are more global mechanisms that prevail in a broad range of pathologies, in response to a variety of treatments. There is an unmet need to identify patients at risk for polyploidy, understand the mechanisms underlying polyploidization, and to develop strategies to predict, limit, and reverse polyploidy thus enhancing efficacy of standard-of-care therapy that improve better outcomes. This literature review provides an overview of polyploidy in cancer and offers perspective on patient monitoring and actionable therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrick J Conway
- Mays Cancer Center, University of Texas Health San Antonio, San Antonio, Texas
- Department of Molecular Immunology & Microbiology, University of Texas Health San Antonio, San Antonio, Texas
| | - Jonathan Dao
- Mays Cancer Center, University of Texas Health San Antonio, San Antonio, Texas
- Long School of Medicine, University of Texas Health San Antonio, San Antonio, Texas
| | - Dmytro Kovalskyy
- Greehey Children's Cancer Research Institute, University of Texas Health San Antonio, San Antonio, Texas
| | - Daruka Mahadevan
- Mays Cancer Center, University of Texas Health San Antonio, San Antonio, Texas
- Department of Molecular Immunology & Microbiology, University of Texas Health San Antonio, San Antonio, Texas
- Department of Biochemistry and Structural Biology, University of Texas Health San Antonio, San Antonio, Texas
| | - Eloise Dray
- Long School of Medicine, University of Texas Health San Antonio, San Antonio, Texas
- Department of Biochemistry and Structural Biology, University of Texas Health San Antonio, San Antonio, Texas
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5
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Molinuevo R, Menendez J, Cadle K, Ariqat N, Choy MK, Lagousis C, Thomas G, Strietzel C, Bubolz JW, Hinck L. Physiological DNA damage promotes functional endoreplication of mammary gland alveolar cells during lactation. Nat Commun 2024; 15:3288. [PMID: 38627401 PMCID: PMC11021458 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-024-47668-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2022] [Accepted: 04/08/2024] [Indexed: 04/19/2024] Open
Abstract
Lactation insufficiency affects many women worldwide. During lactation, a large portion of mammary gland alveolar cells become polyploid, but how these cells balance the hyperproliferation occurring during normal alveologenesis with terminal differentiation required for lactation is unknown. Here, we show that DNA damage accumulates due to replication stress during pregnancy, activating the DNA damage response. Modulation of DNA damage levels in vivo by intraductal injections of nucleosides or DNA damaging agents reveals that the degree of DNA damage accumulated during pregnancy governs endoreplication and milk production. We identify a mechanism involving early mitotic arrest through CDK1 inactivation, resulting in a heterogeneous alveolar population with regards to ploidy and nuclei number. The inactivation of CDK1 is mediated by the DNA damage response kinase WEE1 with homozygous loss of Wee1 resulting in decreased endoreplication, alveologenesis and milk production. Thus, we propose that the DNA damage response to replication stress couples proliferation and endoreplication during mammary gland alveologenesis. Our study sheds light on mechanisms governing lactogenesis and identifies non-hormonal means for increasing milk production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rut Molinuevo
- Department of Molecular, Cell and Developmental Biology, University of California, Santa Cruz, CA, 95064, USA
- Institute for the Biology of Stem Cells, University of California, Santa Cruz, CA, 95064, USA
| | - Julien Menendez
- Department of Molecular, Cell and Developmental Biology, University of California, Santa Cruz, CA, 95064, USA
- Institute for the Biology of Stem Cells, University of California, Santa Cruz, CA, 95064, USA
| | - Kora Cadle
- Department of Molecular, Cell and Developmental Biology, University of California, Santa Cruz, CA, 95064, USA
| | - Nabeela Ariqat
- Department of Molecular, Cell and Developmental Biology, University of California, Santa Cruz, CA, 95064, USA
| | - Marie Klaire Choy
- Department of Molecular, Cell and Developmental Biology, University of California, Santa Cruz, CA, 95064, USA
| | - Cayla Lagousis
- Department of Molecular, Cell and Developmental Biology, University of California, Santa Cruz, CA, 95064, USA
| | - Gwen Thomas
- Department of Molecular, Cell and Developmental Biology, University of California, Santa Cruz, CA, 95064, USA
| | | | - J W Bubolz
- Zoetis Inc., 333 Portage Street, Building 300, Kalamazoo, MI, 49007, USA
| | - Lindsay Hinck
- Department of Molecular, Cell and Developmental Biology, University of California, Santa Cruz, CA, 95064, USA.
- Institute for the Biology of Stem Cells, University of California, Santa Cruz, CA, 95064, USA.
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6
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Herriage HC, Calvi BR. Premature endocycling of Drosophila follicle cells causes pleiotropic defects in oogenesis. Genetics 2024; 226:iyae009. [PMID: 38302115 PMCID: PMC10990429 DOI: 10.1093/genetics/iyae009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2023] [Revised: 10/18/2023] [Accepted: 01/20/2024] [Indexed: 02/03/2024] Open
Abstract
Endocycling cells grow and repeatedly duplicate their genome without dividing. Cells switch from mitotic cycles to endocycles in response to developmental signals during the growth of specific tissues in a wide range of organisms. The purpose of switching to endocycles, however, remains unclear in many tissues. Additionally, cells can switch to endocycles in response to conditional signals, which can have beneficial or pathological effects on tissues. However, the impact of these unscheduled endocycles on development is underexplored. Here, we use Drosophila ovarian somatic follicle cells as a model to examine the impact of unscheduled endocycles on tissue growth and function. Follicle cells normally switch to endocycles at mid-oogenesis. Inducing follicle cells to prematurely switch to endocycles resulted in the lethality of the resulting embryos. Analysis of ovaries with premature follicle cell endocycles revealed aberrant follicular epithelial structure and pleiotropic defects in oocyte growth, developmental gene amplification, and the migration of a special set of follicle cells known as border cells. Overall, these findings reveal how unscheduled endocycles can disrupt tissue growth and function to cause aberrant development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hunter C Herriage
- Department of Biology, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN 47405, USA
| | - Brian R Calvi
- Department of Biology, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN 47405, USA
- Melvin and Bren Simon Cancer Center, Indianapolis, IN 46202, USA
- Department of Medical and Molecular Genetics, Indiana University School of Medicine, Bloomington, IN 47405, USA
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7
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Herriage HC, Huang YT, Calvi BR. The antagonistic relationship between apoptosis and polyploidy in development and cancer. Semin Cell Dev Biol 2024; 156:35-43. [PMID: 37331841 PMCID: PMC10724375 DOI: 10.1016/j.semcdb.2023.05.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2023] [Revised: 05/23/2023] [Accepted: 05/30/2023] [Indexed: 06/20/2023]
Abstract
One of the important functions of regulated cell death is to prevent cells from inappropriately acquiring extra copies of their genome, a state known as polyploidy. Apoptosis is the primary cell death mechanism that prevents polyploidy, and defects in this apoptotic response can result in polyploid cells whose subsequent error-prone chromosome segregation are a major contributor to genome instability and cancer progression. Conversely, some cells actively repress apoptosis to become polyploid as part of normal development or regeneration. Thus, although apoptosis prevents polyploidy, the polyploid state can actively repress apoptosis. In this review, we discuss progress in understanding the antagonistic relationship between apoptosis and polyploidy in development and cancer. Despite recent advances, a key conclusion is that much remains unknown about the mechanisms that link apoptosis to polyploid cell cycles. We suggest that drawing parallels between the regulation of apoptosis in development and cancer could help to fill this knowledge gap and lead to more effective therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hunter C Herriage
- Department of Biology, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN 47405, USA
| | - Yi-Ting Huang
- Department of Biology, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN 47405, USA
| | - Brian R Calvi
- Department of Biology, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN 47405, USA.
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8
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Huang YT, Hesting LL, Calvi BR. An unscheduled switch to endocycles induces a reversible senescent arrest that impairs growth of the Drosophila wing disc. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2024.03.14.585098. [PMID: 38559130 PMCID: PMC10980049 DOI: 10.1101/2024.03.14.585098] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/04/2024]
Abstract
A programmed developmental switch to G / S endocycles results in tissue growth through an increase in cell size. Unscheduled, induced endocycling cells (iECs) promote wound healing but also contribute to cancer. Much remains unknown, however, about how these iECs affect tissue growth. Using the D. melanogasterwing disc as model, we find that populations of iECs initially increase in size but then subsequently undergo a heterogenous arrest that causes severe tissue undergrowth. iECs acquired DNA damage and activated a Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) pathway, but, unlike other stressed cells, were apoptosis-resistant and not eliminated from the epithelium. Instead, iECs entered a JNK-dependent and reversible senescent-like arrest. Senescent iECs promoted division of diploid neighbors, but this compensatory proliferation did not rescue tissue growth. Our study has uncovered unique attributes of iECs and their effects on tissue growth that have important implications for understanding their roles in wound healing and cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi-Ting Huang
- Department of Biology, Simon Cancer Center, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN 47405
| | - Lauren L. Hesting
- Department of Biology, Simon Cancer Center, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN 47405
| | - Brian R. Calvi
- Department of Biology, Simon Cancer Center, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN 47405
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9
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Li X, Zhang L, Wei X, Datta T, Wei F, Xie Z. Polyploidization: A Biological Force That Enhances Stress Resistance. Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25:1957. [PMID: 38396636 PMCID: PMC10888447 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25041957] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/24/2023] [Revised: 02/01/2024] [Accepted: 02/03/2024] [Indexed: 02/25/2024] Open
Abstract
Organisms with three or more complete sets of chromosomes are designated as polyploids. Polyploidy serves as a crucial pathway in biological evolution and enriches species diversity, which is demonstrated to have significant advantages in coping with both biotic stressors (such as diseases and pests) and abiotic stressors (like extreme temperatures, drought, and salinity), particularly in the context of ongoing global climate deterioration, increased agrochemical use, and industrialization. Polyploid cultivars have been developed to achieve higher yields and improved product quality. Numerous studies have shown that polyploids exhibit substantial enhancements in cell size and structure, physiological and biochemical traits, gene expression, and epigenetic modifications compared to their diploid counterparts. However, some research also suggested that increased stress tolerance might not always be associated with polyploidy. Therefore, a more comprehensive and detailed investigation is essential to complete the underlying stress tolerance mechanisms of polyploids. Thus, this review summarizes the mechanism of polyploid formation, the polyploid biochemical tolerance mechanism of abiotic and biotic stressors, and molecular regulatory networks that confer polyploidy stress tolerance, which can shed light on the theoretical foundation for future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoying Li
- Henan International Joint Laboratory of Crop Gene Resources and Improvements, School of Agricultural Sciences, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450001, China
- Institute of Horticulture, Henan Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Graduate T & R Base of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450002, China
| | - Luyue Zhang
- Henan International Joint Laboratory of Crop Gene Resources and Improvements, School of Agricultural Sciences, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450001, China
| | - Xiaochun Wei
- Institute of Horticulture, Henan Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Graduate T & R Base of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450002, China
| | - Tanusree Datta
- Henan International Joint Laboratory of Crop Gene Resources and Improvements, School of Agricultural Sciences, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450001, China
| | - Fang Wei
- Henan International Joint Laboratory of Crop Gene Resources and Improvements, School of Agricultural Sciences, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450001, China
| | - Zhengqing Xie
- Henan International Joint Laboratory of Crop Gene Resources and Improvements, School of Agricultural Sciences, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450001, China
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10
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Buddell T, Purdy AL, Patterson M. The genetics of cardiomyocyte polyploidy. Curr Top Dev Biol 2024; 156:245-295. [PMID: 38556425 DOI: 10.1016/bs.ctdb.2024.01.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/02/2024]
Abstract
The regulation of ploidy in cardiomyocytes is a complex and tightly regulated aspect of cardiac development and function. Cardiomyocyte ploidy can range from diploid (2N) to 8N or even 16N, and these states change during key stages of development and disease progression. Polyploidization has been associated with cellular hypertrophy to support normal growth of the heart, increased contractile capacity, and improved stress tolerance in the heart. Conversely, alterations to ploidy also occur during cardiac pathogenesis of diseases, such as ischemic and non-ischemic heart failure and arrhythmia. Therefore, understanding which genes control and modulate cardiomyocyte ploidy may provide mechanistic insight underlying cardiac growth, regeneration, and disease. This chapter summarizes the current knowledge regarding the genes involved in the regulation of cardiomyocyte ploidy. We discuss genes that have been directly tested for their role in cardiomyocyte polyploidization, as well as methodologies used to identify ploidy alterations. These genes encode cell cycle regulators, transcription factors, metabolic proteins, nuclear scaffolding, and components of the sarcomere, among others. The general physiological and pathological phenotypes in the heart associated with the genetic manipulations described, and how they coincide with the respective cardiomyocyte ploidy alterations, are further discussed in this chapter. In addition to being candidates for genetic-based therapies for various cardiac maladies, these genes and their functions provide insightful evidence regarding the purpose of widespread polyploidization in cardiomyocytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tyler Buddell
- Cardiovascular Center, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI, United States; Department of Cell Biology, Neurobiology, and Anatomy, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI, United States
| | - Alexandra L Purdy
- Department of Cell Biology, Neurobiology, and Anatomy, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI, United States
| | - Michaela Patterson
- Cardiovascular Center, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI, United States; Department of Cell Biology, Neurobiology, and Anatomy, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI, United States.
