Adjunctive canakinumab reduces peripheral inflammation markers and improves positive symptoms in people with schizophrenia and inflammation: A randomized control trial

BACKGROUND

Clinical trials of anti-inflammatories in schizophrenia do not show clear and replicable benefits, possibly because patients were not recruited based on elevated inflammation status. Interleukin 1-beta (IL-1β) mRNA and protein levels are increased in serum, plasma, cerebrospinal fluid, and brain of some chronically ill patients with schizophrenia, first episode psychosis, and clinical high-risk individuals. Canakinumab, an approved anti-IL-1β monoclonal antibody, interferes with the bioactivity of IL-1β and interrupts downstream signaling. However, the extent to which canakinumab reduces peripheral inflammation markers, such as, high sensitivity C-reactive protein (hsCRP) and symptom severity in schizophrenia patients with inflammation is unknown.

TRIAL DESIGN

We conducted a randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind, parallel groups, 8-week trial of canakinumab in chronically ill patients with schizophrenia who had elevated peripheral inflammation.

METHODS

Twenty-seven patients with schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder and elevated peripheral inflammation markers (IL-1β, IL-6, hsCRP and/or neutrophil to lymphocyte ratio: NLR) were randomized to a one-time, subcutaneous injection of canakinumab (150 mg) or placebo (normal saline) as an adjunctive antipsychotic treatment. Peripheral blood hsCRP, NLR, IL-1β, IL-6, IL-8 levels were measured at baseline (pre injection) and at 1-, 4- and 8-weeks post injection. Symptom severity was assessed at baseline and 4- and 8-weeks post injection.

RESULTS

Canakinumab significantly reduced peripheral hsCRP over time, F(3, 75) = 5.16, p = 0.003. Significant hsCRP reductions relative to baseline were detected only in the canakinumab group at weeks 1, 4 and 8 (p's = 0.0003, 0.000002, and 0.004, respectively). There were no significant hsCRP changes in the placebo group. Positive symptom severity scores were significantly reduced at week 8 (p = 0.02) in the canakinumab group and week 4 (p = 0.02) in the placebo group. The change in CRP between week 8 and baseline (b = 1.9, p = 0.0002) and between week 4 and baseline (b = 6.0, p = 0.001) were highly significant predictors of week 8 change in PANSS Positive Symptom severity scores. There were no significant changes in negative symptoms, general psychopathology or cognition in either group. Canakinumab was well tolerated and only 7 % discontinued.

CONCLUSIONS

Canakinumab quickly reduces peripheral hsCRP serum levels in patients with schizophrenia and inflammation; after 8 weeks of canakinumab treatment, the reductions in hsCRP are related to reduced positive symptom severity. Future studies should consider increased doses or longer-term treatment to confirm the potential benefits of adjunctive canakinumab in schizophrenia. Australian and New Zealand Clinical Trials Registry number: ACTRN12615000635561.

Deoxynivalenol hijacks the pathway of Janus kinase 2/signal transducers and activators of transcription 3 (JAK2/STAT-3) to drive caspase-3-mediated apoptosis in intestinal porcine epithelial cells

Deoxynivalenol (DON) can easily injure the intestinal tract, which represents the first barrier against food contaminants. The intestinal toxicity induced by DON was mainly focused on mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) activation, however, the underlying mechanisms by which DON triggers apoptosis by other pathways remain poorly understood. In this study, the Janus kinase 2/signal transducers and activators of transcription 3 (JAK2/STAT-3) pathway was proposed to regulate the intrinsic apoptosis induced by DON and thoroughly investigated in intestinal porcine epithelial cells (IPEC-J2). First, DON was found to be able to efficiently inhibit cell viability and increase the release of lactate dehydrogenase. It could also enhance the activity of the cleaved caspase-3 in a time-dependent manner, accompanied by a loss of mitochondrial membrane potential and an up-regulation of the apoptosis rate. Then, the expression of genes associated with inflammation and apoptosis were investigated. DON increased the expression of IL-6, IL-1β, TNF-α, SOCS3 and Bax, but decreased the expression of Bcl-2 and Bcl-xL. Moreover, we discovered that DON robustly inhibited STAT-3 activity together with the down-regulation of JAK2, Bcl-2 and Bcl-xL, paralleling the increase in p38 phosphorylation. Furthermore, a pharmacological activation of JAK2/STAT-3 alleviated DON induced-apoptosis. Concurrent with the apoptotic pathway, during the initial exposure to DON (first 4 h), a survival pathway involving phosphorylated Erk1/2, Akt, and FoxO1 was also observed. Thus, apoptosis induced by DON was Janus faced: although the survival pathway was activated, the DON-induced apoptotic JAK2/STAT-3/caspase-3 pathway dominated, leading to an imbalance in cell homeostasis. This study provides a novel avenue to comprehensively reveal the pathological mechanisms of DON-induced intestinal disorders, which is promising for future applications to other contaminants in food and feed.

IL-6 in the Ecosystem of Head and Neck Cancer: Possible Therapeutic Perspectives

Interleukin-6 (IL-6) is a highly potent cytokine involved in multiple biological processes. It was previously reported to play a distinct role in inflammation, autoimmune and psychiatric disorders, ageing and various types of cancer. Furthermore, it is understood that IL-6 and its signaling pathways are substantial players in orchestrating the cancer microenvironment. Thus, they appear to be potential targets in anti-tumor therapy. The aim of this article is to elucidate the role of IL-6 in the tumor ecosystem and to review the possible therapeutic approaches in head and neck cancer.

Inflammatory dysregulation in women with an eating disorder: Relationships with altered emotional reactivity

BACKGROUND

Some studies suggest that inflammatory signaling dysregulation may contribute to eating disorder (ED) pathophysiology. However, little is known about the influence of inflammatory response on altered processes seen among patients with ED, such as emotional processing and reactivity.

OBJECTIVES

The objectives were: (a) to investigate the systemic inflammatory response in ED women; and (b) to analyze the role of inflammatory markers in emotional reactivity.

METHOD

Concentrations of several intercellular and intracellular inflammatory mediators (cytokines, prostaglandin by-products and enzymes, TBARS, and MAPK proteins) were quantified in plasma and PBMCs from 68 women with an ED (m = 22.01 years, SD = 9.15) and 35 healthy controls (m = 18.54 years, SD = 4.21). Moreover, emotional reactivity to affective pictures (those without either food or thinness content) was studied using the adult (>18 years old) sample (n = 41).

RESULTS

Between-group differences were revealed for most markers (TNF-α, PGE₂ , COX2, and ratio of activated MAPK proteins), pointing to increased inflammatory response in patients (p < .01). Women with ED showed heightened emotional reactivity, regardless of picture valence. Principal components derived from inflammatory markers showed an explanatory loading on patient's emotional reaction, in terms of valence and arousal.

CONCLUSION

This study corroborates the altered systemic inflammatory response in patients with ED. The inflammatory dysregulation may contribute to ED phenotype, as seen by its relationship with heightened emotional reactivity, even though the inflammatory markers were not evaluated throughout the emotional reactivity protocol.

Cytokines: From Clinical Significance to Quantification

Cytokines are critical mediators that oversee and regulate immune and inflammatory responses via complex networks and serve as biomarkers for many diseases. Quantification of cytokines has significant value in both clinical medicine and biology as the levels provide insights into physiological and pathological processes and can be used to aid diagnosis and treatment. Cytokines and their clinical significance are introduced from the perspective of their pro- and anti-inflammatory effects. Factors affecting cytokines quantification in biological fluids, native levels in different body fluids, sample processing and storage conditions, sensitivity to freeze-thaw, and soluble cytokine receptors are discussed. In addition, recent advances in in vitro and in vivo assays, biosensors based on different signal outputs and intracellular to extracellular protein expression are summarized. Various quantification platforms for high-sensitivity and reliable measurement of cytokines in different scenarios are discussed, and commercially available cytokine assays are compared. A discussion of challenges in the development and advancement of technologies for cytokine quantification that aim to achieve real-time multiplex cytokine analysis for point-of-care situations applicable for both biomedical research and clinical practice are discussed.

