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Huang Y, Wu L, Zhao Y, Guo J, Li R, Ma S, Ying Z. Schwann cell promotes macrophage recruitment through IL-17B/IL-17RB pathway in injured peripheral nerves. Cell Rep 2024; 43:113753. [PMID: 38341853 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2024.113753] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2023] [Revised: 11/05/2023] [Accepted: 01/22/2024] [Indexed: 02/13/2024] Open
Abstract
Macrophage recruitment to the injured nerve initiates a cascade of events, including myelin debris clearance and nerve trophic factor secretion, which contribute to proper nerve tissue repair. However, the mechanism of macrophage recruitment is still unclear. Here, by comparing wild-type with Mlkl-/- and Sarm1-/- mice, two mouse strains with impaired myelin debris clearance after peripheral nerve injury, we identify interleukin-17B (IL-17B) as a key regulator of macrophage recruitment. Schwann-cell-secreted IL-17B acts in an autocrine manner and binds to IL-17 receptor B to promote macrophage recruitment, and global or Schwann-cell-specific IL-17B deletion reduces macrophage infiltration, myelin clearance, and axon regeneration. We also show that the IL-17B signaling pathway is defective in the injured central nerves. These results reveal an important role for Schwann cell autocrine signaling during Wallerian degeneration and point to potential mechanistic targets for accelerating myelin clearance and improving demyelinating disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanju Huang
- State Key Laboratory of Animal Biotech Breeding, Department of Nutrition and Health, College of Biological Sciences, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Liwen Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Animal Biotech Breeding, Department of Nutrition and Health, College of Biological Sciences, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Yueshan Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Animal Biotech Breeding, Department of Nutrition and Health, College of Biological Sciences, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Jia Guo
- National Institute of Biological Sciences, Beijing, No. 7 Science Park Road, Zhongguancun Life Science Park, Beijing 102206, China
| | - Ruoyi Li
- State Key Laboratory of Animal Biotech Breeding, Department of Nutrition and Health, College of Biological Sciences, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Suchen Ma
- State Key Laboratory of Animal Biotech Breeding, Department of Nutrition and Health, College of Biological Sciences, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Zhengxin Ying
- State Key Laboratory of Animal Biotech Breeding, Department of Nutrition and Health, College of Biological Sciences, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China; Chinese Institute for Brain Research, Beijing, No. 26 Science Park Road, Zhongguancun Life Science Park, Beijing 102206, China.
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Gu G, Zhu B, Ren J, Song X, Fan B, Ding H, Shang J, Wu H, Li J, Wang H, Li J, Wei Z, Feng S. Ang-(1-7)/MasR axis promotes functional recovery after spinal cord injury by regulating microglia/macrophage polarization. Cell Biosci 2023; 13:23. [PMID: 36739421 PMCID: PMC9899400 DOI: 10.1186/s13578-023-00967-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2022] [Accepted: 01/19/2023] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Inflammatory response is an essential part of secondary injury after spinal cord injury (SCI). During this period, the injury may be exacerbated through the release of a large number of inflammatory factors and the polarization of infiltrating macrophages and microglia towards M1. Ang-(1-7), mainly generated by Ang II via angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2), can specifically bind to the G protein-coupled receptor Mas (MasR) and plays an important role in regulating inflammation and alleviating oxidative stress. METHODS We aimed to investigate whether activating the Ang-(1-7)/MasR axis in rats after SCI can regulate local neuroinflammation to achieve functional recovery and obtain its potential mechanism. MasR expression of bone marrow-derived macrophages was determined by Western blot. Immunofluorescence, Western blot, Flow cytometry, and RT-qPCR were applied to evaluate the polarization of Ang-(1-7) on macrophages and the regulation of inflammatory cytokines. Previous evaluation of the spinal cord and bladder after SCI was conducted by hematoxylin-eosin staining, Basso, Beattie, and Bresnahan (BBB) score, inclined plate test, electrophysiology, and catwalk were used to evaluate the functional recovery of rats. RESULTS MasR expression increased in macrophages under inflammatory conditions and further elevated after Ang-(1-7) treatment. Both in vivo and in vitro results confirmed that Ang-(1-7) could regulate the expression of inflammatory cytokines by down-regulating proinflammatory cytokines and up-regulating anti-inflammatory cytokines, and bias the polarization direction of microglia/macrophages to M2 phenotypic. After SCI, Ang-(1-7) administration in situ led to better histological and functional recovery in rats, and this recovery at least partly involved the TLR4/NF-κB signaling pathway. CONCLUSION As shown in our data, activating Ang-(1-7)/MasR axis can effectively improve the inflammatory microenvironment after spinal cord injury, promote the polarization of microglia/macrophages towards the M2 phenotype, and finally support the recovery of motor function. Therefore, we suggest using Ang-(1-7) as a feasible treatment strategy for spinal cord injury to minimize the negative consequences of the inflammatory microenvironment after spinal cord injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guangjin Gu