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11
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Herriage HC, Calvi BR. Premature endocycling of Drosophila follicle cells causes pleiotropic defects in oogenesis. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2023.10.10.561736. [PMID: 37873193 PMCID: PMC10592765 DOI: 10.1101/2023.10.10.561736] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2023]
Abstract
Endocycling cells grow and repeatedly duplicate their genome without dividing. Cells switch from mitotic cycles to endocycles in response to developmental signals during the growth of specific tissues in a wide range of organisms. The purpose of switching to endocycles, however, remains unclear in many tissues. Additionally, cells can switch to endocycles in response to conditional signals, which can have beneficial or pathological effects on tissues. However, the impact of these unscheduled endocycles on development is underexplored. Here, we use Drosophila ovarian somatic follicle cells as a model to examine the impact of unscheduled endocycles on tissue growth and function. Follicle cells normally switch to endocycles at mid-oogenesis. Inducing follicle cells to prematurely switch to endocycles resulted in lethality of the resulting embryos. Analysis of ovaries with premature follicle cell endocycles revealed aberrant follicular epithelial structure and pleiotropic defects in oocyte growth, developmental gene amplification, and the migration of a special set of follicle cells known as border cells. Overall, these findings reveal how unscheduled endocycles can disrupt tissue growth and function to cause aberrant development.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Brian R. Calvi
- Department of Biology, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN 47405
- Melvin and Bren Simon Cancer Center, Indianapolis, IN
- Indiana University School of Medicine, Bloomington, IN
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12
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Misare KR, Ampolini EA, Gonzalez HC, Sullivan KA, Li X, Miller C, Sosseh B, Dunne JB, Voelkel-Johnson C, Gordon KL, Hartman JH. The consequences of tetraploidy on Caenorhabditis elegans physiology and sensitivity to chemotherapeutics. Sci Rep 2023; 13:18125. [PMID: 37872247 PMCID: PMC10593782 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-45225-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2023] [Accepted: 10/17/2023] [Indexed: 10/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Polyploid cells contain more than two copies of each chromosome. Polyploidy has important roles in development, evolution, and tissue regeneration/repair, and can arise as a programmed polyploidization event or be triggered by stress. Cancer cells are often polyploid. C. elegans nematodes are typically diploid, but stressors such as heat shock and starvation can trigger the production of tetraploid offspring. In this study, we utilized a recently published protocol to generate stable tetraploid strains of C. elegans and compared their physiological traits and sensitivity to two DNA-damaging chemotherapeutic drugs, cisplatin and doxorubicin. As prior studies have shown, tetraploid worms are approximately 30% longer, shorter-lived, and have a smaller brood size than diploids. We investigated the reproductive defect further, determining that tetraploid worms have a shorter overall germline length, a higher rate of germ cell apoptosis, more aneuploidy in oocytes and offspring, and larger oocytes and embryos. We also found that tetraploid worms are modestly protected from growth delay from the chemotherapeutics but are similarly or more sensitive to reproductive toxicity. Transcriptomic analysis revealed differentially expressed pathways that may contribute to sensitivity to stress. This study reveals phenotypic consequences of whole-animal tetraploidy that make C. elegans an excellent model for ploidy differences.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kelly R Misare
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, College of Medicine, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC, 29425, USA
| | - Elizabeth A Ampolini
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, College of Medicine, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC, 29425, USA
| | - Hyland C Gonzalez
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, College of Medicine, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC, 29425, USA
| | - Kaitlan A Sullivan
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, College of Medicine, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC, 29425, USA
| | - Xin Li
- Department of Biology, College of Arts and Sciences, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, 27599, USA
| | - Camille Miller
- Department of Biology, College of Arts and Sciences, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, 27599, USA
| | - Bintou Sosseh
- Department of Biology, College of Arts and Sciences, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, 27599, USA
| | - Jaclyn B Dunne
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, College of Medicine, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC, 29425, USA
| | - Christina Voelkel-Johnson
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Medicine, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC, 29425, USA
| | - Kacy L Gordon
- Department of Biology, College of Arts and Sciences, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, 27599, USA
| | - Jessica H Hartman
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, College of Medicine, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC, 29425, USA.
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13
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Purdy AL, Swift SK, Sucov HM, Patterson M. Tnni3k influences cardiomyocyte S-phase activity and proliferation. J Mol Cell Cardiol 2023; 183:22-26. [PMID: 37597489 DOI: 10.1016/j.yjmcc.2023.08.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2023] [Revised: 07/25/2023] [Accepted: 08/14/2023] [Indexed: 08/21/2023]
Abstract
Cardiomyocyte proliferation is a difficult phenomenon to capture and prove. Here we employ a retrospective analysis of single cell ventricular suspensions to definitively identify cardiomyocytes that have completed cell division. Through this analysis we determined that the capacity of cardiomyocytes to re-enter the cell cycle and complete cell division after injury are separate and variable traits. Further, we provide evidence that Tnni3k definitively influences both early and final stages of the cell cycle.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandra L Purdy
- Department of Cell Biology, Neurobiology, and Anatomy, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI, United States of America
| | - Samantha K Swift
- Department of Cell Biology, Neurobiology, and Anatomy, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI, United States of America
| | - Henry M Sucov
- Department of Regenerative Medicine and Cell Biology, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC, United States of America
| | - Michaela Patterson
- Department of Cell Biology, Neurobiology, and Anatomy, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI, United States of America; Cardiovascular Center, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI, United States of America.
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14
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Wang Y, Yemelyanov A, Go CD, Kim S, Quinn JM, Flozak AS, Le PM, Liang S, Claude-Gingras A, Ikura M, Ishiyama N, Gottardi CJ. α-catenin mechanosensitivity as a route to cytokinesis failure through sequestration of LZTS2. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.08.25.554884. [PMID: 37662204 PMCID: PMC10473746 DOI: 10.1101/2023.08.25.554884] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/05/2023]
Abstract
Epithelial cells can become polyploid upon tissue injury, but mechanosensitive cues that trigger this state are poorly understood. Using α-catenin (α-cat) knock-out Madin Darby Canine Kidney (MDCK) cells reconstituted with wild-type and mutant forms of α-cat as a model system, we find that an established α-cat actin-binding domain unfolding mutant designed to reduce force-sensitive binding to F-actin (α-cat-H0-FABD+) can promote cytokinesis failure, particularly along epithelial wound-fronts. Enhanced α-cat coupling to cortical actin is neither sufficient nor mitotic cell-autonomous for cytokinesis failure, but critically requires the mechanosensitive Middle-domain (M1-M2-M3) and neighboring cells. Disease relevant α-cat M-domain missense mutations known to cause a form of retinal pattern dystrophy (α-cat E307K or L436P) are associated with elevated binucleation rates via cytokinesis failure. Similar binucleation rates are seen in cells expressing an α-cat salt-bridge destabilizing mutant (R551A) designed to promote M2-M3 domain unfurling at lower force thresholds. Since binucleation is strongly enhanced by removal of the M1 as opposed to M2-M3 domains, cytokinetic fidelity is most sensitive to α-cat M2-M3 domain opening. To identify α-cat conformation-dependent proximity partners that contribute to cytokinesis, we used a biotin-ligase approach to distinguished proximity partners that show enhanced recruitment upon α-cat M-domain unfurling (R551A). We identified Leucine Zipper Tumor Suppressor 2 (LZTS2), an abscission factor previously implicated in cytokinesis. We confirm that LZTS2 enriches at the midbody, but discover it also localizes to tight and tricellular junctions. LZTS2 knock-down promotes binucleation in both MDCK and Retinal Pigmented Epithelial (RPE) cells. α-cat mutants with persistent M2-M3 domain opening showed elevated junctional enrichment of LZTS2 from the cytosol compared α-cat wild-type cells. These data implicate LZTS2 as a mechanosensitive effector of α-cat that is critical for cytokinetic fidelity. This model rationalizes how persistent mechano-activation of α-cat may drive tension-induced polyploidization of epithelia post-injury and suggests an underlying mechanism for how pathogenic α-cat mutations drive macular dystrophy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuou Wang
- Department of Pulmonary Medicine, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL 60611
| | - Alex Yemelyanov
- Department of Pulmonary Medicine, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL 60611
| | - Christopher D. Go
- Lunenfeld-Tanenbaum Research Institute, Mount Sinai Hospital, Sinai Health, Toronto, Ontario, M5G 1X5, Canada
- Department of Molecular Genetics, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, M5S 1A8, Canada
| | - Sun Kim
- Lunenfeld-Tanenbaum Research Institute, Mount Sinai Hospital, Sinai Health, Toronto, Ontario, M5G 1X5, Canada
| | - Jeanne M. Quinn
- Department of Pulmonary Medicine, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL 60611
| | - Annette S. Flozak
- Department of Pulmonary Medicine, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL 60611
| | - Phuong M. Le
- Department of Pulmonary Medicine, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL 60611
| | - Shannon Liang
- Department of Pulmonary Medicine, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL 60611
| | - Anne Claude-Gingras
- Lunenfeld-Tanenbaum Research Institute, Mount Sinai Hospital, Sinai Health, Toronto, Ontario, M5G 1X5, Canada
- Department of Molecular Genetics, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, M5S 1A8, Canada
| | - Mitsu Ikura
- Department of Medical Biophysics, University Health Network, Princess Margaret Cancer Center, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Noboru Ishiyama
- Department of Medical Biophysics, University Health Network, Princess Margaret Cancer Center, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Cara J. Gottardi
- Department of Pulmonary Medicine, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL 60611
- Cell & Developmental Biology, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL 60611
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15
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Partscht P, Schiebel E. The diverging role of CDC14B: from mitotic exit in yeast to cell fate control in humans. EMBO J 2023; 42:e114364. [PMID: 37493185 PMCID: PMC10425841 DOI: 10.15252/embj.2023114364] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2023] [Revised: 05/22/2023] [Accepted: 07/07/2023] [Indexed: 07/27/2023] Open
Abstract
CDC14, originally identified as crucial mediator of mitotic exit in budding yeast, belongs to the family of dual-specificity phosphatases (DUSPs) that are present in most eukaryotes. Contradicting data have sparked a contentious discussion whether a cell cycle role is conserved in the human paralogs CDC14A and CDC14B but possibly masked due to redundancy. Subsequent studies on CDC14A and CDC14B double knockouts in human and mouse demonstrated that CDC14 activity is dispensable for mitotic progression in higher eukaryotes and instead suggested functional specialization. In this review, we provide a comprehensive overview of our current understanding of how faithful cell division is linked to phosphorylation and dephosphorylation and compare functional similarities and divergences between the mitotic phosphatases CDC14, PP2A, and PP1 from yeast and higher eukaryotes. Furthermore, we review the latest discoveries on CDC14B, which identify this nuclear phosphatase as a key regulator of gene expression and reveal its role in neuronal development. Finally, we discuss CDC14B functions in meiosis and possible implications in other developmental processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrick Partscht
- Zentrum für Molekulare BiologieUniversität Heidelberg, DKFZ‐ZMBH AllianzHeidelbergGermany
| | - Elmar Schiebel
- Zentrum für Molekulare BiologieUniversität Heidelberg, DKFZ‐ZMBH AllianzHeidelbergGermany
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16
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Chakraborty A, Peterson NG, King JS, Gross RT, Pla MM, Thennavan A, Zhou KC, DeLuca S, Bursac N, Bowles DE, Wolf MJ, Fox DT. Conserved chamber-specific polyploidy maintains heart function in Drosophila. Development 2023; 150:dev201896. [PMID: 37526609 PMCID: PMC10482010 DOI: 10.1242/dev.201896] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2023] [Accepted: 07/24/2023] [Indexed: 08/02/2023]
Abstract