Endosomes as Signaling Platforms for IL-6 Family Cytokine Receptors

Interleukin-6 (IL-6) is the name-giving cytokine of a family of eleven members, including IL-6, CNTF, LIF, and IL-27. IL-6 was first recognized as a B-cell stimulating factor but we now know that the cytokine plays a pivotal role in the orchestration of inflammatory processes as well as in inflammation associated cancer. Moreover, IL-6 is involved in metabolic regulation and it has been shown to be involved in major neural activities such as neuroprotection, which can help to repair and to reduce brain damage. Receptor complexes of all members formed at the plasma membrane contain one or two molecules of the signaling receptor subunit GP130 and the mechanisms of signal transduction are well understood. IL-6 type cytokines can also signal from endomembranes, in particular the endosome, and situations have been reported in which endocytosis of receptor complexes are a prerequisite of intracellular signaling. Moreover, pathogenic GP130 variants were shown to interfere with spatial activation of downstream signals. We here summarize the molecular mechanisms underlying spatial regulation of IL-6 family cytokine signaling and discuss its relevance for pathogenic processes.

A roadmap to target interleukin-6 in osteoarthritis

Joint inflammation is present in the majority of OA patients and pro-inflammatory mediators, such as IL-6, are actively involved in disease progression. Increased levels of IL-6 in serum or synovial fluid from OA patients correlate with disease incidence and severity, with IL-6 playing a pivotal role in the development of cartilage pathology, e.g. via induction of matrix-degrading enzymes. However, IL-6 also increases expression of anti-catabolic factors, suggesting a protective role. Until now, this dual role of IL-6 is incompletely understood and may be caused by differential effects of IL-6 classic vs trans-signalling. Here, we review current evidence regarding the role of IL-6 classic- and trans-signalling in local joint pathology of cartilage, synovium and bone. Furthermore, we discuss targeting of IL-6 in experimental OA models and provide future perspective for OA treatment by evaluating currently available IL-6 targeting strategies.

The immunomodulatory potentials of interleukin-27 in airway allergies

Allergic airway disorders such as asthma and allergic rhinitis are mainly caused by inhaled allergen-induced improper activation and responses of immune and non-immune cells. One important response is the production of IL-27 by macrophages and dendritic cells (DCs) during the early stage of airway allergies. IL-27 exerts powerful modulatory influences on the cells of innate immunity [eg neutrophils, eosinophils, mast cells, monocytes, macrophages, dendritic cells (DCs), innate lymphoid cells (ILCs), natural killer (NK) cells and NKT cells)] and adaptive immunity (eg Th1, Th2, Th9, Th17, regulatory T, CD8⁺ cytotoxic T and B cells). The IL-27-mediated signalling pathways may be modulated to attenuate asthma and allergic rhinitis. In this review, a comprehensive discussion concerning the roles carried out by IL-27 in asthma and allergic rhinitis was provided, while evidences are presented favouring the use of IL-27 in the treatment of airway allergies.

Cytokines in Inflammatory Disease

This review aims to briefly discuss a short list of a broad variety of inflammatory cytokines. Numerous studies have implicated that inflammatory cytokines exert important effects with regard to various inflammatory diseases, yet the reports on their specific roles are not always consistent. They can be used as biomarkers to indicate or monitor disease or its progress, and also may serve as clinically applicable parameters for therapies. Yet, their precise role is not always clearly defined. Thus, in this review, we focus on the existing literature dealing with the biology of cytokines interleukin (IL)-6, IL-1, IL-33, tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), IL-10, and IL-8. We will briefly focus on the correlations and role of these inflammatory mediators in the genesis of inflammatory impacts (e.g., shock, trauma, immune dysregulation, osteoporosis, and/or critical illness).

Gp130 degradation induced by epirubicin contributes to chemotherapy efficacy

Two anthracyclines, doxorubicin and epirubicin have been widely used alone or in combination with other antitumor reagents in the chemotherapeutic treatment of various malignancies. Although therapeutic efficacy of anthracyclines has been studied extensively, precise cytotoxic mechanism of these drugs is not been completely elucidated. Here we show that epirubicin-induced degradation of transmembrane protein gp130 contributes to antitumor effect of epirubicin. gp130 is degraded by epirubicin in a proteasome- and autophagy-dependent manner. Epirubicin induces activation of p38-MK2 signaling pathway to phosphorylate gp130 at Ser 782, which results in gp130 internalization and degradation by lysosome. Although mutation of Ser 782 to Ala or Cys in gp130 upregulates global epirubicin-induced autophagy, reduced degradation of gp130 accompanied with enhanced Stat3 phosphorylation at tyrosine 705 is observed. We also show that epirubicin-resistant tumor cells express higher level of gp130. Altogether, our results indicate that degradation of gp130 and subsequent reduction of gp130-Stat3 signaling contributes to epirubicin-induced tumor cell death.

Unravelling fatty liver haemorrhagic syndrome: 2. Inflammation and pathophysiology

To study the role of inflammation in the pathophysiology of the fatty liver haemorrhagic syndrome (FLHS), mature laying hens were treated with oestrogen (β-oestradiol-17-dipropionate or E₂) and challenged with lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Oestrogen injections induced FLHS, but the incidence and severity of the condition was increased with a combination of E₂ & LPS. Hepatic mRNA levels of the genes encoding key regulators of inflammation, such as interleukin-1β (IL-1β), interleukin-6 (IL-6) and interleukin-18 (IL-18), were evaluated. The expression of IL-6 mRNA in hepatocytes of all treated groups (E₂, LPS and E₂ & LPS hens) was elevated from 6-fold to 56-fold (P < 0.01), when compared to baseline and control values, with the highest fold change at 3 h post-treatment. The mRNA levels for IL-1β were better expressed at 24 h post-treatments with E₂, LPS and E₂ & LPS. The expression of IL-18 mRNA in the liver tissue was lower than IL-1β and IL-6 mRNA in all treated birds. At 24 h post-treatment, total white blood cell (WBC) counts and fibrinogen levels were elevated (P < 0.05) in E₂-, LPS- and E₂- & LPS-treated hens. Histologically, livers of hens from E₂- and E₂- & LPS-treated groups revealed inflammatory alterations with areas showing mononuclear aggregations, vacuolar fatty degeneration of hepatocytes, and increased sinusoidal congestion and haemorrhages. It was concluded that liver lipid accumulation and injury were associated with incidences of local (hepatic) and systemic inflammation, which could have initiated liver blood vessel and capsule rupture and, subsequently, the onset of FLHS.

The multi-site docking protein Grb2-associated binder 1 (Gab1) enhances interleukin-6-induced MAPK-pathway activation in an SHP2-, Grb2-, and time-dependent manner

Background

Cytokine-dependent activation of signalling pathways is tightly orchestrated. The spatiotemporal activation of signalling pathways dictates the specific physiological responses to cytokines. Dysregulated signalling accounts for neoplastic, developmental, and inflammatory diseases. Grb2-associated binder (Gab) family proteins are multi-site docking proteins, which expand cytokine-induced signal transduction in a spatial- and time-dependent manner by coordinating the recruitment of proteins involved in mitogen activated protein kinase (MAPK)/extracellular-signal regulated kinase (ERK) and phosphatidyl-inositol-3-kinase (PI3K) signalling. Interaction of Gab family proteins with these signalling proteins determines strength, duration and localization of active signalling cascades. However, the underlying molecular mechanisms of signal orchestration by Gab family proteins in IL-6-induced signalling are only scarcely understood.