- grid.412645.00000 0004 1757 9434Tianjin Key Laboratory of Spine and Spinal Cord Injury, Department of Orthopedics, National Spinal Cord Injury International Cooperation Base, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Anshan Road 154, Heping District, Tianjin, 300052 China
| | - Bin Zhu
- grid.412645.00000 0004 1757 9434Tianjin Key Laboratory of Spine and Spinal Cord Injury, Department of Orthopedics, National Spinal Cord Injury International Cooperation Base, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Anshan Road 154, Heping District, Tianjin, 300052 China
| | - Jie Ren
- grid.412645.00000 0004 1757 9434Tianjin Key Laboratory of Spine and Spinal Cord Injury, Department of Orthopedics, National Spinal Cord Injury International Cooperation Base, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Anshan Road 154, Heping District, Tianjin, 300052 China
| | - Xiaomeng Song
- grid.412645.00000 0004 1757 9434Tianjin Key Laboratory of Spine and Spinal Cord Injury, Department of Orthopedics, National Spinal Cord Injury International Cooperation Base, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Anshan Road 154, Heping District, Tianjin, 300052 China
| | - Baoyou Fan
- grid.412645.00000 0004 1757 9434Tianjin Key Laboratory of Spine and Spinal Cord Injury, Department of Orthopedics, National Spinal Cord Injury International Cooperation Base, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Anshan Road 154, Heping District, Tianjin, 300052 China
| | - Han Ding
- grid.412645.00000 0004 1757 9434Tianjin Key Laboratory of Spine and Spinal Cord Injury, Department of Orthopedics, National Spinal Cord Injury International Cooperation Base, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Anshan Road 154, Heping District, Tianjin, 300052 China
| | - Jun Shang
- grid.412645.00000 0004 1757 9434Tianjin Key Laboratory of Spine and Spinal Cord Injury, Department of Orthopedics, National Spinal Cord Injury International Cooperation Base, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Anshan Road 154, Heping District, Tianjin, 300052 China
| | - Heng Wu
- grid.412645.00000 0004 1757 9434Tianjin Key Laboratory of Lung Cancer Metastasis and Tumor Microenvironment, Tianjin Lung Cancer Institute, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin, China
| | - Junjin Li
- grid.412645.00000 0004 1757 9434Tianjin Key Laboratory of Spine and Spinal Cord Injury, Department of Orthopedics, National Spinal Cord Injury International Cooperation Base, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Anshan Road 154, Heping District, Tianjin, 300052 China
| | - Hongda Wang
- grid.412645.00000 0004 1757 9434Tianjin Key Laboratory of Spine and Spinal Cord Injury, Department of Orthopedics, National Spinal Cord Injury International Cooperation Base, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Anshan Road 154, Heping District, Tianjin, 300052 China
| | - Jinze Li
- grid.412645.00000 0004 1757 9434Tianjin Key Laboratory of Spine and Spinal Cord Injury, Department of Orthopedics, National Spinal Cord Injury International Cooperation Base, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Anshan Road 154, Heping District, Tianjin, 300052 China
| | - Zhijian Wei
- grid.412645.00000 0004 1757 9434Tianjin Key Laboratory of Spine and Spinal Cord Injury, Department of Orthopedics, National Spinal Cord Injury International Cooperation Base, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Anshan Road 154, Heping District, Tianjin, 300052 China ,Department of Orthopaedics, Qilu Hospital of Shandong University, Shandong University Centre for Orthopaedics, Advanced Medical Research Institute, Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong China
| | - Shiqing Feng
- grid.412645.00000 0004 1757 9434Tianjin Key Laboratory of Spine and Spinal Cord Injury, Department of Orthopedics, National Spinal Cord Injury International Cooperation Base, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Anshan Road 154, Heping District, Tianjin, 300052 China ,Department of Orthopaedics, Qilu Hospital of Shandong University, Shandong University Centre for Orthopaedics, Advanced Medical Research Institute, Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong China
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Conus regius-Derived Conotoxins: Novel Therapeutic Opportunities from a Marine Organism. Mar Drugs 2022; 20:md20120773. [PMID: 36547920 PMCID: PMC9783627 DOI: 10.3390/md20120773] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2022] [Revised: 12/03/2022] [Accepted: 12/06/2022] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Conus regius is a marine venomous mollusk of the Conus genus that captures its prey by injecting a rich cocktail of bioactive disulfide bond rich peptides called conotoxins. These peptides selectively target a broad range of ion channels, membrane receptors, transporters, and enzymes, making them valuable pharmacological tools and potential drug leads. C. regius-derived conotoxins are particularly attractive due to their marked potency and selectivity against specific nicotinic acetylcholine receptor subtypes, whose signalling is involved in pain, cognitive disorders, drug addiction, and cancer. However, the species-specific differences in sensitivity and the low stability and bioavailability of these conotoxins limit their clinical development as novel therapeutic agents for these disorders. Here, we give an overview of the main pharmacological features of the C. regius-derived conotoxins described so far, focusing on the molecular mechanisms underlying their potential therapeutic effects. Additionally, we describe adoptable chemical engineering solutions to improve their pharmacological properties for future potential clinical translation.