Developmentally programmed polyploidy (whole-genome duplication) of cardiomyocytes is common across evolution. Functions of such polyploidy are essentially unknown. Here, in both Drosophila larvae and human organ donors, we reveal distinct polyploidy levels in cardiac organ chambers. In Drosophila, differential growth and cell cycle signal sensitivity leads the heart chamber to reach a higher ploidy/cell size relative to the aorta chamber. Cardiac ploidy-reduced animals exhibit reduced heart chamber size, stroke volume and cardiac output, and acceleration of circulating hemocytes. These Drosophila phenotypes mimic human cardiomyopathies. Our results identify productive and likely conserved roles for polyploidy in cardiac chambers and suggest that precise ploidy levels sculpt many developing tissues. These findings of productive cardiomyocyte polyploidy impact efforts to block developmental polyploidy to improve heart injury recovery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Archan Chakraborty
- Department of Pharmacology & Cancer Biology, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC 27710, USA
- Duke Regeneration Center, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC 27710, USA
| | - Nora G. Peterson
- Department of Pharmacology & Cancer Biology, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC 27710, USA
| | - Juliet S. King
- Department of Pharmacology & Cancer Biology, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC 27710, USA
| | - Ryan T. Gross
- Department of Surgery, Duke University, Durham, NC 27710, USA
| | | | - Aatish Thennavan
- Department of Systems Biology, UT MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX 77230, USA
| | - Kevin C. Zhou
- Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Sciences, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
| | - Sophia DeLuca
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Duke University, Durham, NC 27710, USA
| | - Nenad Bursac
- Duke Regeneration Center, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC 27710, USA
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Duke University, Durham, NC 27710, USA
| | - Dawn E. Bowles
- Department of Surgery, Duke University, Durham, NC 27710, USA
| | - Matthew J. Wolf
- Department of Medicine, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22903, USA
- Robert M. Berne Cardiovascular Research Center, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22903, USA
| | - Donald T. Fox
- Department of Pharmacology & Cancer Biology, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC 27710, USA
- Duke Regeneration Center, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC 27710, USA
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17
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Misare KR, Ampolini EA, Gonzalez HC, Sullivan KA, Li X, Miller C, Sosseh B, Dunne JB, Voelkel-Johnson C, Gordon KL, Hartman JH. The consequences of tetraploidy on Caenorhabditis elegans physiology and sensitivity to chemotherapeutics. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.06.06.543785. [PMID: 37333126 PMCID: PMC10274754 DOI: 10.1101/2023.06.06.543785] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/20/2023]
Abstract
Polyploid cells contain more than two copies of each chromosome. Polyploidy has important roles in development, evolution, and tissue regeneration/repair, and can arise as a programmed polyploidization event or be triggered by stress. Cancer cells are often polyploid. C. elegans nematodes are typically diploid, but stressors such as heat shock and starvation can trigger the production of tetraploid offspring. In this study, we utilized a recently published protocol to generate stable tetraploid strains of C. elegans and compared their physiological traits and sensitivity to two DNA-damaging chemotherapeutic drugs, cisplatin and doxorubicin. As prior studies have shown, tetraploid worms are approximately 30% longer, shorter-lived, and have a smaller brood size than diploids. We investigated the reproductive defect further, determining that tetraploid worms have a shorter overall germline length, a higher rate of germ cell apoptosis, more aneuploidy in oocytes and offspring, and larger oocytes and embryos. We also found that tetraploid worms are modestly protected from growth delay from the chemotherapeutics but are similarly or more sensitive to reproductive toxicity. Transcriptomic analysis revealed differentially expressed pathways that may contribute to sensitivity to stress. Overall, this study reveals the phenotypic consequences of whole-animal tetraploidy in C. elegans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kelly R. Misare
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology; College of Medicine; Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, South Carolina, 29425; United States of America
| | - Elizabeth A. Ampolini
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology; College of Medicine; Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, South Carolina, 29425; United States of America
| | - Hyland C. Gonzalez
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology; College of Medicine; Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, South Carolina, 29425; United States of America
| | - Kaitlan A. Sullivan
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology; College of Medicine; Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, South Carolina, 29425; United States of America
| | - Xin Li
- Department of Biology; College of Arts and Sciences; University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, 27599; United States of America
| | - Camille Miller
- Department of Biology; College of Arts and Sciences; University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, 27599; United States of America
| | - Bintou Sosseh
- Department of Biology; College of Arts and Sciences; University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, 27599; United States of America
| | - Jaclyn B. Dunne
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology; College of Medicine; Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, South Carolina, 29425; United States of America
| | - Christina Voelkel-Johnson
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology; College of Medicine; Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, South Carolina, 29425; United States of America
| | - Kacy L. Gordon
- Department of Biology; College of Arts and Sciences; University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, 27599; United States of America
| | - Jessica H. Hartman
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology; College of Medicine; Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, South Carolina, 29425; United States of America
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18
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Schvarzstein M, Alam F, Toure M, Yanowitz JL. An Emerging Animal Model for Querying the Role of Whole Genome Duplication in Development, Evolution, and Disease. J Dev Biol 2023; 11:26. [PMID: 37367480 PMCID: PMC10299280 DOI: 10.3390/jdb11020026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2023] [Revised: 05/23/2023] [Accepted: 06/01/2023] [Indexed: 06/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Whole genome duplication (WGD) or polyploidization can occur at the cellular, tissue, and organismal levels. At the cellular level, tetraploidization has been proposed as a driver of aneuploidy and genome instability and correlates strongly with cancer progression, metastasis, and the development of drug resistance. WGD is also a key developmental strategy for regulating cell size, metabolism, and cellular function. In specific tissues, WGD is involved in normal development (e.g., organogenesis), tissue homeostasis, wound healing, and regeneration. At the organismal level, WGD propels evolutionary processes such as adaptation, speciation, and crop domestication. An essential strategy to further our understanding of the mechanisms promoting WGD and its effects is to compare isogenic strains that differ only in their ploidy. Caenorhabditis elegans (C. elegans) is emerging as an animal model for these comparisons, in part because relatively stable and fertile tetraploid strains can be produced rapidly from nearly any diploid strain. Here, we review the use of Caenorhabditis polyploids as tools to understand important developmental processes (e.g., sex determination, dosage compensation, and allometric relationships) and cellular processes (e.g., cell cycle regulation and chromosome dynamics during meiosis). We also discuss how the unique characteristics of the C. elegans WGD model will enable significant advances in our understanding of the mechanisms of polyploidization and its role in development and disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mara Schvarzstein
- Biology Department, Brooklyn College at the City University of New York, Brooklyn, NY 11210, USA
- Biology Department, The Graduate Center at the City University of New York, New York, NY 10016, USA
- Biochemistry Department, The Graduate Center at the City University of New York, New York, NY 10016, USA
| | - Fatema Alam
- Biology Department, Brooklyn College at the City University of New York, Brooklyn, NY 11210, USA
| | - Muhammad Toure
- Biology Department, Brooklyn College at the City University of New York, Brooklyn, NY 11210, USA
| | - Judith L. Yanowitz
- Magee-Womens Research Institute, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA;
- Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology, and Reproductive Sciences, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA
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19
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Sanz-Gómez N, González-Álvarez M, De Las Rivas J, de Cárcer G. Whole-Genome Doubling as a source of cancer: how, when, where, and why? Front Cell Dev Biol 2023; 11:1209136. [PMID: 37342233 PMCID: PMC10277508 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2023.1209136] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2023] [Accepted: 05/24/2023] [Indexed: 06/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Chromosome instability is a well-known hallmark of cancer, leading to increased genetic plasticity of tumoral cells, which favors cancer aggressiveness, and poor prognosis. One of the main sources of chromosomal instability are events that lead to a Whole-Genome Duplication (WGD) and the subsequently generated cell polyploidy. In recent years, several studies showed that WGD occurs at the early stages of cell transformation, which allows cells to later become aneuploid, thus leading to cancer progression. On the other hand, other studies convey that polyploidy plays a tumor suppressor role, by inducing cell cycle arrest, cell senescence, apoptosis, and even prompting cell differentiation, depending on the tissue cell type. There is still a gap in understanding how cells that underwent WGD can overcome the deleterious effect on cell fitness and evolve to become tumoral. Some laboratories in the chromosomal instability field recently explored this paradox, finding biomarkers that modulate polyploid cells to become oncogenic. This review brings a historical view of how WGD and polyploidy impact cell fitness and cancer progression, and bring together the last studies that describe the genes helping cells to adapt to polyploidy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natalia Sanz-Gómez
- Cell Cycle and Cancer Biomarkers Laboratory, Cancer Biology Department, Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas “Alberto Sols“. (IIBM) CSIC-UAM, Madrid, Spain
| | - María González-Álvarez
- Cell Cycle and Cancer Biomarkers Laboratory, Cancer Biology Department, Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas “Alberto Sols“. (IIBM) CSIC-UAM, Madrid, Spain
| | - Javier De Las Rivas
- Bioinformatics and Functional Genomics Group, Cancer Research Center (CiC-IBMCC), Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), University of Salamanca (USAL), Salamanca, Spain
| | - Guillermo de Cárcer
- Cell Cycle and Cancer Biomarkers Laboratory, Cancer Biology Department, Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas “Alberto Sols“. (IIBM) CSIC-UAM, Madrid, Spain
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20
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Cadart C, Bartz J, Oaks G, Liu MZ, Heald R. Polyploidy in Xenopus lowers metabolic rate by decreasing total cell surface area. Curr Biol 2023; 33:1744-1752.e7. [PMID: 37080197 PMCID: PMC10184464 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2023.03.071] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2022] [Revised: 02/22/2023] [Accepted: 03/24/2023] [Indexed: 04/22/2023]
Abstract
Although polyploidization is frequent in development, cancer, and evolution, impacts on animal metabolism are poorly understood. In Xenopus frogs, the number of genome copies (ploidy) varies across species and can be manipulated within a species. Here, we show that triploid tadpoles contain fewer, larger cells than diploids and consume oxygen at a lower rate. Drug treatments revealed that the major processes accounting for tadpole energy expenditure include cell proliferation, biosynthesis, and maintenance of plasma membrane potential. While inhibiting cell proliferation did not abolish the oxygen consumption difference between diploids and triploids, treatments that altered cellular biosynthesis or electrical potential did. Combining these results with a simple mathematical framework, we propose that the decrease in total cell surface area lowered production and activity of plasma membrane components including the Na+/K+ ATPase, reducing energy consumption in triploids. Comparison of Xenopus species that evolved through polyploidization revealed that metabolic differences emerged during development when cell size scaled with genome size. Thus, ploidy affects metabolism by altering the cell surface area to volume ratio in a multicellular organism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Clotilde Cadart
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA 94720-3200, USA.
| | - Julianne Bartz
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA 94720-3200, USA
| | - Gillian Oaks
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA 94720-3200, USA
| | - Martin Ziyuan Liu
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA 94720-3200, USA
| | - Rebecca Heald
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA 94720-3200, USA.