Methods

We performed kinetic analyses of interleukin-6 (IL-6)-induced MAPK activation and analysed downstream responses. We compared signalling in wild-type cells, Gab1 knock-out cells, those reconstituted to express Gab1 mutants, and cells expressing gp130 receptors or receptor mutants.

Results

Interleukin-6-induced MAPK pathway activation can be sub-divided into an early Gab1-independent and a subsequent Gab1-dependent phase. Early Gab1-independent MAPK activation is critical for the subsequent initiation of Gab1-dependent amplification of MAPK pathway activation and requires binding of SH2 domain-containing phosphatase 2 (SHP2) to the interleukin-6 receptor complex. Subsequent and coordinated recruitment of Grb2 and SHP2 to Gab1 is essential for Gab1-dependent amplification of IL-6-induced late MAPK pathway activation and subsequent gene expression.

Conclusions

Overall, we elaborated the molecular requirements for Gab1-dependent, spatiotemporal orchestration of interleukin-6-dependent MAPK signalling. We discriminated IL-6-induced Gab1-independent, early activation of MAPK signalling and Gab1-dependent, sustained activation of MAPK signalling.

Hydrophobic Organic Components of Ambient Fine Particulate Matter (PM2.5) Associated with Inflammatory Cellular Response

Nowadays, knowledge regarding component-specific inflammatory effect of fine particulate matter (PM_2.5) is limited. In this study, an omics approach based on time-of-flight mass spectrometry was established to identify the key hydrophobic components of PM_2.5 associated with pro-inflammatory cytokines released by macrophages after in vitro exposure. Of 764 compounds, 62 components were robustly screened with firmly identified 37 specific chemicals. In addition to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and their methylated congeners, novel oxygen- and nitrogen-containing PAHs and, especially, oxygenated PAHs (Oxy-PAHs) were identified. Interleukin (IL)-6 was associated with Oxy-PAHs of 1,8-naphthalic anhydride, xanthone, and benzo[h]quinolone, especially, whereas IL-1β and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α were associated with most species. Most species were related to IL-1β, which was significantly higher in the heating season, with a monotonic dose-response pattern mainly for Oxy-PAHs and a U-shaped dose-response pattern for primary species. On the basis of the identified components, four sources of pollution (coal combustion, traffic emissions, biomass burning, and secondary formation, traced by Oxy-PAHs such as 1,8-naphthalic anhydride and quinones) were resolved by the positive matrix factorization model. TNF-α was associated with primary sources, whereas IL-1β and IL-6 were associated with both primary and secondary sources, suggesting different inflammatory effects between primary and secondary sources when assessing the toxicity-driven disparities of known and unknown PM_2.5 components.

Cooperative and distinct functions of MK2 and MK3 in the regulation of the macrophage transcriptional response to lipopolysaccharide

The p38^MAPK downstream targets MAPKAP kinases (MK) 2 and 3 are critical for the regulation of the macrophage response to LPS. The extents to which these two kinases act cooperatively and distinctly in regulating LPS-induced inflammatory cytokine expression are still unclear. To address this uncertainty, whole transcriptome analyses were performed using bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMDM) generated from MK2^−/− or MK2/3^−/− animals and their wild-type littermates. The results suggest that in BMDM, MK2 and MK3 not only cooperatively regulate the transcript expression of signaling intermediates, including IL-10, IL-19, CXCL2 and the IL-4 receptor (IL-4R)α subunit, they also exert distinct regulatory effects on the expression of specific transcripts. Based on the differential regulation of gene expression by MK2 and MK3, at least six regulatory patterns were identified. Importantly, we confirmed our previous finding, which showed that in the absence of MK2, MK3 negatively regulates IFN-β. Moreover, this genome-wide analysis identified the regulation of Cr1A, NOD1 and Serpina3f as similar to that of IFN-β. In the absence of MK2, MK3 also delayed the nuclear translocation of NFκB by delaying the ubiquitination and subsequent degradation of IκBβ, reflecting the substantial plasticity of the response of BMDM to LPS.

Intragenic regulation of SOCS3 isoforms

Background

Inflammatory reactions are commonly affected by stress responses. Interleukin-6 signalling is part of the inflammatory response and is stringently regulated by the feedback inhibitor SOCS3 expressed in a short and long isoform. Here, we studied the inhibitory potential of the two SOCS3 isoforms. Furthermore, we analysed the regulation of SOCS3 isoform expression and the role of PKR stress kinase signalling in SOCS3 protein expression.

Methods

We performed Western blotting, reporter assays, genetic analyses and manipulations for studying SOCS3 isoform expression and activation of signalling components involved in interleukin-6-induced and PKR-dependent signalling.

Results

Interleukin-6-induced endogenous expression of both SOCS3 isoforms was found in distinct cell types. Forced expression of either the long or short SOCS3 isoform demonstrated equal inhibitory activity of each isoform and confirmed longer half-life of the short isoform. Study of intragenic regulation of SOCS3 isoform expression revealed that (i) the 5′-UTR of SOCS3 mRNA restrains specifically expression of the long SOCS3 isoform, (ii) expression of the long isoform restrains expression of the short isoform, and (iii) signalling through the stress kinase PKR does not impact on SOCS3 isoform ratio.

Conclusions

Both SOCS3 isoforms show a similar potential for inhibiting interleukin-6 signalling but differ in their half-lives. Relative expression of the isoforms depends on intragenic elements yet is independent of PKR signalling.

Graphic abstract

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s12964-019-0379-6) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Modulation of the IL-6-Signaling Pathway in Liver Cells by miRNAs Targeting gp130, JAK1, and/or STAT3

Interleukin-6 (IL-6)-type cytokines share the common receptor glycoprotein 130 (gp130), which activates a signaling cascade involving Janus kinases (JAKs) and signal transducer and activator of transcription (STAT) transcription factors. IL-6 and/or its signaling pathway is often deregulated in diseases, such as chronic liver diseases and cancer. Thus, the identification of compounds inhibiting this pathway is of interest for future targeted therapies. We established novel cellular screening systems based on a STAT-responsive reporter gene (Cypridina luciferase). Of a library containing 538 microRNA (miRNA) mimics, several miRNAs affected hyper-IL-6-induced luciferase activities. When focusing on candidate miRNAs specifically targeting 3′ UTRs of signaling molecules of this pathway, we identified, e.g., miR-3677-5p as a novel miRNA affecting protein expression of both STAT3 and JAK1, whereas miR-16-1-3p, miR-4473, and miR-520f-3p reduced gp130 surface expression. Interestingly, combination treatment with 2 or 3 miRNAs targeting gp130 or different signaling molecules of the pathway did not increase the inhibitory effects on phospho-STAT3 levels and STAT3 target gene expression compared to treatment with single mimics. Taken together, we identified a set of miRNAs of potential therapeutic value for cancer and inflammatory diseases, which directly target the expression of molecules within the IL-6-signaling pathway and can dampen inflammatory signal transduction.