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Hao Z, Wang S, Zhang K, Zhou J, Li D, He J, Gao L, Wang L. Biofabrication of a Low Modulus Bioelectroprobe for Neurons to Grow Into. MATERIALS 2021; 14:ma14164718. [PMID: 34443240 PMCID: PMC8400188 DOI: 10.3390/ma14164718] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2021] [Revised: 07/29/2021] [Accepted: 08/17/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Implantable nerve electrodes, as a bridge between the brain and external devices, have been widely used in areas such as brain function exploration, neurological disease treatment and human–computer interaction. However, the mechanical properties mismatch between the electrode material and the brain tissue seriously affects the stability of electrode signal acquisition and the effectiveness of long-term service in vivo. In this study, a modified neuroelectrode was developed with conductive biomaterials. The electrode has good biocompatibility and a gradient microstructure suitable for cell growth. Compared with metal electrodes, bioelectrodes not only greatly reduced the elastic modulus (<10 kpa) but also increased the conductivity of the electrode by 200 times. Through acute electrophysiological analysis and a 12-week chronic in vivo experiment, the bioelectrode clearly recorded the rat’s brain electrical signals, effectively avoided the generation of glial scars and induced neurons to move closer to the electrode. The new conductive biomaterial electrodes developed in this research make long-term implantation of cortical nerve electrodes possible.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhiyan Hao
- State Key Laboratory for Manufacturing System Engineering, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an 710054, China; (Z.H.); (S.W.); (J.Z.); (D.L.); (J.H.); (L.G.)
- School of Mechanical Engineering, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an 710054, China
| | - Sen Wang
- State Key Laboratory for Manufacturing System Engineering, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an 710054, China; (Z.H.); (S.W.); (J.Z.); (D.L.); (J.H.); (L.G.)
- School of Mechanical Engineering, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an 710054, China
| | - Kun Zhang
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Pharmacy, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi’an 710032, China;
| | - Jiajia Zhou
- State Key Laboratory for Manufacturing System Engineering, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an 710054, China; (Z.H.); (S.W.); (J.Z.); (D.L.); (J.H.); (L.G.)
- School of Mechanical Engineering, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an 710054, China
| | - Dichen Li
- State Key Laboratory for Manufacturing System Engineering, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an 710054, China; (Z.H.); (S.W.); (J.Z.); (D.L.); (J.H.); (L.G.)
- School of Mechanical Engineering, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an 710054, China
| | - Jiankang He
- State Key Laboratory for Manufacturing System Engineering, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an 710054, China; (Z.H.); (S.W.); (J.Z.); (D.L.); (J.H.); (L.G.)
- School of Mechanical Engineering, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an 710054, China
| | - Lin Gao
- State Key Laboratory for Manufacturing System Engineering, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an 710054, China; (Z.H.); (S.W.); (J.Z.); (D.L.); (J.H.); (L.G.)
- School of Mechanical Engineering, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an 710054, China
| | - Ling Wang
- State Key Laboratory for Manufacturing System Engineering, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an 710054, China; (Z.H.); (S.W.); (J.Z.); (D.L.); (J.H.); (L.G.)