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21
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LaLone V, Aizenshtadt A, Goertz J, Skottvoll FS, Mota MB, You J, Zhao X, Berg HE, Stokowiec J, Yu M, Schwendeman A, Scholz H, Wilson SR, Krauss S, Stevens MM. Quantitative chemometric phenotyping of three-dimensional liver organoids by Raman spectral imaging. CELL REPORTS METHODS 2023; 3:100440. [PMID: 37159662 PMCID: PMC10162950 DOI: 10.1016/j.crmeth.2023.100440] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2022] [Revised: 02/06/2023] [Accepted: 03/08/2023] [Indexed: 05/11/2023]
Abstract
Confocal Raman spectral imaging (RSI) enables high-content, label-free visualization of a wide range of molecules in biological specimens without sample preparation. However, reliable quantification of the deconvoluted spectra is needed. Here we develop an integrated bioanalytical methodology, qRamanomics, to qualify RSI as a tissue phantom calibrated tool for quantitative spatial chemotyping of major classes of biomolecules. Next, we apply qRamanomics to fixed 3D liver organoids generated from stem-cell-derived or primary hepatocytes to assess specimen variation and maturity. We then demonstrate the utility of qRamanomics for identifying biomolecular response signatures from a panel of liver-altering drugs, probing drug-induced compositional changes in 3D organoids followed by in situ monitoring of drug metabolism and accumulation. Quantitative chemometric phenotyping constitutes an important step in developing quantitative label-free interrogation of 3D biological specimens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vernon LaLone
- Department of Materials, Department of Bioengineering and Institute of Biomedical Engineering, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, UK
- Hybrid Technology Hub-Centre of Excellence, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, UK
| | - Aleksandra Aizenshtadt
- Hybrid Technology Hub-Centre of Excellence, Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Oslo, P.O. Box 1112, Blindern, 0317 Oslo, Norway
| | - John Goertz
- Department of Materials, Department of Bioengineering and Institute of Biomedical Engineering, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, UK
| | - Frøydis Sved Skottvoll
- Hybrid Technology Hub-Centre of Excellence, Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Oslo, P.O. Box 1112, Blindern, 0317 Oslo, Norway
- Department of Chemistry, University of Oslo, P.O. Box 1033, Blindern, 0315 Oslo, Norway
| | - Marco Barbero Mota
- Department of Materials, Department of Bioengineering and Institute of Biomedical Engineering, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, UK
| | - Junji You
- Department of Materials, Department of Bioengineering and Institute of Biomedical Engineering, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, UK
| | - Xiaoyu Zhao
- Department of Materials, Department of Bioengineering and Institute of Biomedical Engineering, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, UK
| | - Henriette Engen Berg
- Department of Chemistry, University of Oslo, P.O. Box 1033, Blindern, 0315 Oslo, Norway
| | - Justyna Stokowiec
- Hybrid Technology Hub-Centre of Excellence, Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Oslo, P.O. Box 1112, Blindern, 0317 Oslo, Norway
| | - Minzhi Yu
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
- Biointerfaces Institute, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
| | - Anna Schwendeman
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
- Biointerfaces Institute, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
| | - Hanne Scholz
- Hybrid Technology Hub-Centre of Excellence, Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Oslo, P.O. Box 1112, Blindern, 0317 Oslo, Norway
- Department of Transplant Medicine, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway
- Institute for Surgical Research, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway
| | - Steven Ray Wilson
- Hybrid Technology Hub-Centre of Excellence, Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Oslo, P.O. Box 1112, Blindern, 0317 Oslo, Norway
- Department of Chemistry, University of Oslo, P.O. Box 1033, Blindern, 0315 Oslo, Norway
| | - Stefan Krauss
- Hybrid Technology Hub-Centre of Excellence, Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Oslo, P.O. Box 1112, Blindern, 0317 Oslo, Norway
- Department of Immunology and Transfusion Medicine, Oslo University Hospital, P.O. Box 4950, Nydalen, 0424 Oslo, Norway
| | - Molly M. Stevens
- Department of Materials, Department of Bioengineering and Institute of Biomedical Engineering, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, UK
- Hybrid Technology Hub-Centre of Excellence, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, UK
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22
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Secco I, Giacca M. Regulation of endogenous cardiomyocyte proliferation: The known unknowns. J Mol Cell Cardiol 2023; 179:80-89. [PMID: 37030487 PMCID: PMC10390341 DOI: 10.1016/j.yjmcc.2023.04.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2023] [Revised: 03/29/2023] [Accepted: 04/04/2023] [Indexed: 04/10/2023]
Abstract
Myocardial regeneration in patients with cardiac damage is a long-sought goal of clinical medicine. In animal species in which regeneration occurs spontaneously, as well as in neonatal mammals, regeneration occurs through the proliferation of differentiated cardiomyocytes, which re-enter the cell cycle and proliferate. Hence, the reprogramming of the replicative potential of cardiomyocytes is an achievable goal, provided that the mechanisms that regulate this process are understood. Cardiomyocyte proliferation is under the control of a series of signal transduction pathways that connect extracellular cues to the activation of specific gene transcriptional programmes, eventually leading to the activation of the cell cycle. Both coding and non-coding RNAs (in particular, microRNAs) are involved in this regulation. The available information can be exploited for therapeutic purposes, provided that a series of conceptual and technical barriers are overcome. A major obstacle remains the delivery of pro-regenerative factors specifically to the heart. Improvements in the design of AAV vectors to enhance their cardiotropism and efficacy or, alternatively, the development of non-viral methods for nucleic acid delivery in cardiomyocytes are among the challenges ahead to progress cardiac regenerative therapies towards clinical application.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ilaria Secco
- School of Cardiovascular and Metabolic Medicine & Sciences and British Heart Foundation Centre of Research Excellence, King's College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Mauro Giacca
- School of Cardiovascular and Metabolic Medicine & Sciences and British Heart Foundation Centre of Research Excellence, King's College London, London, United Kingdom.
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23
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Kounoue N, Oguchi H, Tochigi N, Mikami T, Yamaguchi Y, Honda K, Yonekura T, Muramatsu M, Itabashi Y, Sakai K. Significance of Multinucleated Polyploidization of Tubular Epithelial Cells in Kidney Allografts. Nephron Clin Pract 2023; 147 Suppl 1:28-34. [PMID: 36966529 PMCID: PMC10652653 DOI: 10.1159/000530339] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2022] [Accepted: 02/21/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Multinucleated polyploidization (MNP) of tubular epithelial cells is occasionally observed in kidney allografts. The present study aimed to clarify the clinical and pathological significance of MNP of tubular epithelial cells in kidney allografts. METHODS Fifty-eight 1-year biopsies from 58 patients who underwent kidney transplantation at our hospital from January 2016 to December 2017 were included. MNP was counted in each specimen, and the specimens were divided into two groups by the median value. The differences in clinical and pathological characteristics were compared. Ki67-positive cells were counted among tubular epithelial cells to explore the association between cell cycle and MNP. In an additional cohort, MNP was compared between biopsies after precedent T-cell-mediated rejection and precedent medullary ray injury. RESULTS The 58 cases were divided into two groups by the median total amount of MNP: group A (MNP > 3) and group B (MNP ≤ 3). Maximum t-score before the 1-year biopsy was significantly higher in group A compared with group B. Other clinical or histological characteristics did not differ significantly. Total amount of Ki67-positive tubular epithelial cells was significantly correlated with total amount of MNP. Significantly higher amount of MNP was observed in cases with precedent T-cell-mediated rejection compared with precedent medullary ray injury. On receiver operating characteristic curve analysis, the cut-off value of MNP to predict precedent T-cell-mediated rejection was 8.5. CONCLUSIONS MNP in tubular epithelial cells reflects prior tubular inflammation in kidney allografts. High amount of MNP indicates precedent T-cell-mediated rejection rather than precedent medullary ray injury caused by nonimmune etiologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Noriyuki Kounoue
- Department of Nephrology, Toho University Faculty of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
- Department of Nephrology, Toho University Graduate School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Hideyo Oguchi
- Department of Nephrology, Toho University Faculty of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Naobumi Tochigi
- Department of Surgical Pathology, Toho University Faculty of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Tetuo Mikami
- Department of Pathology, Toho University Faculty of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
| | | | - Kazuho Honda
- Department of Anatomy, Showa University School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Takashi Yonekura
- Department of Nephrology, Toho University Faculty of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Masaki Muramatsu
- Department of Nephrology, Toho University Faculty of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Yoshihiro Itabashi
- Department of Nephrology, Toho University Faculty of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Ken Sakai
- Department of Nephrology, Toho University Faculty of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
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24
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Vrselja A, Pillow JJ, Bensley JG, Ahmadi-Noorbakhsh S, Noble PB, Black MJ. Dose-related cardiac outcomes in response to postnatal dexamethasone treatment in premature lambs. Anat Rec (Hoboken) 2023. [PMID: 36924351 DOI: 10.1002/ar.25202] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2022] [Revised: 02/06/2023] [Accepted: 02/28/2023] [Indexed: 03/18/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Postnatal corticosteroids are used in the critical care of preterm infants for the prevention and treatment of bronchopulmonary dysplasia. We aimed to investigate the effects of early postnatal dexamethasone therapy and dose on cardiac maturation and morphology in preterm lambs. METHODS Lambs were delivered prematurely at ~128 days of gestational age and managed postnatally according to best clinical practice. Preterm lambs were administered dexamethasone daily at either a low-dose (n = 9) or a high-dose (n = 7), or were naïve to steroid treatment and administered saline (n = 9), over a 7-day time-course. Hearts were studied at postnatal Day 7 for gene expression and assessment of myocardial structure. RESULTS High-dose dexamethasone treatment in the early postnatal period led to marked differences in cardiac gene expression, altered cardiomyocyte maturation and reduced cardiomyocyte endowment in the right ventricle, as well as increased inflammatory infiltrates into the left ventricle. Low-dose exposure had minimal effects on the preterm heart. CONCLUSION Neonatal dexamethasone treatment led to adverse effects in the preterm heart in a dose-dependent manner within the first week of life. The observed cardiac changes associated with high-dose postnatal dexamethasone treatment may influence postnatal growth and remodeling of the preterm heart and subsequent long-term cardiac function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amanda Vrselja