IL-6 Impairs Vaccine Responses in Neonatal Mice

The inability of infants to mount proper follicular helper T (T_FH) cell response renders this age group susceptible to infectious diseases. Initial instruction of T cells by antigen presenting cells and subsequent differentiation into T_FH cells are controlled by T cell receptor signal strength, co-stimulatory molecules and cytokines such as IL-6 and IL-21. In immunized adults, IL-6 promotes T_FH development by increasing the expression of CXCR5 and the T_FH master transcription factor, B cell lymphoma 6. Underscoring the importance of IL-6 in T_FH generation, we found improved antibody responses accompanied by increased T_FH cells and decreased follicular regulatory helper T (T_FR) cells, a Foxp3 expressing inhibitory CD4⁺ T cell occupying the germinal center (GC), when a tetanus toxoid conjugated pneumococcal polysaccharide type 14 vaccine was injected in adult mice together with IL-6. Paradoxically, in neonates IL-6 containing PPS14-TT vaccine suppressed the already impaired T_FH development and antibody responses in addition to increasing T_FR cell population. Supporting the diminished T_FH development, we detected lower frequency of phospho-STAT-3⁺ T_FH in immunized neonatal T cells after IL-6 stimulation than adult cells. Moreover, IL-6 induced more phospho-STAT-3⁺ T_FR in neonatal cells than adult cells. We also measured lower expression of IL-6R on T_FH cells and higher expression on T_FR cells in neonatal cells than adult cells, a possible explanation for the difference in IL-6 induced signaling in different age groups. Supporting the flow cytometry findings, microscopic examination revealed the localization of T_reg cells in the splenic interfollicular niches of immunized adult mice compared to splenic follicles in neonatal mice. In addition to the limitations in the formation of IL-21 producing T_FH cells, neonatal mice GC B cells also expressed lower levels of IL-21R in comparison to the adult mice cells. These findings point to diminished IL-6 activity on neonatal T_FH cells as an underlying mechanism of the increased T_FR: T_FH ratio in immunized neonatal mice.

Drosophila Jak/STAT Signaling: Regulation and Relevance in Human Cancer and Metastasis

Over the past three-decades, Janus kinase (Jak) and signal transducer and activator of transcription (STAT) signaling has emerged as a paradigm to understand the involvement of signal transduction in development and disease pathology. At the molecular level, cytokines and interleukins steer Jak/STAT signaling to transcriptional regulation of target genes, which are involved in cell differentiation, migration, and proliferation. Jak/STAT signaling is involved in various types of blood cell disorders and cancers in humans, and its activation is associated with carcinomas that are more invasive or likely to become metastatic. Despite immense information regarding Jak/STAT regulation, the signaling network has numerous missing links, which is slowing the progress towards developing drug therapies. In mammals, many components act in this cascade, with substantial cross-talk with other signaling pathways. In Drosophila, there are fewer pathway components, which has enabled significant discoveries regarding well-conserved regulatory mechanisms. Work across species illustrates the relevance of these regulators in humans. In this review, we showcase fundamental Jak/STAT regulation mechanisms in blood cells, stem cells, and cell motility. We examine the functional relevance of key conserved regulators from Drosophila to human cancer stem cells and metastasis. Finally, we spotlight less characterized regulators of Drosophila Jak/STAT signaling, which stand as promising candidates to be investigated in cancer biology. These comparisons illustrate the value of using Drosophila as a model for uncovering the roles of Jak/STAT signaling and the molecular means by which the pathway is controlled.

Behavior of C-reactive protein in association with surgery of facial fracture and the influence of dexamethasone

PURPOSE

To clarify pre- and postoperative C-reactive protein (CRP) levels in patients with facial fractures and to investigate the influence of perioperatively administered dexamethasone on postoperative CRP levels.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

Facial fracture patients were randomized to receive perioperatively a total dose of 30 mg of dexamethasone (Oradexon®), whereas patients in the control group received no glucocorticoid. The analysis included patients who had CRP measured pre- and postoperatively.

RESULTS

A total of 73 adult patients with facial fractures were included in the final analysis. Mean CRP level was elevated preoperatively and the level increased further after surgery. However, postoperative CRP rise was significantly impeded by dexamethasone (p < 0.001), regardless of gender, age, treatment delay, site of fracture, surgical approach, and duration of surgery. CRP rise halved on the 1st postoperative day when dexamethasone was used. In addition, dexamethasone resulted in a CRP decrease on the 2nd postoperative day, whereas the CRP rise continued in the control group.

CONCLUSIONS

CRP rise is a normal body response after facial fracture and surgery that can be markedly reduced with dexamethasone. CRP changes should be considered with caution if perioperative dexamethasone is used.

The physiopathologic interplay between stem cells and tissue niche in muscle regeneration and the role of IL-6 on muscle homeostasis and diseases

Skeletal muscle is a complex, dynamic tissue characterized by an elevated plasticity. Although the adult muscle is mainly composed of multinucleated fibers with post mitotic nuclei, it retains a remarkable ability to regenerate in response to traumatic events. The regenerative potential of the adult skeletal muscle relies in the activity of satellite cells, mononucleated cells residing within the muscle in intimate association with myofibers. Satellite cells normally remain quiescent in their sublaminar position, sporadically entering the cell cycle to guarantee an efficient cellular turnover, by fusing with pre-existing myofibers, and to maintain the stem cell pool. However, after muscle injury satellite cells undergo an extensive increase of their activity in response to environmental stimuli, thereby participating to the regeneration of a functional muscle tissue. Nevertheless, regeneration is affected in several pathologic conditions and by a wide range of environmental signals that are highly variable, not only through time, but also depending on the physiological or pathological conditions of the musculature. Among these factors, the interleukin-6 (IL-6) plays a critical physiopathologic role on muscle homeostasis and diseases. The basis of muscle regeneration and the impact of IL-6 on the physiopathology of skeletal muscle will be discussed.

Protective effect of rutin against brain injury induced by acrylamide or gamma radiation: role of PI3K/AKT/GSK-3β/NRF-2 signalling pathway

This study was designed to evaluate the effect of rutin on PI3K/AKT-signalling in case of acrylamide or γ-radiation-induced neurotoxicity. To induce brain damage, animals were received acrylamide (25 mg/kg b.wt./orally/day) or 5 Gy of γ-radiation exposure accompanied with an administration of rutin (200 mg/kg b.wt./orally/day). Our data revealed that, compared to acrylamide or γ-radiation, rutin activated PI3K/AKT/GSK-3β/NRF-2-pathway through increased protein levels of p-PI3K, p-AKT and p-GSK-3β and up-regulated the expression of NRF-2. This was achieved by modulating MDA, GST, IL-1β, IL-6 and reduced the interference of ROS with IGF-1 and NGF stimulating the PI3K/AKT-signaling. Furthermore, histopathological examinations of brain tissues showed that rutin has modulated tissue architecture after acrylamide or γ-radiation induced tissue damage. It could be concluded that rutin provides protection effect against acrylamide or γ-radiation-induced neurotoxicity via activation of the PI3K/AKT/GSK-3β/NRF-2-pathway by altering the phosphorylation state through its ability to scavenge free radicals generation, modulating gene expression and its anti-inflammatory effects.

Proteomic Analysis of Human Adipose Derived Stem Cells during Small Molecule Chemical Stimulated Pre-neuronal Differentiation

Background

Adipose derived stem cells (ADSCs) are acquired from abdominal liposuction yielding a thousand fold more stem cells per millilitre than those from bone marrow. A large research void exists as to whether ADSCs are capable of transdermal differentiation toward neuronal phenotypes. Previous studies have investigated the use of chemical cocktails with varying inconclusive results.

Methods

Human ADSCs were treated with a chemical stimulant, beta-mercaptoethanol, to direct them toward a neuronal-like lineage within 24 hours. Quantitative proteomics using iTRAQ was then performed to ascertain protein abundance differences between ADSCs, beta-mercaptoethanol treated ADSCs and a glioblastoma cell line.

Results

The soluble proteome of ADSCs differentiated for 12 hours and 24 hours was significantly different from basal ADSCs and control cells, expressing a number of remodeling, neuroprotective and neuroproliferative proteins. However toward the later time point presented stress and shock related proteins were observed to be up regulated with a large down regulation of structural proteins. Cytokine profiles support a large cellular remodeling shift as well indicating cellular distress.