- School of Mechanical Engineering, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an 710054, China
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +86-29-8339-5382
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Murugan M, Zheng J, Wu G, Mogilevsky R, Zheng X, Hu P, Wu J, Wu LJ. The voltage-gated proton channel Hv1 contributes to neuronal injury and motor deficits in a mouse model of spinal cord injury. Mol Brain 2020; 13:143. [PMID: 33081841 PMCID: PMC7574559 DOI: 10.1186/s13041-020-00682-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2020] [Accepted: 10/06/2020] [Indexed: 01/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Traumatic injury to the spinal cord initiates a series of pathological cellular processes that exacerbate tissue damage at and beyond the original site of injury. This secondary damage includes oxidative stress and inflammatory cascades that can lead to further neuronal loss and motor deficits. Microglial activation is an essential component of these secondary signaling cascades. The voltage-gated proton channel, Hv1, functionally expressed in microglia has been implicated in microglia polarization and oxidative stress in ischemic stroke. Here, we investigate whether Hv1 mediates microglial/macrophage activation and aggravates secondary damage following spinal cord injury (SCI). Following contusion SCI, wild-type (WT) mice showed significant tissue damage, white matter damage and impaired motor recovery. However, mice lacking Hv1 (Hv1−/−) showed significant white matter sparing and improved motor recovery. The improved motor recovery in Hv1−/− mice was associated with decreased interleukin-1β, reactive oxygen/ nitrogen species production and reduced neuronal loss. Further, deficiency of Hv1 directly influenced microglia activation as noted by decrease in microglia numbers, soma size and reduced outward rectifier K+ current density in Hv1−/− mice compared to WT mice at 7 d following SCI. Our results therefore implicate that Hv1 may be a promising potential therapeutic target to alleviate secondary damage following SCI caused by microglia/macrophage activation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Madhuvika Murugan
- Department of Neurology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, 55905, USA.,Department of Cell Biology and Neuroscience, Rutgers University, Piscataway, NJ, 08854, USA
| | - Jiaying Zheng
- Department of Neurology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, 55905, USA.,Department of Cell Biology and Neuroscience, Rutgers University, Piscataway, NJ, 08854, USA
| | - Gongxiong Wu
- One Harvard Street Institute of Health, Brookline, MA, 02446, USA
| | - Rochelle Mogilevsky
- Department of Cell Biology and Neuroscience, Rutgers University, Piscataway, NJ, 08854, USA
| | - Xin Zheng
- Department of Cell Biology and Neuroscience, Rutgers University, Piscataway, NJ, 08854, USA
| | - Peiwen Hu
- Department of Cell Biology and Neuroscience, Rutgers University, Piscataway, NJ, 08854, USA
| | - Junfang Wu
- Department of Anesthesiology, University of Maryland, Baltimore, MD, 21201, USA.
| | - Long-Jun Wu
- Department of Neurology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, 55905, USA. .,Department of Cell Biology and Neuroscience, Rutgers University, Piscataway, NJ, 08854, USA. .,Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, 32224, USA. .,Department of Immunology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, 55905, USA.
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Orofacial skin inflammation increases the number of macrophages in the maxillary subregion of the rat trigeminal ganglion in a corticosteroid-reversible manner. Cell Tissue Res 2020; 382:551-561. [PMID: 32696216 PMCID: PMC7683439 DOI: 10.1007/s00441-020-03244-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2019] [Accepted: 06/15/2020] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Inflammation of the cutaneous orofacial tissue can lead to a prolonged alteration of neuronal and nonneuronal cellular functions in trigeminal nociceptive pathways. In this study, we investigated the effects of experimentally induced skin inflammation by dithranol (anthralin) on macrophage activation in the rat trigeminal ganglion. Tissue localization and protein expression levels of ionized calcium-binding adaptor molecule 1 (Iba1), a macrophage/microglia-specific marker, and proliferation/mitotic marker antigen identified by the monoclonal antibody Ki67 (Ki67), were quantitatively analyzed using immunohistochemistry and western blots in control, dithranol-treated, dithranol- and corticosteroid-treated, and corticosteroid-treated trigeminal ganglia. Chronic orofacial dithranol treatment elicited a strong pro-inflammatory effect in the ipsilateral trigeminal ganglion. Indeed, daily dithranol treatment of the orofacial skin for 3-5 days increased the number of macrophages and Iba1 protein expression in the maxillary subregion of the ipsilateral ganglion. In the affected ganglia, none of the Iba1-positive cells expressed Ki67. This absence of mitotically active cells suggested that the accumulation of macrophages in the ganglion was not the result of resident microglia proliferation but rather the extravasation of hematogenous monocytes from the periphery. Subsequently, when a 5-day-long anti-inflammatory corticosteroid therapy was employed on the previously dithranol-treated orofacial skin, Iba1 immunoreactivity was substantially reduced in the ipsilateral ganglion. Collectively, our findings indicate that both peripheral inflammation and subsequent anti-inflammatory therapy affect macrophage activity and thus interfere with the functioning of the affected sensory ganglion neurons.