- Department of Anatomy and Developmental Biology, Monash Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia
| | - Jennifer Jane Pillow
- School of Human Sciences, University of Western Australia, Perth, Western Australia, Australia
| | - Jonathan G Bensley
- Department of Anatomy and Developmental Biology, Monash Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia
| | | | - Peter B Noble
- School of Human Sciences, University of Western Australia, Perth, Western Australia, Australia
| | - Mary Jane Black
- Department of Anatomy and Developmental Biology, Monash Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia
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25
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Singh BN, Yucel D, Garay BI, Tolkacheva EG, Kyba M, Perlingeiro RCR, van Berlo JH, Ogle BM. Proliferation and Maturation: Janus and the Art of Cardiac Tissue Engineering. Circ Res 2023; 132:519-540. [PMID: 36795845 PMCID: PMC9943541 DOI: 10.1161/circresaha.122.321770] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/18/2023]
Abstract
During cardiac development and morphogenesis, cardiac progenitor cells differentiate into cardiomyocytes that expand in number and size to generate the fully formed heart. Much is known about the factors that regulate initial differentiation of cardiomyocytes, and there is ongoing research to identify how these fetal and immature cardiomyocytes develop into fully functioning, mature cells. Accumulating evidence indicates that maturation limits proliferation and conversely proliferation occurs rarely in cardiomyocytes of the adult myocardium. We term this oppositional interplay the proliferation-maturation dichotomy. Here we review the factors that are involved in this interplay and discuss how a better understanding of the proliferation-maturation dichotomy could advance the utility of human induced pluripotent stem cell-derived cardiomyocytes for modeling in 3-dimensional engineered cardiac tissues to obtain truly adult-level function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bhairab N. Singh
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Minnesota, MN, USA
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Minnesota, MN, USA
- Stem Cell Institute, University of Minnesota, MN, USA
| | - Dogacan Yucel
- Stem Cell Institute, University of Minnesota, MN, USA
- Department of Medicine, Cardiovascular Division, University of Minnesota, MN, USA
- Lillehei Heart Institute, University of Minnesota, MN, USA
| | - Bayardo I. Garay
- Stem Cell Institute, University of Minnesota, MN, USA
- Department of Medicine, Cardiovascular Division, University of Minnesota, MN, USA
- Lillehei Heart Institute, University of Minnesota, MN, USA
- Medical Scientist Training Program, University of Minnesota Medical School, MN, USA
| | - Elena G. Tolkacheva
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Minnesota, MN, USA
- Lillehei Heart Institute, University of Minnesota, MN, USA
- Institute for Engineering in Medicine, University of Minnesota, MN, USA
| | - Michael Kyba
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Minnesota, MN, USA
- Stem Cell Institute, University of Minnesota, MN, USA
- Lillehei Heart Institute, University of Minnesota, MN, USA
| | - Rita C. R. Perlingeiro
- Stem Cell Institute, University of Minnesota, MN, USA
- Department of Medicine, Cardiovascular Division, University of Minnesota, MN, USA
- Lillehei Heart Institute, University of Minnesota, MN, USA
| | - Jop H. van Berlo
- Stem Cell Institute, University of Minnesota, MN, USA
- Department of Medicine, Cardiovascular Division, University of Minnesota, MN, USA
- Lillehei Heart Institute, University of Minnesota, MN, USA
| | - Brenda M. Ogle
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Minnesota, MN, USA
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Minnesota, MN, USA
- Stem Cell Institute, University of Minnesota, MN, USA
- Lillehei Heart Institute, University of Minnesota, MN, USA
- Institute for Engineering in Medicine, University of Minnesota, MN, USA
- Masonic Cancer Center, University of Minnesota, MN, USA
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26
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Chakraborty A, Peterson NG, King JS, Gross RT, Pla MM, Thennavan A, Zhou KC, DeLuca S, Bursac N, Bowles DE, Wolf MJ, Fox DT. Conserved Chamber-Specific Polyploidy Maintains Heart Function in Drosophila. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.02.10.528086. [PMID: 36798187 PMCID: PMC9934670 DOI: 10.1101/2023.02.10.528086] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Developmentally programmed polyploidy (whole-genome-duplication) of cardiomyocytes is common across evolution. Functions of such polyploidy are essentially unknown. Here, we reveal roles for precise polyploidy levels in cardiac tissue. We highlight a conserved asymmetry in polyploidy level between cardiac chambers in Drosophila larvae and humans. In Drosophila , differential Insulin Receptor (InR) sensitivity leads the heart chamber to reach a higher ploidy/cell size relative to the aorta chamber. Cardiac ploidy-reduced animals exhibit reduced heart chamber size, stroke volume, cardiac output, and acceleration of circulating hemocytes. These Drosophila phenotypes mimic systemic human heart failure. Using human donor hearts, we reveal asymmetry in nuclear volume (ploidy) and insulin signaling between the left ventricle and atrium. Our results identify productive and likely conserved roles for polyploidy in cardiac chambers and suggest precise ploidy levels sculpt many developing tissues. These findings of productive cardiomyocyte polyploidy impact efforts to block developmental polyploidy to improve heart injury recovery.
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27
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Variability of polyteny of giant chromosomes in Drosophila melanogaster salivary glands. Genetica 2023; 151:75-86. [PMID: 36163579 DOI: 10.1007/s10709-022-00168-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2022] [Accepted: 09/13/2022] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
Polyteny is an effective mechanism for accelerating growth and enhancing gene expression in eukaryotes. The purpose of investigation was to study the genetic variability of polyteny degree of giant chromosomes in the salivary glands of Drosophila melanogaster Meig. in relation to the differential fitness of different genotypes. 16 strains, lines and hybrids of fruit flies were studied. This study demonstrates the significant influence of hereditary factors on the level of polytenization of giant chromosomes in Drosophila. This is manifested in the differences between strains and lines, the effect of inbreeding, chromosome isogenization, hybridization, adaptively significant selection, sexual differences, and varying degrees of individual variability of a trait in different strains, lines, and hybrids. The genetic component in the variability of the degree of chromosome polyteny in Drosophila salivary glands was 45.3%, the effect of sex was 9.5%. It has been shown that genetic distances during inbreeding, outbreeding or hybridization, which largely determine the selective value of different genotypes, also affect polyteny patterns. Genetic, humoral, and epigenetic aspects of endocycle regulation, which may underlie the variations in the degree of chromosome polyteny, as well as the biological significance of the phenomenon of endopolyploidy, are discussed.
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28
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Abstract
Determining cellular DNA content is valuable in the study of numerous biological processes, including organ development and injury repair. While FACS analysis of dissociated cells is a widely used method for assaying ploidy in a tissue cell population, for many tissue samples, it is possible and convenient to measure ploidy in situ using light microscopy. Here, we present two protocols for measuring cellular ploidy in tissues. These protocols are based on our studies in Drosophila melanogaster, but these are applicable to other settings as well. We present example results from Drosophila hindgut, midgut, and wing imaginal disc as examples. The first protocol focuses on measuring DNA content from decondensed interphase nuclei, while the second protocol details the visualization of condensed chromosomes for ploidy determination, either from mitotic cells or from interphase cells with drug-induced chromosome condensation. These techniques can be completed in 1 day and require standard lab supplies as well as a fluorescence light microscope.
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Affiliation(s)
- Delisa E Clay
- Department of Pharmacology and Cancer Biology, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC, USA
| | - Benjamin M Stormo
- Department of Pharmacology and Cancer Biology, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC, USA
| | - Donald T Fox
- Department of Pharmacology and Cancer Biology, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC, USA.
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29
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IL6 supports long-term expansion of hepatocytes in vitro. Nat Commun 2022; 13:7345. [PMID: 36446858 PMCID: PMC9708838 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-022-35167-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2022] [Accepted: 11/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Hepatocytes are very difficult to expand in vitro. A few studies have demonstrated that chemical cocktails with growth factors or Wnt ligands can support long-term expansion of hepatocytes via dedifferentiation. However, the culture conditions are complex, and clonal expansion of hepatic progenitors with full differentiation capacity are rarely reported. Here, we discover IL6, combined with EGF and HGF, promotes long-term expansion (>30 passages in ~150 days with theoretical expansion of ~1035 times) of primary mouse hepatocytes in vitro in simple 2D culture, by converting hepatocytes into induced hepatic progenitor cells (iHPCs), which maintain the capacity of differentiation into hepatocytes. IL6 also supports the establishment of single hepatocyte-derived iHPC clones. The summation of the downstream STAT3, ERK and AKT pathways induces a number of transcription factors which support rapid growth. This physiological and simple way may provide ideas for culturing previously difficult-to-culture cell types and support their future applications.
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30
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Borowik AK, Davidyan A, Peelor FF, Voloviceva E, Doidge SM, Bubak MP, Mobley CB, McCarthy JJ, Dupont-Versteegden EE, Miller BF. Skeletal Muscle Nuclei in Mice are not Post-mitotic. FUNCTION 2022; 4:zqac059. [PMID: 36569816 PMCID: PMC9772608 DOI: 10.1093/function/zqac059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2022] [Revised: 11/15/2022] [Accepted: 11/16/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
The skeletal muscle research field generally accepts that nuclei in skeletal muscle fibers (ie, myonuclei) are post-mitotic and unable to proliferate. Because our deuterium oxide (D2O) labeling studies showed DNA synthesis in skeletal muscle tissue, we hypothesized that resident myonuclei can replicate in vivo. To test this hypothesis, we used a mouse model that temporally labeled myonuclei with GFP followed by D2O labeling during normal cage activity, functional overload, and with satellite cell ablation. During normal cage activity, we observed deuterium enrichment into myonuclear DNA in 7 out of 7 plantaris (PLA), 6 out of 6 tibialis anterior (TA), 5 out of 7 gastrocnemius (GAST), and 7 out of 7 quadriceps (QUAD). The average fractional synthesis rates (FSR) of DNA in myonuclei were: 0.0202 ± 0.0093 in PLA, 0.0239 ± 0.0040 in TA, 0.0076 ± 0. 0058 in GAST, and 0.0138 ± 0.0039 in QUAD, while there was no replication in myonuclei from EDL. These FSR values were largely reproduced in the overload and satellite cell ablation conditions, although there were higher synthesis rates in the overloaded PLA muscle. We further provided evidence that myonuclear replication is through endoreplication, which results in polyploidy. These novel findings contradict the dogma that skeletal muscle nuclei are post-mitotic and open potential avenues to harness the intrinsic replicative ability of myonuclei for muscle maintenance and growth.