Conclusion

The earlier time point indicates an initiation of differentiation. At the latter time point there is a vast loss of cell population during treatment. At 24 hours drastically decreased cytokine profiles and overexpression of stress proteins reveal that exposure to beta-mercaptoethanol beyond 24 hours may not be suitable for clinical application as our results indicate that the cells are in trauma whilst producing neuronal-like morphologies. The shorter treatment time is promising, indicating a reducing agent has fast acting potential to initiate neuronal differentiation of ADSCs.

Myxinidin2 and myxinidin3 suppress inflammatory responses through STAT3 and MAPKs to promote wound healing

Skin wounds are continuously exposed to bacteria and can easily become infected. Infected wounds require antibiotic treatment, and infections caused by drug-resistant bacteria are an important public health problem. Antimicrobial peptides have broad-spectrum antibacterial activity, induce little or no drug resistance and may be suitable for treating skin infections caused by drug-resistant bacteria. We previously reported the design and function of myxinidin and myxinidin analogues. Here we showed that myxinidin2 and myxinidin3 exhibit antimicrobial and anti-biofilm activities against antibiotic-resistant Staphylococcus aureus, Acinetobacter baumannii, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa in high salt environments and in gelatin. Moreover, these peptides facilitated infected wound healing by decreasing inflammation through suppression of IL-6, IL-8, and TNF-α and regulation of downstream mediators such as STAT3, p38, JNK, and EGFR. In a mouse skin wound model infected with antibiotic-resistant bacteria, myxinidin2 and myxinidin3 eliminated the infection and enhanced wound healing. We therefore propose the use of these peptides for treating infected wounds and burns.

The C-terminal domain of zDHHC2 contains distinct sorting signals that regulate intracellular localisation in neurons and neuroendocrine cells

The S-acyltransferase zDHHC2 mediates dynamic S-acylation of PSD95 and AKAP79/150, which impacts synaptic targeting of AMPA receptors. zDHHC2 is responsive to synaptic activity and catalyses the increased S-acylation of PSD95 that occurs following action potential blockade or application of ionotropic glutamate receptor antagonists. These treatments have been proposed to increase plasma membrane delivery of zDHHC2 via an endosomal cycling pathway, enhancing substrate accessibility. To generate an improved understanding of zDHHC2 trafficking and how this might be regulated by neuronal activity, we searched for intramolecular signals that regulate enzyme localisation. Two signals were mapped to the C-terminal tail of zDHHC2: a non-canonical dileucine motif [SxxxLL] and a downstream NP motif. Mutation of these signals enhanced plasma membrane accumulation of zDHHC2 in both neuroendocrine PC12 cells and rat hippocampal neurons, consistent with reduced endocytic retrieval. Furthermore, mutation of these signals also increased accumulation of the enzyme in neurites. Interestingly, several threonine and serine residues are adjacent to these sorting motifs and analysis of phospho-mimetic mutants highlighted a potential role for phosphorylation in regulating the efficacy of these signals. This study offers new molecular insight into the signals that determine zDHHC2 localisation and highlights a potential mechanism to regulate these trafficking signals.

•

Dynamic trafficking of zDHHC2 regulates the localisation of this S-acylation enzyme and controls access to its substrates.

•

Two separate (and atypical) sequences were identified within the C-terminal tail of zDHHC2 that affect enzyme localisation.

•

Mutating these motifs induced the accumulation of zDHHC2 at the plasma membrane of hippocampal neurons and PC12 cells.

•

Phosphorylation may be a potential mechanism to regulate the efficacy of these sorting signals.

Endocytosis of pro-inflammatory cytokine receptors and its relevance for signal transduction

The pro-inflammatory cytokines tumor necrosis factor (TNF), interleukin-1 (IL-1) and interleukin-6 (IL-6) are key players of the innate and adaptive immunity. Their activity needs to be tightly controlled to allow the initiation of an appropriate immune response as defense mechanism against pathogens or tissue injury. Excessive or sustained signaling of either of these cytokines leads to severe diseases, including rheumatoid arthritis, inflammatory bowel diseases (Crohn's disease, ulcerative colitis), steatohepatitis, periodic fevers and even cancer. Studies carried out in the last 30 years have emphasized that an elaborate control system for each of these cytokines exists. Here, we summarize what is currently known about the involvement of receptor endocytosis in the regulation of these pro-inflammatory cytokines' signaling cascades. Particularly in the last few years it was shown that this cellular process is far more than a mere feedback mechanism to clear cytokines from the circulation and to shut off their signal transduction.

Profile of Tumour Necrosis Factor Alpha -308 G/A Gene Polymorphism in Psoriatic Patients in Karnataka, India

INTRODUCTION

Tumour necrosis factor-alpha (TNFα) gene -308G/A polymorphism (rs1800629) are associated with psoriasis in several populations worldwide. Presently, there is no literature on the status of this polymorphism in the South Indian population.

AIM

To determine the profile of TNFα -308G/A polymorphism among psoriatic patients.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

This case-control study involved 74 patients with Psoriasis Vulgaris (PsV) and 74 age and gender matched healthy individuals. Patients were recruited from the Department of Dermatology of R.L. Jalappa Hospital and Research Center, Tamaka, Kolar, Karnataka, India, from March 2014 to March 2016. TNFα -308G/A polymorphism was genotyped by Polymerase Chain Reaction-Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (PCR-RFLP) method.

RESULTS

The frequency of TNFα -308A allele 7.4% among psoriatic and 8.8% among non-psoriatic individuals. The difference was not statistically significant (p=0.82).

CONCLUSION

Our results indicate that TNFα gene -308G/A polymorphism is not a significant marker for the risk of developing PsV among South Indian (Karnataka) psoriatic patients.

Modulation of Immunologic Response by Preventive Everolimus Application in a Rat CPB Model

Everolimus (EVL) is widely used in solid organ transplantation. It is known to have antiproliferative and immunosuppressive abilities via inhibition of the mTOR pathway. Preventive EVL administration may lower inflammation induced by cardiopulmonary bypass (CPB) and reduce systemic inflammatory response syndrome (SIRS). After oral loading with EVL 2.5 mg/kg/day (n = 11) or placebo (n = 11) for seven consecutive days, male Wistar rats (400-500 g) were connected to a miniaturised heart-lung-machine performing a deep hypothermic circulatory arrest protocol. White blood cells (WBC) were significantly reduced in EVL-pretreated animals before start of CPB with a preserved reduction by trend at all other time points. Ischemia/reperfusion led to decreased glucose levels. Application of EVL significantly increased glucose levels after reperfusion. In addition, potassium levels were significantly lower in EVL-treated animals at the end of reperfusion. Immunoblotting revealed increased S6 levels after CPB. EVL decreased phosphorylation of S6 in the heart and kidney, which indicates an inhibition of mTOR pathway. Moreover, EVL significantly modified phosphorylation of AKT, while decreasing IL2, IL6, RANTES, and TNFα (n = 6). Preventive application of EVL may modulate inflammation by inhibition of mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) pathway and reduction of proinflammatory cytokines. This may be beneficial to evade SIRS-related morbidities after CPB.