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Schwann Cell Transplantation Subdues the Pro-Inflammatory Innate Immune Cell Response after Spinal Cord Injury. Int J Mol Sci 2018; 19:ijms19092550. [PMID: 30154346 PMCID: PMC6163303 DOI: 10.3390/ijms19092550] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2018] [Revised: 08/20/2018] [Accepted: 08/22/2018] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The transplantation of Schwann cells (SCs) has been shown to provide tissue preservation and support axon growth and remyelination as well as improve functional recovery across a diverse range of experimental spinal cord injury (SCI) paradigms. The autologous use of SCs has progressed to Phase 1 SCI clinical trials in humans where their use has been shown to be both feasible and safe. The contribution of immune modulation to the protective and reparative actions of SCs within the injured spinal cord remains largely unknown. In the current investigation, the ability of SC transplants to alter the innate immune response after contusive SCI in the rat was examined. SCs were intraspinally transplanted into the lesion site at 1 week following a thoracic (T8) contusive SCI. Multicolor flow cytometry and immunohistochemical analysis of specific phenotypic markers of pro- and anti-inflammatory microglia and macrophages as well as cytokines at 1 week after SC transplantation was employed. The introduction of SCs significantly attenuated the numbers of cluster of differentiation molecule 11B (CD11b)+, cluster of differentiation molecule 68 (CD68)+, and ionized calcium-binding adapter molecule 1 (Iba1)+ immune cells within the lesion implant site, particularly those immunoreactive for the pro-inflammatory marker, inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS). Whereas numbers of anti-inflammatory CD68+ Arginase-1 (Arg1+) iNOS− cells were not altered by SC transplantation, CD68+ cells of an intermediate, Arg1+ iNOS+ phenotype were increased by the introduction of SCs into the injured spinal cord. The morphology of Iba1+ immune cells was also markedly altered in the SC implant, being elongated and in alignment with SCs and in-growing axons versus their amoeboid form after SCI alone. Examination of pro-inflammatory cytokines, tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and interleukin-1β (IL-1β), and anti-inflammatory cytokines, interleukin-4 (IL-4) and interleukin-10 (IL-10), by multicolor flow cytometry analysis showed that their production in CD11b+ cells was unaltered by SC transplantation at 1 week post-transplantation. The ability of SCs to subdue the pro-inflammatory iNOS+ microglia and macrophage phenotype after intraspinal transplantation may provide an important contribution to the neuroprotective effects of SCs within the sub-acute SCI setting.
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Lo MC, Wang S, Singh S, Damodaran VB, Ahmed I, Coffey K, Barker D, Saste K, Kals K, Kaplan HM, Kohn J, Shreiber DI, Zahn JD. Evaluating the in vivo glial response to miniaturized parylene cortical probes coated with an ultra-fast degrading polymer to aid insertion. J Neural Eng 2018; 15:036002. [PMID: 29485103 DOI: 10.1088/1741-2552/aa9fad] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Despite the feasibility of short-term neural recordings using implantable microelectrodes, attaining reliable, chronic recordings remains a challenge. Most neural recording devices suffer from a long-term tissue response, including gliosis, at the device-tissue interface. It was hypothesized that smaller, more flexible intracortical probes would limit gliosis by providing a better mechanical match with surrounding tissue. APPROACH This paper describes the in vivo evaluation of flexible parylene microprobes designed to improve the interface with the adjacent neural tissue to limit gliosis and thereby allow for improved recording longevity. The probes were coated with an ultrafast degrading tyrosine-derived polycarbonate (E5005(2K)) polymer that provides temporary mechanical support for device implantation, yet degrades within 2 h post-implantation. A parametric study of probes of varying dimensions and polymer coating thicknesses were implanted in rat brains. The glial tissue response and neuronal loss were assessed from 72 h to 24 weeks post-implantation via immunohistochemistry. MAIN RESULTS Experimental results suggest that both probe and polymer coating sizes affect the extent of gliosis. When an appropriate sized coating dimension (100 µm × 100 µm) and small probe (30 µm × 5 µm) was implanted, a minimal post-implantation glial response was observed. No discernible gliosis was detected when compared to tissue where a sham control consisting of a solid degradable polymer shuttle of the same dimensions was inserted. A larger polymer coating (200 µm × 200 µm) device induced a more severe glial response at later time points, suggesting that the initial insertion trauma can affect gliosis even when the polymer shuttle degrades rapidly. A larger degree of gliosis was also observed when comparing a larger sized probe (80 µm × 5 µm) to a smaller probe (30 µm × 5 µm) using the same polymer coating size (100 µm × 100 µm). There was no significant neuronal loss around the implantation sites for most device candidates except the group with largest polymer coating and probe sizes. SIGNIFICANCE These results suggest that: (1) the degree of mechanical trauma at device implantation and mechanical mismatches at the probe-tissue interface affect long term gliosis; (2) smaller, more flexible probes may minimize the glial response to provide improved tissue biocompatibility when used for chronic neural signal recording; and (3) some degree of glial scarring did not significantly affect neuronal distribution around the probe.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meng-Chen Lo