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Affiliation(s)
- Agnieszka K Borowik
- Aging and Metabolism Research Program, Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation, 825 NE 13th St, Oklahoma City, OK 73104, USA
| | - Arik Davidyan
- Aging and Metabolism Research Program, Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation, 825 NE 13th St, Oklahoma City, OK 73104, USA
- Department of Biological Sciences, California State University Sacramento, 6000 J Street, Sacramento, CA, 95819, USA
| | - Frederick F Peelor
- Aging and Metabolism Research Program, Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation, 825 NE 13th St, Oklahoma City, OK 73104, USA
| | - Evelina Voloviceva
- Aging and Metabolism Research Program, Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation, 825 NE 13th St, Oklahoma City, OK 73104, USA
| | - Stephen M Doidge
- Aging and Metabolism Research Program, Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation, 825 NE 13th St, Oklahoma City, OK 73104, USA
| | - Matthew P Bubak
- Aging and Metabolism Research Program, Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation, 825 NE 13th St, Oklahoma City, OK 73104, USA
| | | | - John J McCarthy
- Center for Muscle Biology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40506, USA
- Department of Physiology, College of Medicine, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, 40506, USA
| | - Esther E Dupont-Versteegden
- Center for Muscle Biology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40506, USA
- Department of Physiology, College of Medicine, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, 40506, USA
- Department of Physical Therapy, College of Health Sciences, University of Kentucky, 900 S Limestone, Lexington, KY 40536, USA
| | - Benjamin F Miller
- Aging and Metabolism Research Program, Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation, 825 NE 13th St, Oklahoma City, OK 73104, USA
- Oklahoma City VA Medical Center, 921 NE 13th St, Oklahoma City, OK 73104, USA
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31
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Qi X, Jiang L, Cao J. Senotherapies: A novel strategy for synergistic anti-tumor therapy. Drug Discov Today 2022; 27:103365. [PMID: 36115631 DOI: 10.1016/j.drudis.2022.103365] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2022] [Revised: 08/18/2022] [Accepted: 09/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Cellular senescence was initially considered an effective antitumor mechanism, and senescence-induced therapy has previously been regarded as an efficient treatment. However, increasing studies have discovered that persistent senescent cells (SNCs) might have unanticipated negative repercussions for antitumor treatment. The long-term build-up of SNCs exacerbates toxic side effects, treatment resistance, and poor prognosis, and tumor cells that undergo senescence escape can acquire stemness to repopulate the tumor, leading to cancer recurrence. Thus, senotherapies that eliminate SNCs could be used as a new strategy for synergistic antitumor therapy. In this review, we summarize the adverse effects of SNCs in tumor development and the mechanisms by which senescent tumor cells escape senescence, discuss the relationship between senescence and polyploidy, and highlight the potential of senotherapies as an emerging adjuvant antitumor treatment strategy. Such a strategy is expected to provide new approaches for antitumor drug development from the perspective of cellular senescence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xuxin Qi
- Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Zhejiang Province Key Laboratory of Anti-Cancer Drug Research, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China.
| | - Li Jiang
- Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Zhejiang Province Key Laboratory of Anti-Cancer Drug Research, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China; The Innovation Institute for Artificial Intelligence in Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China.
| | - Ji Cao
- Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Zhejiang Province Key Laboratory of Anti-Cancer Drug Research, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China; The Innovation Institute for Artificial Intelligence in Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China; Cancer Center of Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China; Westlake Laboratory of Life Sciences and Biomedicine, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China.
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32
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De Chiara L, Conte C, Semeraro R, Diaz-Bulnes P, Angelotti ML, Mazzinghi B, Molli A, Antonelli G, Landini S, Melica ME, Peired AJ, Maggi L, Donati M, La Regina G, Allinovi M, Ravaglia F, Guasti D, Bani D, Cirillo L, Becherucci F, Guzzi F, Magi A, Annunziato F, Lasagni L, Anders HJ, Lazzeri E, Romagnani P. Tubular cell polyploidy protects from lethal acute kidney injury but promotes consequent chronic kidney disease. Nat Commun 2022; 13:5805. [PMID: 36195583 PMCID: PMC9532438 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-022-33110-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2021] [Accepted: 09/02/2022] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Acute kidney injury (AKI) is frequent, often fatal and, for lack of specific therapies, can leave survivors with chronic kidney disease (CKD). We characterize the distribution of tubular cells (TC) undergoing polyploidy along AKI by DNA content analysis and single cell RNA-sequencing. Furthermore, we study the functional roles of polyploidization using transgenic models and drug interventions. We identify YAP1-driven TC polyploidization outside the site of injury as a rapid way to sustain residual kidney function early during AKI. This survival mechanism comes at the cost of senescence of polyploid TC promoting interstitial fibrosis and CKD in AKI survivors. However, targeting TC polyploidization after the early AKI phase can prevent AKI-CKD transition without influencing AKI lethality. Senolytic treatment prevents CKD by blocking repeated TC polyploidization cycles. These results revise the current pathophysiological concept of how the kidney responds to acute injury and identify a novel druggable target to improve prognosis in AKI survivors. Acute kidney injury is frequent, often fatal and can leave survivors with chronic kidney disease. Here the authors show that tubular cell polyploidy reduces early fatality sustaining residual function but promotes chronic kidney disease, which can be prevented by blocking YAP1
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Affiliation(s)
- Letizia De Chiara
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Biomedical Sciences "Mario Serio", University of Florence, Florence, 50139, Italy
| | - Carolina Conte
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Biomedical Sciences "Mario Serio", University of Florence, Florence, 50139, Italy
| | - Roberto Semeraro
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Medicine, University of Florence, Florence, 50139, Italy
| | - Paula Diaz-Bulnes
- Translational immunology, Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria del Principado de Asturias ISPA, 33011, Oviedo, Asturias, España
| | - Maria Lucia Angelotti
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Biomedical Sciences "Mario Serio", University of Florence, Florence, 50139, Italy
| | - Benedetta Mazzinghi
- Nephrology and Dialysis Unit, Meyer Children's University Hospital, Florence, 50139, Italy
| | - Alice Molli
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Biomedical Sciences "Mario Serio", University of Florence, Florence, 50139, Italy.,Nephrology and Dialysis Unit, Meyer Children's University Hospital, Florence, 50139, Italy
| | - Giulia Antonelli
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Biomedical Sciences "Mario Serio", University of Florence, Florence, 50139, Italy
| | - Samuela Landini
- Medical Genetics Unit, Meyer Children's University Hospital, Florence, 50139, Italy
| | - Maria Elena Melica
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Biomedical Sciences "Mario Serio", University of Florence, Florence, 50139, Italy
| | - Anna Julie Peired
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Biomedical Sciences "Mario Serio", University of Florence, Florence, 50139, Italy
| | - Laura Maggi
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Medicine, University of Florence, Florence, 50139, Italy
| | - Marta Donati
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Biomedical Sciences "Mario Serio", University of Florence, Florence, 50139, Italy
| | - Gilda La Regina
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Biomedical Sciences "Mario Serio", University of Florence, Florence, 50139, Italy
| | - Marco Allinovi
- Nephrology, Dialysis and Transplantation Unit, Careggi University Hospital, Florence, 50134, Italy
| | - Fiammetta Ravaglia
- Nephrology and Dialysis Unit, Santo Stefano Hospital, Prato, 59100, Italy
| | - Daniele Guasti
- Department of Experimental & Clinical Medicine, Imaging Platform, University of Florence, Florence, 50139, Italy
| | - Daniele Bani
- Department of Experimental & Clinical Medicine, Imaging Platform, University of Florence, Florence, 50139, Italy
| | - Luigi Cirillo
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Biomedical Sciences "Mario Serio", University of Florence, Florence, 50139, Italy.,Nephrology and Dialysis Unit, Meyer Children's University Hospital, Florence, 50139, Italy
| | - Francesca Becherucci
- Nephrology and Dialysis Unit, Meyer Children's University Hospital, Florence, 50139, Italy
| | - Francesco Guzzi
- Nephrology and Dialysis Unit, Santo Stefano Hospital, Prato, 59100, Italy
| | - Alberto Magi
- Department of Information Engineering, University of Florence, Florence, 50139, Italy
| | - Francesco Annunziato
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Medicine, University of Florence, Florence, 50139, Italy.,Flow Cytometry Diagnostic Center and Immunotherapy (CDCI), Careggi University Hospital, Florence, 50134, Italy
| | - Laura Lasagni
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Biomedical Sciences "Mario Serio", University of Florence, Florence, 50139, Italy
| | - Hans-Joachim Anders
- Division of Nephrology, Department of Internal Medicine IV, LMU Hospital, Munich, 80336, Germany
| | - Elena Lazzeri
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Biomedical Sciences "Mario Serio", University of Florence, Florence, 50139, Italy.
| | - Paola Romagnani
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Biomedical Sciences "Mario Serio", University of Florence, Florence, 50139, Italy. .,Nephrology and Dialysis Unit, Meyer Children's University Hospital, Florence, 50139, Italy.
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33
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Polyploidy and Myc Proto-Oncogenes Promote Stress Adaptation via Epigenetic Plasticity and Gene Regulatory Network Rewiring. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23179691. [PMID: 36077092 PMCID: PMC9456078 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23179691] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2022] [Revised: 08/23/2022] [Accepted: 08/24/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Polyploid cells demonstrate biological plasticity and stress adaptation in evolution; development; and pathologies, including cardiovascular diseases, neurodegeneration, and cancer. The nature of ploidy-related advantages is still not completely understood. Here, we summarize the literature on molecular mechanisms underlying ploidy-related adaptive features. Polyploidy can regulate gene expression via chromatin opening, reawakening ancient evolutionary programs of embryonality. Chromatin opening switches on genes with bivalent chromatin domains that promote adaptation via rapid induction in response to signals of stress or morphogenesis. Therefore, stress-associated polyploidy can activate Myc proto-oncogenes, which further promote chromatin opening. Moreover, Myc proto-oncogenes can trigger polyploidization de novo and accelerate genome accumulation in already polyploid cells. As a result of these cooperative effects, polyploidy can increase the ability of cells to search for adaptive states of cellular programs through gene regulatory network rewiring. This ability is manifested in epigenetic plasticity associated with traits of stemness, unicellularity, flexible energy metabolism, and a complex system of DNA damage protection, combining primitive error-prone unicellular repair pathways, advanced error-free multicellular repair pathways, and DNA damage-buffering ability. These three features can be considered important components of the increased adaptability of polyploid cells. The evidence presented here contribute to the understanding of the nature of stress resistance associated with ploidy and may be useful in the development of new methods for the prevention and treatment of cardiovascular and oncological diseases.
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34
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An interplay between cellular growth and atypical fusion defines morphogenesis of a modular glial niche in Drosophila. Nat Commun 2022; 13:4999. [PMID: 36008397 PMCID: PMC9411534 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-022-32685-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2021] [Accepted: 08/10/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Neural stem cells (NSCs) live in an intricate cellular microenvironment supporting their activity, the niche. Whilst shape and function are inseparable, the morphogenetic aspects of niche development are poorly understood. Here, we use the formation of a glial niche to investigate acquisition of architectural complexity. Cortex glia (CG) in Drosophila regulate neurogenesis and build a reticular structure around NSCs. We first show that individual CG cells grow tremendously to ensheath several NSC lineages, employing elaborate proliferative mechanisms which convert these cells into syncytia rich in cytoplasmic bridges. CG syncytia further undergo homotypic cell–cell fusion, using defined cell surface receptors and actin regulators. Cellular exchange is however dynamic in space and time. This atypical cell fusion remodels cellular borders, restructuring the CG syncytia. Ultimately, combined growth and fusion builds the multi-level architecture of the niche, and creates a modular, spatial partition of the NSC population. Our findings provide insights into how a niche forms and organises while developing intimate contacts with a stem cell population. Little is known of how the architectural complexity of the neural stem cell niche is achieved. Rujano et al. show that the morphogenesis of a glial niche in Drosophila involves complex proliferative strategies and atypical cell–cell fusion.