IL-1β-induced and p38MAPK-dependent activation of the mitogen-activated protein kinase-activated protein kinase 2 (MK2) in hepatocytes: Signal transduction with robust and concentration-independent signal amplification

The IL-1β induced activation of the p38^MAPK/MAPK-activated protein kinase 2 (MK2) pathway in hepatocytes is important for control of the acute phase response and regulation of liver regeneration. Many aspects of the regulatory relevance of this pathway have been investigated in immune cells in the context of inflammation. However, very little is known about concentration-dependent activation kinetics and signal propagation in hepatocytes and the role of MK2. We established a mathematical model for IL-1β-induced activation of the p38^MAPK/MK2 pathway in hepatocytes that was calibrated to quantitative data on time- and IL-1β concentration-dependent phosphorylation of p38^MAPK and MK2 in primary mouse hepatocytes. This analysis showed that, in hepatocytes, signal transduction from IL-1β via p38^MAPK to MK2 is characterized by strong signal amplification. Quantification of p38^MAPK and MK2 revealed that, in hepatocytes, at maximum, 11.3% of p38^MAPK molecules and 36.5% of MK2 molecules are activated in response to IL-1β. The mathematical model was experimentally validated by employing phosphatase inhibitors and the p38^MAPK inhibitor SB203580. Model simulations predicted an IC₅₀ of 1-1.2 μm for SB203580 in hepatocytes. In silico analyses and experimental validation demonstrated that the kinase activity of p38^MAPK determines signal amplitude, whereas phosphatase activity affects both signal amplitude and duration. p38^MAPK and MK2 concentrations and responsiveness toward IL-1β were quantitatively compared between hepatocytes and macrophages. In macrophages, the absolute p38^MAPK and MK2 concentration was significantly higher. Finally, in line with experimental observations, the mathematical model predicted a significantly higher half-maximal effective concentration for IL-1β-induced pathway activation in macrophages compared with hepatocytes, underscoring the importance of cell type-specific differences in pathway regulation.

Tumor necrosis factor alpha gene promoter -238G/A polymorphism increases the risk of psoriasis vulgaris in Indian patients

BACKGROUND

Tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFα) gene -238G/A polymorphism (rs361525) is associated with psoriasis in several populations worldwide. To the best of our knowledge, there is no information about this polymorphism in Indian psoriatic patients. This study was undertaken to fill the gap in knowledge.

METHODS

This case-control study involved 72 patients with psoriasis vulgaris (PsV) and 72 age and gender matched healthy individuals. TNFα -238G/A polymorphism was genotyped by PCR-RFLP method.

RESULTS

TNFα -238A allele was 5 times commoner in PsV patients than in the control group (P = 4.1 × 10^-7 ; odds ratio [OR] = 6.5 [0.95 CI: 2.9-14.6]). Distribution of the genotypes in the two groups showed statistically significant difference in dominant genetic model (P = 2.3 × 10^-7 ) and not in recessive genetic model (P = 2.5 × 10^-1 ). Odds ratio for the occurrence of -238A genotype in PsV patients was 8.8 (0.95 CI: 3.5-20.2). The association showed no major difference when PsV patients were subgrouped into type I and type II categories and tested separately. Subgroup analysis on the basis of disease severity showed higher association with the moderate-severe subgroup (P = 2.4 × 10^-9 , OR 15.4 [0.95 CI: 5.8-41.0]) than with mild subgroup (P = 1.3 × 10^-2 , OR 3.8 [0.95 CI: 1.3-10.9]).

CONCLUSIONS

Our results indicate that TNFα gene -238G/A polymorphism increases the risk of developing psoriasis vulgaris among Indians. Also, the data show that severity and not the type affects the strength of association in this population.

Influence of 5-amino-3-methyl-4-isoxazolecarbohydrazide on selective gene expression in Caco-2 cultured cells

The 5-amino-3-methyl-4-isoxazolecarboxylic acid hydrazide (HIX) is a synthetic isoxazole derivative with a potential for development as an anti-inflammatory drug candidate. The goal of this study was to explore in vitro autoimmune and inflammatory gene modulation by HIX in human Caco-2 cultured cells. The effect of low dose of HIX was tested on the expression level of RNA in 24 h Caco-2 cultures using the QIAGEN Th17 for Autoimmunity & Inflammation RT² Profiler PCR Array. We choose the PCR technology as the most reliable and sensitive gene expression profiling method for analyzing specific gene regulatory networks. In all experiments, Leflunomide (5-methyl-N-[4-(trifluoromethyl)phenyl]-4-isoxazolecarboxamide), an immuno-suppressive disease-modifying antirheumatic drug was used, as a reference to clinical utility of the isoxazole derivatives. Changes in RNA levels were analyzed and differentially expressed genes with at least 2-fold change were identified. For the majority of genes tested, the effects of HIX and Leflunomide were similar, including up-regulation of CX3CL1 and IL-17F, and down-regulation of IL-10 and TLR4. However twelve genes were were differently regulated by the two compounds: interleukins (IL) IL-1B, IL-6 and a chemokine CCL22 were upregulated by HIX and significantly supressed by Leflunomide. In contrary, IL-2 and IL-27 were upregulated by Leflunomide and suppressed by HIX. The network search by Ingenuity Pathway Analysis showed, that majority of differentially expressed genes were involved in cellular inflammatory responses. These results suggest that 5-amino-3-methyl-4-isoxazolecarbohydrazide has a potential for future clinical developments with structure modification as a disease modifying agent in different than Leflunomide applications.

Cytotoxic effects of composite dust on human bronchial epithelial cells

INTRODUCTION

Previous research revealed that during routine abrasive procedures like polishing, shaping or removing of composites, high amounts of respirable dust particles (<5μm) including nano-sized particles (<100nm) may be released.

OBJECTIVE

To determine the cytotoxic potential of composite dust particles on bronchial epithelium cells.

METHODS

Composite dust of five commercial composites (one nano-composite, two nano-hybrid and two hybrid composites) was generated following a clinically relevant protocol. Polymerized composite samples were cut with a rough diamond bur (grain size 100μm, speed 200,000rpm) and all composite dust was collected in a sterile chamber. Human bronchial epithelial cells (16HBE14o-) were exposed to serially diluted suspensions of composite dust in cell culture medium at concentrations between 1.1 and 3.3mg/ml. After 24h-exposure, cell viability and membrane integrity were assessed by the WST-1 and the LDH leakage assay, respectively. The release of IL-1β and IL-6 was evaluated. The composite dust particles were characterized by transmission electron microscopy and by dynamic and electrophoretic light scattering.

RESULTS

Neither membrane damage nor release of IL-1β was detected over the complete concentration range. However, metabolic activity gradually declined for concentrations higher than 660μg/ml and the release of IL-6 was reduced when cells were exposed to the highest concentrations of dust.

SIGNIFICANCE

Composite dust prepared by conventional dental abrasion methods only affected human bronchial epithelial cells in very high concentrations.

Signaling and Immunoresolving Actions of Resolvin D1 in Inflamed Human Visceral Adipose Tissue

Persistent activation of the innate immune system greatly influences the risk for developing metabolic complications associated with obesity. In this study, we explored the therapeutic potential of the specialized proresolving mediator (SPM) resolvin D1 (RvD1) to actively promote the resolution of inflammation in human visceral adipose tissue from obese (Ob) patients. Using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry-based metabololipidomic analysis, we identified unbalanced production of SPMs (i.e., D- and E-series resolvins, protectin D1, maresin 1, and lipoxins) with respect to inflammatory lipid mediators (i.e., leukotriene B₄ and PGs) in omental adipose tissue from Ob patients. In parallel, high-throughput transcriptomic analysis revealed a unique signature in this tissue that was characterized by overactivation of the IL-10 signaling pathway. Incubation of inflamed Ob visceral adipose tissues and human macrophages with RvD1 limited excessive activation of the IL-10 pathway by reducing phosphorylation of STAT proteins. Of interest, RvD1 blocked STAT-1 and its target inflammatory genes (i.e., CXCL9), as well as persistent STAT3 activation, without affecting the IL-10 anti-inflammatory response characterized by inhibition of IL-6, IL-1β, IL-8, and TNF-α. Furthermore, RvD1 promoted resolution by enhancing expression of the IL-10 target gene heme oxygenase-1 by mechanisms dependent on p38 MAPK activity. Together, our data show that RvD1 can tailor the quantitative and qualitative responses of human inflamed adipose tissue to IL-10 and provide a mechanistic basis for the immunoresolving actions of RvD1 in this tissue. These findings may have potential therapeutic implications in obesity-related insulin resistance and other metabolic complications.