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, Piscataway, NJ, United States of America
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Chen MW, Zhang X, Lu LJ, Zhang F, Duan XH, Zheng CS, Chen YY, Shen J. Monitoring of macrophage recruitment enhanced by Toll-like receptor 4 activation with MR imaging in nerve injury. Muscle Nerve 2018; 58:123-132. [PMID: 29424947 DOI: 10.1002/mus.26097] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 02/06/2018] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Macrophage recruitment is critical for nerve regeneration after an injury. The aim of this study was to investigate whether ultrasmall superparamagnetic iron oxide (USPIO) nanoparticle-based MRI could be used to monitor the enhanced macrophage recruitment by Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) activation in nerve injury. METHODS Rats received intraperitoneal injections of either lipopolysaccharide (LPS) or phosphate buffered saline (PBS) or no injection (controls) after a sciatic nerve crush injury. After intravenous injection of the USPIOs (LPS and PBS groups) or PBS (control group), MRI was performed and correlated with histological findings. RESULTS LPS group showed more remarkable hypointense signals on T2*-weighted imaging and lower T2 values in the crushed nerves than PBS group. The hypointense signal areas were associated with an enhanced recruitment of iron-loaded macrophages to the injured nerves. DISCUSSION USPIO-enhanced MRI can be used to monitor the enhanced macrophage recruitment by means of TLR4 signal pathway activation in nerve injury. Muscle Nerve, 2018.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mei-Wei Chen
- Department of Radiology, Sun Yat-Sen Memorial Hospital, Sun Yat-Sen University, No.107 Yanjiang Road West, Guangzhou, 510120, China
| | - Xiang Zhang
- Department of Radiology, Sun Yat-Sen Memorial Hospital, Sun Yat-Sen University, No.107 Yanjiang Road West, Guangzhou, 510120, China
| | - Lie-Jing Lu
- Department of Radiology, Sun Yat-Sen Memorial Hospital, Sun Yat-Sen University, No.107 Yanjiang Road West, Guangzhou, 510120, China
| | - Fang Zhang
- Department of Radiology, Sun Yat-Sen Memorial Hospital, Sun Yat-Sen University, No.107 Yanjiang Road West, Guangzhou, 510120, China
| | - Xiao-Hui Duan
- Department of Radiology, Sun Yat-Sen Memorial Hospital, Sun Yat-Sen University, No.107 Yanjiang Road West, Guangzhou, 510120, China
| | - Chu-Shan Zheng
- Department of Radiology, Sun Yat-Sen Memorial Hospital, Sun Yat-Sen University, No.107 Yanjiang Road West, Guangzhou, 510120, China
| | - Yue-Yao Chen
- Department of Radiology, Sun Yat-Sen Memorial Hospital, Sun Yat-Sen University, No.107 Yanjiang Road West, Guangzhou, 510120, China
| | - Jun Shen
- Department of Radiology, Sun Yat-Sen Memorial Hospital, Sun Yat-Sen University, No.107 Yanjiang Road West, Guangzhou, 510120, China
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Hone AJ, Servent D, McIntosh JM. α9-containing nicotinic acetylcholine receptors and the modulation of pain. Br J Pharmacol 2017; 175:1915-1927. [PMID: 28662295 DOI: 10.1111/bph.13931] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2017] [Revised: 06/09/2017] [Accepted: 06/13/2017] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Neuropathic pain is a complex and debilitating syndrome for which there are few effective pharmacological treatments. Opioid-based medications are initially effective for acute pain, but tolerance to their analgesic effects quickly develops, and long-term use often leads to physical dependence and addiction. Furthermore, neuropathic pain is generally resistant to non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. Other classes of medications including antidepressants, antiepileptics and voltage-gated calcium channel inhibitors are only partially effective in most patients, may be associated with significant side effects and have few disease-modifying effects on the underlying pathology. Medications that act through new mechanisms of action, and particularly ones that have disease-modifying properties, would be highly desirable. In the last decade, a potential new target for the treatment of neuropathic pain has emerged: the α9-containing nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR). Recent studies indicate that antagonists of α9-containing nAChRs are analgesic