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35
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Matsumoto T. Implications of Polyploidy and Ploidy Alterations in Hepatocytes in Liver Injuries and Cancers. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23169409. [PMID: 36012671 PMCID: PMC9409051 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23169409] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2022] [Revised: 08/16/2022] [Accepted: 08/19/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Polyploidy, a condition in which more than two sets of chromosomes are present in a cell, is a characteristic feature of hepatocytes. A significant number of hepatocytes physiologically undergo polyploidization at a young age. Polyploidization of hepatocytes is enhanced with age and in a diseased liver. It is worth noting that polyploid hepatocytes can proliferate, in marked contrast to other types of polyploid cells, such as megakaryocytes and cardiac myocytes. Polyploid hepatocytes divide to maintain normal liver homeostasis and play a role in the regeneration of the damaged liver. Furthermore, polyploid hepatocytes have been shown to dynamically reduce ploidy during liver regeneration. Although it is still unclear why hepatocytes undergo polyploidization, accumulating evidence has revealed that alterations in the ploidy in hepatocytes are involved in the pathophysiology of liver cirrhosis and carcinogenesis. This review discusses the significance of hepatocyte ploidy in physiological liver function, liver injury, and liver cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tomonori Matsumoto
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Research Institute for Microbial Diseases, Osaka University, Suita 565-0871, Japan
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36
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Wnt signaling regulates hepatocyte cell division by a transcriptional repressor cascade. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2022; 119:e2203849119. [PMID: 35867815 PMCID: PMC9335208 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2203849119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
As a general model for cell cycle control, repressors keep cells quiescent until growth signals remove the inhibition. For S phase, this is exemplified by the Retinoblastoma (RB) protein and its inactivation. It was unknown whether similar mechanisms operate in the M phase. The Wnt signaling pathway is an important regulator of cell proliferation. Here, we find that Wnt induces expression of the transcription factor Tbx3, which in turn represses mitotic inhibitors E2f7 and E2f8 to permit mitotic progression. Such a cascade of transcriptional repressors may be a general mechanism for cell division control. These findings have implications for tissue homeostasis and disease, as the function for Wnt signaling in mitosis is relevant to its widespread role in stem cells and cancer. Cell proliferation is tightly controlled by inhibitors that block cell cycle progression until growth signals relieve this inhibition, allowing cells to divide. In several tissues, including the liver, cell proliferation is inhibited at mitosis by the transcriptional repressors E2F7 and E2F8, leading to formation of polyploid cells. Whether growth factors promote mitosis and cell cycle progression by relieving the E2F7/E2F8-mediated inhibition is unknown. We report here on a mechanism of cell division control in the postnatal liver, in which Wnt/β-catenin signaling maintains active hepatocyte cell division through Tbx3, a Wnt target gene. The TBX3 protein directly represses transcription of E2f7 and E2f8, thereby promoting mitosis. This cascade of sequential transcriptional repressors, initiated by Wnt signals, provides a paradigm for exploring how commonly active developmental signals impact cell cycle completion.
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Targeting tumor cell senescence and polyploidy as potential therapeutic strategies. Semin Cancer Biol 2022; 81:37-47. [PMID: 33358748 PMCID: PMC8214633 DOI: 10.1016/j.semcancer.2020.12.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2020] [Revised: 12/07/2020] [Accepted: 12/07/2020] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
Senescence is a unique state of growth arrest that develops in response to a plethora of cellular stresses, including replicative exhaustion, oxidative injury, and genotoxic insults. Senescence has been implicated in the pathogenesis of multiple aging-related pathologies, including cancer. In cancer, senescence plays a dual role, initially acting as a barrier against tumor progression by enforcing a durable growth arrest in premalignant cells, but potentially promoting malignant transformation in neighboring cells through the secretion of pro-tumorigenic drivers. Moreover, senescence is induced in tumor cells upon exposure to a wide variety of conventional and targeted anticancer drugs (termed Therapy-Induced Senescence-TIS), representing a critical contributing factor to therapeutic outcomes. As with replicative or oxidative senescence, TIS manifests as a complex phenotype of macromolecular damage, energetic dysregulation, and altered gene expression. Senescent cells are also frequently polyploid. In vitro studies have suggested that polyploidy may confer upon senescent tumor cells the ability to escape from growth arrest, thereby providing an additional avenue whereby tumor cells escape the lethality of anticancer treatment. Polyploidy in tumor cells is also associated with persistent energy production, chromatin remodeling, self-renewal, stemness and drug resistance - features that are also associated with escape from senescence and conversion to a more malignant phenotype. However, senescent cells are highly heterogenous and can present with variable phenotypes, where polyploidy is one component of a complex reversion process. Lastly, emerging efforts to pharmacologically target polyploid tumor cells might pave the way towards the identification of novel targets for the elimination of senescent tumor cells by the incorporation of senolytic agents into cancer therapeutic strategies.
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van Rijnberk LM, Barrull-Mascaró R, van der Palen RL, Schild ES, Korswagen HC, Galli M. Endomitosis controls tissue-specific gene expression during development. PLoS Biol 2022; 20:e3001597. [PMID: 35609035 PMCID: PMC9129049 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pbio.3001597] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2021] [Accepted: 03/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Polyploid cells contain more than 2 copies of the genome and are found in many plant and animal tissues. Different types of polyploidy exist, in which the genome is confined to either 1 nucleus (mononucleation) or 2 or more nuclei (multinucleation). Despite the widespread occurrence of polyploidy, the functional significance of different types of polyploidy is largely unknown. Here, we assess the function of multinucleation in Caenorhabditis elegans intestinal cells through specific inhibition of binucleation without altering genome ploidy. Through single-worm RNA sequencing, we find that binucleation is important for tissue-specific gene expression, most prominently for genes that show a rapid up-regulation at the transition from larval development to adulthood. Regulated genes include vitellogenins, which encode yolk proteins that facilitate nutrient transport to the germline. We find that reduced expression of vitellogenins in mononucleated intestinal cells leads to progeny with developmental delays and reduced fitness. Together, our results show that binucleation facilitates rapid up-regulation of intestine-specific gene expression during development, independently of genome ploidy, underscoring the importance of spatial genome organization for polyploid cell function. Why do some cells contain more than one nucleus? By comparing mononucleated and multinucleated polyploid cells in C. elegans, this study shows that having multiple nuclei is important for optimal transcriptional upregulation of developmentally controlled genes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lotte M. van Rijnberk
- Hubrecht Institute, Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences and University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Ramon Barrull-Mascaró
- Hubrecht Institute, Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences and University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Reinier L. van der Palen
- Hubrecht Institute, Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences and University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Erik S. Schild
- Hubrecht Institute, Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences and University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Hendrik C. Korswagen
- Hubrecht Institute, Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences and University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Matilde Galli
- Hubrecht Institute, Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences and University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, the Netherlands
- * E-mail:
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Weng A, Maciel Herrerias M, Watanabe S, Welch LC, Flozak AS, Grant RA, Aillon RP, Dada LA, Han SH, Hinchcliff M, Misharin AV, Budinger GRS, Gottardi CJ. Lung Injury Induces Alveolar Type 2 Cell Hypertrophy and Polyploidy with Implications for Repair and Regeneration. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 2022; 66:564-576. [PMID: 35202558 PMCID: PMC9116356 DOI: 10.1165/rcmb.2021-0356oc] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Epithelial polyploidization after injury is a conserved phenomenon recently shown to improve barrier restoration during wound healing. Whether lung injury can induce alveolar epithelial polyploidy is not known. We show that bleomycin injury induces alveolar type 2 cell (AT2) hypertrophy and polyploidy. AT2 polyploidization is also seen in short term ex vivo cultures, where AT2-to-AT1 transdifferentiation is associated with substantial binucleation due to failed cytokinesis. Both hypertrophic and polyploid features of AT2 cells can be attenuated by inhibiting the integrated stress response using the small molecule ISRIB. These data suggest that AT2 hypertrophic growth and polyploidization may be a feature of alveolar epithelial injury. Because AT2 cells serve as facultative progenitors for the distal lung epithelium, a propensity for injury-induced binucleation has implications for AT2 self-renewal and regenerative potential upon reinjury, which may benefit from targeting the integrated stress response.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Monique Hinchcliff
- Division of Rheumatology, Allergy and Immunology, Department of Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine New Haven, Connecticut
| | | | | | - Cara J. Gottardi
- Department of Pulmonary Medicine and,Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, Illinois; and
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Pettinato AM, Ladha FA, Hinson JT. The Cardiac Sarcomere and Cell Cycle. Curr Cardiol Rep 2022; 24:623-630. [PMID: 35380383 DOI: 10.1007/s11886-022-01682-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 02/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW The lack of adult human cardiomyocyte proliferative capacity impairs cardiac regeneration such as after myocardial injury. The sarcomere, a specialized actin cytoskeletal structure that is essential for twitch contraction in cardiomyocytes, has been considered a critical factor limiting adult human cardiomyocyte proliferation through incompletely understood mechanisms. RECENT FINDINGS This review summarizes known and emerging regulatory mechanisms connecting the human cardiomyocyte sarcomere to cell cycle regulation including structural and signaling mechanisms. Cardiac regeneration could be augmented through targeting the inhibitory effects of the sarcomere on cardiomyocyte proliferation.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Feria A Ladha
- University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington, CT, 06030, USA
| | - J Travis Hinson
- University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington, CT, 06030, USA. .,The Jackson Laboratory for Genomic Medicine, 10 Discovery Drive, Farmington, CT, 06032, USA. .,Cardiology Center, UConn Health, Farmington, CT, 06030, USA. .,UConn Health, 263 Farmington Ave, Farmington, CT, 06030, USA.
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Jiang S, Wei J, Li N, Wang Z, Zhang Y, Xu R, Zhou L, Huang X, Wang L, Guo S, Wang Y, Song CP, Qian W, Li Y. The UBP14-CDKB1;1-CDKG2 cascade controls endoreduplication and cell growth in Arabidopsis. THE PLANT CELL 2022; 34:1308-1325. [PMID: 34999895 PMCID: PMC8972217 DOI: 10.1093/plcell/koac002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2021] [Accepted: 12/16/2021] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
Endoreduplication, a process in which DNA replication occurs in the absence of mitosis, is found in all eukaryotic kingdoms, especially plants, where it is assumed to be important for cell growth and cell fate maintenance. However, a comprehensive understanding of the mechanism regulating endoreduplication is still lacking. We previously reported that UBIQUITIN-SPECIFIC PROTEASE14 (UBP14), encoded by DA3, acts upstream of CYCLIN-DEPENDENT KINASE B1;1 (CDKB1;1) to influence endoreduplication and cell growth in Arabidopsis thaliana. The da3-1 mutant possesses large cotyledons with enlarged cells due to high ploidy levels. Here, we identified a suppressor of da3-1 (SUPPRESSOR OF da3-1 6; SUD6), encoding CYCLIN-DEPENDENT KINASE G2 (CDKG2), which promotes endoreduplication and cell growth. CDKG2/SUD6 physically associates with CDKB1;1 in vivo and in vitro. CDKB1;1 directly phosphorylates SUD6 and modulates its stability. Genetic analysis indicated that SUD6 acts downstream of DA3 and CDKB1;1 to control ploidy level and cell growth. Thus, our study establishes a regulatory cascade for UBP14/DA3-CDKB1;1-CDKG2/SUD6-mediated control of endoreduplication and cell growth in Arabidopsis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shan Jiang
- State Key Laboratory of Plant Cell and Chromosome Engineering, CAS Centre for Excellence in Molecular Plant Biology, Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
- College of Advanced Agricultural Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100039, China
| | - Jinwei Wei
- State Key Laboratory of Plant Genomics, Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
| | - Na Li
- State Key Laboratory of Plant Cell and Chromosome Engineering, CAS Centre for Excellence in Molecular Plant Biology, Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
| | - Zhibiao Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Plant Cell and Chromosome Engineering, CAS Centre for Excellence in Molecular Plant Biology, Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
| | - Yilan Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Plant Cell and Chromosome Engineering, CAS Centre for Excellence in Molecular Plant Biology, Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Stress Adaptation and Improvement, Collaborative Innovation Center of Crop Stress Biology, College of Life Sciences, Henan University, Kaifeng, Henan 475004, China
| | - Ran Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Plant Cell and Chromosome Engineering, CAS Centre for Excellence in Molecular Plant Biology, Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
| | - Lixun Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Plant Cell and Chromosome Engineering, CAS Centre for Excellence in Molecular Plant Biology, Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
| | - Xiahe Huang
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Developmental Biology, Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
| | - Li Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Plant Genomics, Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
| | - Siyi Guo
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Stress Adaptation and Improvement, Collaborative Innovation Center of Crop Stress Biology, College of Life Sciences, Henan University, Kaifeng, Henan 475004, China
| | - Yingchun Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Developmental Biology, Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
| | - Chun-Peng Song
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Stress Adaptation and Improvement, Collaborative Innovation Center of Crop Stress Biology, College of Life Sciences, Henan University, Kaifeng, Henan 475004, China
| | - Wei Qian
- State Key Laboratory of Plant Genomics, Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
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Polyploidy as a Fundamental Phenomenon in Evolution, Development, Adaptation and Diseases. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23073542. [PMID: 35408902 PMCID: PMC8998937 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23073542] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2022] [Revised: 03/21/2022] [Accepted: 03/22/2022] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
DNA replication during cell proliferation is 'vertical' copying, which reproduces an initial amount of genetic information. Polyploidy, which results from whole-genome duplication, is a fundamental complement to vertical copying. Both organismal and cell polyploidy can emerge via premature cell cycle exit or via cell-cell fusion, the latter giving rise to polyploid hybrid organisms and epigenetic hybrids of somatic cells. Polyploidy-related increase in biological plasticity, adaptation, and stress resistance manifests in evolution, development, regeneration, aging, oncogenesis, and cardiovascular diseases. Despite the prevalence in nature and importance for medicine, agri- and aquaculture, biological processes and epigenetic mechanisms underlying these fundamental features largely remain unknown. The evolutionarily conserved features of polyploidy include activation of transcription, response to stress, DNA damage and hypoxia, and induction of programs of morphogenesis, unicellularity, and longevity, suggesting that these common features confer adaptive plasticity, viability, and stress resistance to polyploid cells and organisms. By increasing cell viability, polyploidization can provide survival under stressful conditions where diploid cells cannot survive. However, in somatic cells it occurs at the expense of specific function, thus promoting developmental programming of adult cardiovascular diseases and increasing the risk of cancer. Notably, genes arising via evolutionary polyploidization are heavily involved in cancer and other diseases. Ploidy-related changes of gene expression presumably originate from chromatin modifications and the derepression of bivalent genes. The provided evidence elucidates the role of polyploidy in evolution, development, aging, and carcinogenesis, and may contribute to the development of new strategies for promoting regeneration and preventing cardiovascular diseases and cancer.