β-arrestin 2 attenuates cardiac dysfunction in polymicrobial sepsis through gp130 and p38

Sepsis is an exaggerated systemic inflammatory response to persistent bacteria infection with high morbidity and mortality rate clinically. β-arrestin 2 modulates cell survival and cell death in different systems. However, the effect of β-arrestin 2 on sepsis-induced cardiac dysfunction is not yet known. Here, we show that β-arrestin 2 overexpression significantly enhances animal survival following cecal ligation and puncture (CLP)-induced sepsis. Importantly, overexpression of β-arrestin 2 in mice prevents CLP-induced cardiac dysfunction. Also, β-arrestin 2 overexpression dramatically attenuates CLP-induced myocardial gp130 and p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) phosphorylation levels following CLP. Therefore, β-arrestin 2 prevents CLP-induced cardiac dysfunction through gp130 and p38. These results suggest that modulation of β-arrestin 2 might provide a novel therapeutic approach to prevent cardiac dysfunction in patients with sepsis.

APOL1 kidney disease risk variants cause cytotoxicity by depleting cellular potassium and inducing stress-activated protein kinases

Two specific genetic variants of the apolipoprotein L1 (APOL1) gene are responsible for the high rate of kidney disease in people of recent African ancestry. Expression in cultured cells of these APOL1 risk variants, commonly referred to as G1 and G2, results in significant cytotoxicity. The underlying mechanism of this cytotoxicity is poorly understood. We hypothesized that this cytotoxicity is mediated by APOL1 risk variant-induced dysregulation of intracellular signaling relevant for cell survival. To test this hypothesis, we conditionally expressed WT human APOL1 (G0), the APOL1 G1 variant, or the APOL1 G2 variant in human embryonic kidney cells (T-REx-293) using a tetracycline-mediated (Tet-On) system. We found that expression of either G1 or G2 APOL1 variants increased apparent cell swelling and cell death compared with G0-expressing cells. These manifestations of cytotoxicity were preceded by G1 or G2 APOL1-induced net efflux of intracellular potassium as measured by X-ray fluorescence, resulting in the activation of stress-activated protein kinases (SAPKs), p38 MAPK, and JNK. Prevention of net K(+) efflux inhibited activation of these SAPKs by APOL1 G1 or G2. Furthermore, inhibition of SAPK signaling and inhibition of net K(+) efflux abrogated cytotoxicity associated with expression of APOL1 risk variants. These findings in cell culture raise the possibility that nephrotoxicity of APOL1 risk variants may be mediated by APOL1 risk variant-induced net loss of intracellular K(+) and subsequent induction of stress-activated protein kinase pathways.

Leukemia Inhibitory Factor Protects Neurons from Ischemic Damage via Upregulation of Superoxide Dismutase 3

Leukemia inhibitory factor (LIF) has been shown to protect oligodendrocytes from ischemia by upregulating endogenous antioxidants. The goal of this study was to determine whether LIF protects neurons during stroke by upregulating superoxide dismutase 3 (SOD3). Animals were administered phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) or 125 μg/kg LIF at 6, 24, and 48 h after middle cerebral artery occlusion or sham surgery. Neurons were isolated from rat pups on embryonic day 18 and used between 7 and 15 days in culture. Cells were treated with LIF and/or 10 μM Akt inhibitor IV with PBS and 0.1 % DMSO acting as vehicle controls. Neurons transfected with scrambled or SOD3 small interfering RNA (siRNA) were subjected to 24-h ischemia after PBS or LIF treatment. LIF significantly increased superoxide dismutase activity and SOD3 expression in ipsilateral brain tissue compared to PBS. Following 24-h ischemia, LIF reduced cell death and increased SOD3 messenger RNA (mRNA) in vitro compared to PBS. Adding Akt inhibitor IV with LIF counteracted the decrease in cell death. Partially silencing the expression of SOD3 using siRNA prior to LIF treatment counteracted the protective effect of LIF-alone PBS treatment. These results indicate that LIF protects neurons in vivo and in vitro via upregulation of SOD3.

Exercise increases pancreatic β-cell viability in a model of type 1 diabetes through IL-6 signaling

Type 1 diabetes (T1D) is provoked by an autoimmune assault against pancreatic β cells. Exercise training enhances β-cell mass in T1D. Here, we investigated how exercise signals β cells in T1D condition. For this, we used several approaches. Wild-type and IL-6 knockout (KO) C57BL/6 mice were exercised. Afterward, islets from control and trained mice were exposed to inflammatory cytokines (IL-1β plus IFN-γ). Islets from control mice and β-cell lines (INS-1E and MIN6) were incubated with serum from control or trained mice or medium obtained from 5-aminoimidazole-4 carboxamide1-β-d-ribofuranoside (AICAR)-treated C2C12 skeletal muscle cells. Subsequently, islets and β cells were exposed to IL-1β plus IFN-γ. Proteins were assessed by immunoblotting, apoptosis was determined by DNA-binding dye propidium iodide fluorescence, and NO(•) was estimated by nitrite. Exercise reduced 25, 75, and 50% of the IL-1β plus IFN-γ-induced iNOS, nitrite, and cleaved caspase-3 content, respectively, in pancreatic islets. Serum from trained mice and medium from AICAR-treated C2C12 cells reduced β-cell death, induced by IL-1β plus IFN-γ treatment, in 15 and 38%, respectively. This effect was lost in samples treated with IL-6 inhibitor or with serum from exercised IL-6 KO mice. In conclusion, muscle contraction signals β-cell survival in T1D through IL-6.

Inflammatory cytokines and anorexia nervosa: A meta-analysis of cross-sectional and longitudinal studies

OBJECTIVE

Although inflammation is increasingly implicated in psychiatric disorders, less is known about its role in anorexia nervosa (AN), an illness with low body mass index (BMI).

METHODS

We performed a systematic PubMed literature search until 12/31/2013 and meta-analyzed cross-sectional and longitudinal studies comparing circulating pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines between patients with anorexia nervosa (AN) and healthy controls (HCs) (1) before and (2) after weight gain, and (3) within AN patients before and after weight gain. Standardized mean differences (SMDs)± 95% confidence intervals (CIs) for results from ≥ 2 studies were calculated.

RESULTS

Of 999 initial hits, 22 studies with 924 participants (AN=512, HCs=412) were eligible. Compared to HCs, tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha (SMD=0.35, 95%CI=0.09-0.61, p=0.008), interleukin (IL)1-beta (SMD=0.51, 95%CI=0.18-0.84, p=0.003), IL-6 (SMD=0.43, 95%CI=0.11-0.76, p=0.009), and TNF-receptor-II (SMD=0.42, 95%CI:0.07-0.78, p=0.02) were significantly elevated in AN, while C-reactive protein (SMD=-0.53, 95%CI=-.77, -0.28, p<0.0001) and IL-6 receptor (SMD=-0.85, 95%CI=-1.33, -0.36, p=0.0006) were significantly decreased. No differences were found for TNF-receptor I and TGF-β. Across a subset of eight longitudinal studies (AN=152, HCs=129), significant weight gain (baseline BMI=15.4 ± 1.5, endpoint BMI=18.2 ± 1.6, p<0.0001) was not associated with significant changes in TNF-α, IL-6 and IL1-β. However, after weight gain, IL-6 was not different anymore compared to HCs (SMD=0.06, 95%CI=-0.32, 0.45, p=0.75). In meta-regression, shorter illness duration (p=0.0008), but not younger age (p=0.71) significantly moderated greater IL-6 levels.