in animal models of neuropathic pain. These nerve injury models include chronic constriction injury, partial sciatic nerve ligation, streptozotocin-induced diabetic neuropathy and chemotherapeutic-induced neuropathy. This review details the history and state of the field regarding the role that α9-containing nAChRs may play in neuropathic pain. An alternative hypothesis that α-conotoxins exert their therapeutic effect through blocking N-type calcium channels via activation of GABAB receptors is also reviewed. Understanding how antagonists of α9-containing nAChRs exert their therapeutic effects may ultimately result in the development of medications that not only treat but also prevent the development of neuropathic pain states. LINKED ARTICLES This article is part of a themed section on Nicotinic Acetylcholine Receptors. To view the other articles in this section visit http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/bph.v175.11/issuetoc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arik J Hone
- Department of Biology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, USA
| | - Denis Servent
- Service d'Ingénierie Moléculaire des Protéines (SIMOPRO), IBITECS, CEA, Université Paris-Saclay, Gif-sur-Yvette, France
| | - J Michael McIntosh
- Department of Biology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, USA.,George E. Whalen Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Salt Lake City, UT, USA.,Department of Psychiatry, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, USA
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11
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Ribeiro T, Oliveira JT, Almeida FM, Tomaz MA, Melo PA, Marques SA, de Andrade GM, Martinez AMB. Blockade of ATP P2X7 receptor enhances ischiatic nerve regeneration in mice following a crush injury. Brain Res 2017; 1669:69-78. [PMID: 28554806 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2017.05.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2016] [Revised: 05/15/2017] [Accepted: 05/22/2017] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Preventing damage caused by nerve degeneration is a great challenge. There is a growing body of evidence implicating extracellular nucleotides and their P2 receptors in many pathophysiological mechanisms. In this work we aimed to investigate the effects of the administration of Brilliant Blue G (BBG) and Pyridoxalphosphate-6-azophenyl-2', 4'- disulphonic acid (PPADS), P2X7 and P2 non-selective receptor antagonists, respectively, on sciatic nerve regeneration. Four groups of mice that underwent nerve crush lesion were used: two control groups treated with vehicle (saline), a group treated with BBG and a group treated with PPADS during 28days. Gastrocnemius muscle weight was evaluated. For functional evaluation we used the Sciatic Functional Index (SFI) and the horizontal ladder walking test. Nerves, dorsal root ganglia and spinal cords were processed for light and electron microscopy. Antinoceptive effects of BBG and PPADS were evaluated through von Frey E, and the levels of IL-1β and TNF-α were analyzed by ELISA. BBG promoted an increase in the number of myelinated fibers and on axon, fiber and myelin areas. BBG and PPADS led to an increase of TNF-α and IL-1β in the nerve on day 1 and PPADS caused a decrease of IL-1β on day 7. Mechanical allodynia was reversed on day 7 in the groups treated with BBG and PPADS. We concluded that BBG promoted a better morphological regeneration after ischiatic crush injury, but this was not followed by anticipation of functional improvement. In addition, both PPADS and BBG presented anti-inflammatory as well as antinociceptive effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tatianne Ribeiro
- Laboratório de Neurodegeneração e Reparo, Departamento de Patologia, Faculdade de Medicina, HUCFF, UFRJ, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - Júlia Teixeira Oliveira
- Laboratório de Neurodegeneração e Reparo, Departamento de Patologia, Faculdade de Medicina, HUCFF, UFRJ, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - Fernanda Martins Almeida
- Laboratório de Neurodegeneração e Reparo, Departamento de Patologia, Faculdade de Medicina, HUCFF, UFRJ, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - Marcelo Amorim Tomaz
- Laboratório de Farmacologia das Toxinas, Programa de Pós-Graduação em Farmacologia e Química Medicinal, ICB, CCS, UFRJ, Brazil
| | - Paulo A Melo
- Laboratório de Farmacologia das Toxinas, Programa de Pós-Graduação em Farmacologia e Química Medicinal, ICB, CCS, UFRJ, Brazil
| | - Suelen Adriani Marques
- Laboratório de Regeneração Neural e Função, Departamento de Neurobiologia, Instituto de Biologia, UFF, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Geanne Matos de Andrade
- Laboratório de Neurociências e Comportamento, Departamento de Fisiologia e Farmacologia, Faculdade de Medicina, UFC, Ceará, Brazil.
| | - Ana Maria Blanco Martinez
- Laboratório de Neurodegeneração e Reparo, Departamento de Patologia, Faculdade de Medicina, HUCFF, UFRJ, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil.