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Dysfunction of lipid storage droplet-2 suppresses endoreplication and induces JNK pathway-mediated apoptotic cell death in Drosophila salivary glands. Sci Rep 2022; 12:4302. [PMID: 35277579 PMCID: PMC8917166 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-08299-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2021] [Accepted: 02/16/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
The lipid storage droplet-2 (LSD-2) protein of Drosophila is a homolog of mammalian perilipin 2, which is essential for promoting lipid accumulation and lipid droplet formation. The function of LSD-2 as a regulator of lipolysis has also been demonstrated. However, other LSD-2 functions remain unclear. To investigate the role of LSD-2, we performed tissue-specific depletion in the salivary glands of Drosophila using a combination of the Gal4-upstream activating sequence system and RNA interference. LSD-2 depletion inhibited the entry of salivary gland cells into the endoreplication cycle and delayed this process by enhancing CycE expression, disrupting the development of this organ. The deficiency of LSD-2 expression enhanced reactive oxygen species production in the salivary gland and promoted JNK-dependent apoptosis by suppressing dMyc expression. This phenomenon did not result from lipolysis. Therefore, LSD-2 is vital for endoreplication cell cycle and cell death programs.
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Zemans RL. Polypoloidy in Lung Regeneration: Double Trouble or Dynamic Duo? Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 2022; 66:481-483. [PMID: 35271434 PMCID: PMC9116353 DOI: 10.1165/rcmb.2022-0062ed] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Rachel L Zemans
- University of Michigan, 1259, Medicine, Ann Arbor, Michigan, United States;
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45
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In Vivo Methods to Monitor Cardiomyocyte Proliferation. J Cardiovasc Dev Dis 2022; 9:jcdd9030073. [PMID: 35323621 PMCID: PMC8950582 DOI: 10.3390/jcdd9030073] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2022] [Revised: 02/28/2022] [Accepted: 03/01/2022] [Indexed: 12/07/2022] Open
Abstract
Adult mammalian cardiomyocytes demonstrate scarce cycling and even lower proliferation rates in response to injury. Signals that enhance cardiomyocyte proliferation after injury will be groundbreaking, address unmet clinical needs, and represent new strategies to treat cardiovascular diseases. In vivo methods to monitor cardiomyocyte proliferation are critical to addressing this challenge. Fortunately, advances in transgenic approaches provide sophisticated techniques to quantify cardiomyocyte cycling and proliferation.
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46
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Abstract
Polyploidy is a common and dynamic feature of mature rodent and human hepatocytes. While polyploidization occurs naturally during growth, alterations in the distribution of diploid and polyploid cells in the liver can be indicative of tissue stress or a pathologic state. Here, we describe a method for flow cytometric quantification of ploidy distribution by staining with propidium iodide. We first outline a hepatocyte isolation procedure from mouse liver through a two-step perfusion system for analysis of cellular ploidy. In an alternative approach, we employ a nuclei isolation protocol to assess nuclear ploidy. Finally, we describe how the use of fluorescent cell markers is compatible with these methods and helps retain information on cellular position within the tissue.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yinhua Jin
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Department of Developmental Biology, Institute for Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Teni Anbarchian
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Department of Developmental Biology, Institute for Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Roel Nusse
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Department of Developmental Biology, Institute for Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA.
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47
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Anatskaya OV, Vinogradov AE. Whole-Genome Duplications in Evolution, Ontogeny, and Pathology: Complexity and Emergency Reserves. Mol Biol 2021. [DOI: 10.1134/s0026893321050022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
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48
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Wang N, Hao F, Shi Y, Wang J. The Controversial Role of Polyploidy in Hepatocellular Carcinoma. Onco Targets Ther 2021; 14:5335-5344. [PMID: 34866913 PMCID: PMC8636953 DOI: 10.2147/ott.s340435] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2021] [Accepted: 11/16/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Polyploidy, a physiological phenomenon in which cells contain more than two sets of homologous chromosomes, commonly exists in plants, fish, and amphibians but is rare in mammals. In humans, polyploid cells are detected commonly in specific organs or tissues including the heart, marrow, and liver. As the largest solid organ in the body, the liver is responsible for a myriad of functions, most of which are closely related to polyploid hepatocytes. It has been confirmed that polyploid hepatocytes are related to liver regeneration, homeostasis, terminal differentiation, and aging. Polyploid hepatocytes accumulate during the aging process as well as in chronically injured livers. The relationship between polyploid hepatocytes and hepatocellular carcinoma, the endpoint of most chronic liver diseases, is not yet fully understood. Recently, accumulated evidence has revealed that polyploid involves in the process of tumorigenesis and development. The study of the correlation and relationship between polyploidy hepatocytes and the development of hepatocellular carcinoma can potentially promote the prevention, early diagnosis, and treatment of hepatocellular carcinoma. In this review, we conclude the potential mechanisms of polyploid hepatocytes formation, focusing on the specific biological significance of polyploid hepatocytes. In addition, we examine recent discoveries that have begun to clarify the relevance between polyploid hepatocytes and hepatocellular carcinoma and discuss recent excellent findings that reveal the role of polyploid hepatocytes as resisters of hepatocellular carcinoma or as promoters of hepatocarcinogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nan Wang
- Department of General Surgery, Ruijin Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, People's Republic of China
| | - Fengjie Hao
- Department of General Surgery, Ruijin Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, People's Republic of China
| | - Yan Shi
- Department of Oncology, Ruijin Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, People's Republic of China
| | - Junqing Wang
- Department of General Surgery, Ruijin Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, People's Republic of China
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49
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Clay DE, Bretscher HS, Jezuit EA, Bush KB, Fox DT. Persistent DNA damage signaling and DNA polymerase theta promote broken chromosome segregation. J Cell Biol 2021; 220:e202106116. [PMID: 34613334 PMCID: PMC8500225 DOI: 10.1083/jcb.202106116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2021] [Revised: 08/24/2021] [Accepted: 09/14/2021] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Cycling cells must respond to DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs) to avoid genome instability. Missegregation of chromosomes with DSBs during mitosis results in micronuclei, aberrant structures linked to disease. How cells respond to DSBs during mitosis is incompletely understood. We previously showed that Drosophilamelanogaster papillar cells lack DSB checkpoints (as observed in many cancer cells). Here, we show that papillar cells still recruit early acting repair machinery (Mre11 and RPA3) and the Fanconi anemia (FA) protein Fancd2 to DSBs. These proteins persist as foci on DSBs as cells enter mitosis. Repair foci are resolved in a stepwise manner during mitosis. DSB repair kinetics depends on both monoubiquitination of Fancd2 and the alternative end-joining protein DNA polymerase θ. Disruption of either or both of these factors causes micronuclei after DNA damage, which disrupts intestinal organogenesis. This study reveals a mechanism for how cells with inactive DSB checkpoints can respond to DNA damage that persists into mitosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Delisa E. Clay
- Department of Cell Biology, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC
| | - Heidi S. Bretscher
- Department of Pharmacology and Cancer Biology, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC
| | - Erin A. Jezuit
- Department of Pharmacology and Cancer Biology, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC
| | - Korie B. Bush
- University Program in Genetics and Genomics, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC
| | - Donald T. Fox
- Department of Cell Biology, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC
- Department of Pharmacology and Cancer Biology, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC
- University Program in Genetics and Genomics, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC
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50
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Fantone S, Tossetta G, Graciotti L, Galosi AB, Skrami E, Marzioni D, Morroni M. Identification of multinucleated cells in human kidney cortex: A way for tissue repairing? J Anat 2021; 240:985-990. [PMID: 34778949 PMCID: PMC9005679 DOI: 10.1111/joa.13595] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2021] [Revised: 11/04/2021] [Accepted: 11/05/2021] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
The presence of multinucleated cells has never been demonstrated in renal tissue, although, polyploid cells were recently observed in the tubules of normal and pathological human kidney. Therefore, the aim of the present study is to identify and quantify, by electron microscopy, multinucleated cells in the cortical tissue of normal human kidney i.e., in the three compartments of renal tubule: the proximal tubule (PT), the distal tubule (DT), and the collecting duct (CD), as well as, in the glomerulus (podocytes). The percentage of the multinucleated cells observed was 5% (95%CI: 3.6%–6.7%) in renal cortical tubules with distribution in each tubular compartment of 6% in PT, 4% in DT and 3% in CD with no statistically significant difference in the distribution of multinucleated cells according to tubular compartments. Four percent of analysed podocytes (in total 149 podocytes) were multinucleated (95%CI: 1.5%−8.6%). In conclusion, multinucleated cells were identified and quantified in functionally normal kidneys, as previously demonstrated in other organs such as the liver.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sonia Fantone
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Medicine, Section of Neuroscience and Cell Biology, School of Medicine, Università Politecnica delle Marche, Ancona, Italy
| | - Giovanni Tossetta
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Medicine, Section of Neuroscience and Cell Biology, School of Medicine, Università Politecnica delle Marche, Ancona, Italy
| | - Laura Graciotti
- Department of Clinical and Molecular Sciences, Section of Experimental Pathology, Università Politecnica delle Marche, Ancona, Italy
| | - Andrea Benedetto Galosi
- Division of Urology, Department of Clinical and Specialist Sciences, Università Politecnica delle Marche, Azienda Ospedaliero-Universitaria Ospedali Riuniti, Ancona, Italy
| | - Edlira Skrami
- Centre of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Università Politecnica delle Marche, Ancona, Italy
| | - Daniela Marzioni
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Medicine, Section of Neuroscience and Cell Biology, School of Medicine, Università Politecnica delle Marche, Ancona, Italy
| | - Manrico Morroni
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Medicine, Section of Neuroscience and Cell Biology, School of Medicine, Università Politecnica delle Marche, Ancona, Italy.,Electron Microscopy Unit, Azienda Ospedaliero-Universitaria Ospedali Riuniti, Ancona, Italy
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