CONCLUSION

Despite abnormally low BMI, AN seems to be associated with increased inflammatory cytokines. Whether specific elevated cytokines represent trait or state markers of AN, and whether they could be treatment targets requires further study.

Eliminative signaling by Janus kinases: role in the downregulation of associated receptors

Activation of cytokine receptor-associated Janus kinases (JAKs) mediates most, if not all, of the cellular responses to peptide hormones and cytokines. Consequently, JAKs play a paramount role in homeostasis and immunity. Members of this family of tyrosine kinases control the cytokine/hormone-induced alterations in cell gene expression program. This function is largely mediated through an ability to signal toward activation of the signal transducer and activator of transcription proteins (STAT), as well as toward some other pathways. Importantly, JAKs are also instrumental in tightly controlling the expression of associated cytokine and hormone receptors, and, accordingly, in regulating the cell sensitivity to these cytokines and hormones. This review highlights the enzymatic and non-enzymatic mechanisms of this regulation and discusses the importance of the ambidextrous nature of JAK as a key signaling node that integrates the combining functions of forward signaling and eliminative signaling. Attention to the latter aspect of JAK function may contribute to emancipating our approaches to the pharmacological modulation of JAKs.

Predicting treatment failure in patients with community acquired pneumonia: a case-control study

INTRODUCTION

Treatment failure in community-acquired-pneumonia (CAP) patients is associated with a high mortality rate, and therefore are a matter of great concern in clinical management. Those patients have increased mortality and are a target population for randomized clinical trials.

METHODS

A case-control study was performed in patients with CAP (non-failure cases vs. failure cases, discriminating by late and early failure). CRP, PCT, interleukin 1, 6, 8 and 10 and TNF were determined at days 1 and 3 of hospitalization.

RESULTS

A total of 253 patients were included in this study where 83 patients presented treatment failure. Of these, 40 (48.2%) had early failure. A discriminative effect was found for a higher CURB-65 score among late failure patients (p = 0.004). A significant increase on day 1 of hospitalization in CRP (p < 0.001), PCT (p = 0.004), IL-6 (p < 0.001) and IL-8 (p = 0.02), and a decrease in IL-1 (p = 0.06) in patients with failure was observed compared with patients without failure. On day 3, only the increase in CRP (p < 0.001), PCT (p = 0.007) and IL-6 (p < 0.001) remained significant. Independent predictors for early failure were higher IL-6 levels on day 1 (OR = 1.78, IC = 1.2-2.6) and pleural effusion (OR = 2.25, IC = 1.0-5.3), and for late failure, higher PCT levels on day 3 (OR = 1.60, IC = 1.0-2.5), CURB-65 score ≥ 3 (OR = 1.43, IC = 1.0-2.0), and multilobar involvement (OR = 4.50, IC = 2.1-9.9).

CONCLUSIONS

There was a good correlation of IL-6 levels and CAP failure and IL-6 & PCT with late CAP failure. Pleural effusion and multilobar involvement were simple clinical predictors of early and late failure, respectively.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

IRB Register: http://2009/5451.

Haploinsufficiency of Def activates p53-dependent TGFβ signalling and causes scar formation after partial hepatectomy

The metazoan liver exhibits a remarkable capacity to regenerate lost liver mass without leaving a scar following partial hepatectomy (PH). Whilst previous studies have identified components of several different signaling pathways that are essential for activation of hepatocyte proliferation during liver regeneration, the mechanisms that enable such regeneration to occur without accompanying scar formation remain poorly understood. Here we use the adult zebrafish liver, which can regenerate within two weeks following PH, as a new genetic model to address this important question. We focus on the role of Digestive-organ-expansion-factor (Def), a nucleolar protein which has recently been shown to complex with calpain3 (Capn3) to mediate p53 degradation specifically in the nucleolus, in liver regeneration. Firstly, we show that Def expression is up-regulated in the wild-type liver following amputation, and that the def^hi429/+ heteroozygous mutant (def^+/−) suffers from haploinsufficiency of Def in the liver. We then show that the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines is up-regulated in the def^+/− liver, which leads to distortion of the migration and the clearance of leukocytes after PH. Transforming growth factor β (TGFβ) signalling is thus activated in the wound epidermis in def^+/− due to a prolonged inflammatory response, which leads to fibrosis at the amputation site. Fibrotic scar formation in def^+/− is blocked by the over-expression of Def, by the loss-of-function of p53, and by treatment with anti-inflammation drug dexamethasone or TGFβ-signalling inhibitor SB431542. We finally show that the Def- p53 pathway suppresses fibrotic scar formation, at least in part, through the regulation of the expression of the pro-inflammatory factor, high-mobility group box 1. We conclude that the novel Def- p53 nucleolar pathway functions specifically to prevent a scar formation at the amputation site in a normal amputated liver.

Immunogenicity of coiled-coil based drug-free macromolecular therapeutics

A two-component CD20 (non-internalizing) receptor crosslinking system based on the biorecognition of complementary coiled-coil forming peptides was evaluated. Exposure of B cells to Fab'-peptide1 conjugate decorates the cell surface with peptide1; further exposure of the decorated cells to P-(peptide2)x (P is the N-(2-hydroxypropyl)methacrylamide (HPMA) copolymer backbone) results in the formation of coiled-coil heterodimers at the cell surface with concomitant induction of apoptosis. The aim of this study was to determine the potential immunogenicity of this therapeutic system that does not contain low molecular weight drugs. Enantiomeric peptides (L- and D-CCE and L- and D-CCK), HPMA copolymer-peptide conjugates, and Fab' fragment-peptide conjugates were synthesized and the immunological properties of peptide conjugates evaluated in vitro on RAW264.7 macrophages and in vivo on immunocompetent BALB/c mice. HPMA copolymer did not induce immune response in vitro and in vivo. Administration of P-peptide conjugates with strong adjuvant resulted in antibody response directed to the peptide. Fab' was responsible for macrophage activation of Fab'-peptide conjugates and a major factor in the antibody induction following i.v. administration of Fab'-conjugates. There was no substantial difference in the ability of conjugates of D-peptides and conjugates of L-peptides to induce Ab response.

Intravenous laser blood irradiation and tocilizumab in a patient with juvenile arthritis

This study presents effects of intravenous laser blood irradiation (ILBI) in a transient immunodeficiency patient with juvenile idiopathic arthritis (JIA) treated with an interleukin-6 receptor inhibitor (Tocilizumab). Biological agents induce JIA remission, but some patients do not respond favorably to this final therapeutic line of defense. ILBI was performed in a 16-year-old male patient, with JIA and transient immunodeficiency. When ILBI was introduced, the patient was receiving disease-modifying drugs, steroids, tocilizumab, and physical therapy. Because the disease was not well controlled, ILBI was applied in addition to other ongoing therapies. The patient underwent 1 session daily, and 10 successive sessions per month, repeated every 3 months, for 7 months. Patient evaluation was performed before ILBI was started and at 3, 6, 9, and 12 months after ILBI initiation, using the ACR Pediatric response. The outcome was evaluated using Pediatric 50, 70, and 90 responses and compared to initial status, after 3, 6, 9, and 12 months. At the end of study, the titre of IgA and IgG levels returned to normal. Synergistic anti-inflammatory effect of ILBI was evident, if applied additionally in combination with tocilizumab, in a patient with a therapy-resistant severe form of JIA and related subacute transient immunodeficiency.

The IL-6 feed-forward loop: a driver of tumorigenesis

IL-6 signaling plays a prominent role in tumorigenesis and metastasis. In this review we discuss the recent evidence describing the tumor intrinsic and extrinsic functions of this signaling pathway. Although blockade of this pathway in pre-clinical models leads to a reduction in tumor growth and metastasis, its clinical success is less evident. Thus, identifying the features of tumors/patients that predict response to anti-IL6 therapy are needed.