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Low-Level Laser Irradiation Improves Motor Recovery After Contusive Spinal Cord Injury in Rats. Tissue Eng Regen Med 2017; 14:57-64. [PMID: 30603462 DOI: 10.1007/s13770-016-0003-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2015] [Revised: 04/07/2016] [Accepted: 05/03/2016] [Indexed: 10/20/2022] Open
Abstract
This study investigated the therapeutic effects of low-level laser irradiation (LLLI) on the recovery of motor function and its underlying mechanisms in rats with spinal cord injury (SCI). The spinal cord was contused at the T11 level using a New York University impactor. Thirty-eight rats were randomly divided into four groups: LLLI with 0.08 J, 0.4 J, 0.8 J, and sham. We transcutaneously applied at the lesion site of the spinal contusive rats 5 min after injury and then daily for 21 days. The Basso, Beattie and Bresnahan (BBB) locomotor scale and combined behavioral score (CBS) were used to evaluate motor function. The spinal segments of rostral and caudal from the lesion site, the epicenter, and L4-5 were collected from normal and the all groups at 7 days after SCI. The expression of tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) was compared across groups in all regions. In the present study, LLLI with 0.4 J and 0.8 J led to a significant improvement in motor function compared to sham LLLI, which significantly decreased TNF-α expression at the lesion epicenter and reduced iNOS expression in the caudal segment for all LLLI groups and in the L4-5 segments for the 0.4 J and 0.8 J groups when compared to sham LLLI group. Our results demonstrate that transcutaneous LLLI modulate inflammatory mediators to enhance motor function recovery after SCI. Thus, LLLI in acute phase after SCI might have therapeutic potential for neuroprotection and restoration of motor function following SCI.
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Yamamoto M, Khan N, Muniroh M, Motomura E, Yanagisawa R, Matsuyama T, Vogel CFA. Activation of interleukin-6 and -8 expressions by methylmercury in human U937 macrophages involves RelA and p50. J Appl Toxicol 2016; 37:611-620. [DOI: 10.1002/jat.3411] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2016] [Revised: 09/22/2016] [Accepted: 10/03/2016] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Megumi Yamamoto
- Integrated Physiology Section, Department of Basic Medical Science; National Institute for Minamata Disease; 4058-18 Hama Minamata, Kumamoto 867-0008 Japan
| | - Noureen Khan
- Department of Epidemiology and Preventive Medicine; Kagoshima University Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences; 8-35-1 Sakuragaoka Kagoshima 890-8544 Japan
| | - Muflihatul Muniroh
- Department of Epidemiology and Preventive Medicine; Kagoshima University Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences; 8-35-1 Sakuragaoka Kagoshima 890-8544 Japan
| | - Eriko Motomura
- Integrated Physiology Section, Department of Basic Medical Science; National Institute for Minamata Disease; 4058-18 Hama Minamata, Kumamoto 867-0008 Japan
| | - Rie Yanagisawa
- Integrated Physiology Section, Department of Basic Medical Science; National Institute for Minamata Disease; 4058-18 Hama Minamata, Kumamoto 867-0008 Japan
| | - Takami Matsuyama
- Department of Immunology; Kagoshima University Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences; 8-35-1 Sakuragaoka Kagoshima 890-8544 Japan
| | - Christoph F. A. Vogel
- Department of Environmental Toxicology and Center for Health and the Environment; University of California; Davis CA 95616 USA
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Wang Y, Li C, Gao C, Li Z, Yang J, Liu X, Liang F. Effects of hyperbaric oxygen therapy on RAGE and MCP-1 expression in rats with spinal cord injury. Mol Med Rep 2016; 14:5619-5625. [DOI: 10.3892/mmr.2016.5935] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2015] [Accepted: 08/19/2016] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
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Wen YT, Huang TL, Huang SP, Chang CH, Tsai RK. Early applications of granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (G-CSF) can stabilize the blood-optic-nerve barrier and ameliorate inflammation in a rat model of anterior ischemic optic neuropathy (rAION). Dis Model Mech 2016; 9:1193-1202. [PMID: 27538969 PMCID: PMC5087822 DOI: 10.1242/dmm.025999] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2016] [Accepted: 08/11/2016] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (G-CSF) was reported to have a neuroprotective effect in a rat model of anterior ischemic optic neuropathy (rAION model). However, the therapeutic window and anti-inflammatory effects of G-CSF in a rAION model have yet to be elucidated. Thus, this study aimed to determine the therapeutic window of G-CSF and investigate the mechanisms of G-CSF via regulation of optic nerve (ON) inflammation in a rAION model. Rats were treated with G-CSF on day 0, 1, 2 or 7 post-rAION induction for 5 consecutive days, and a control group were treated with phosphate-buffered saline (PBS). Visual function was assessed by flash visual evoked potentials at 4 weeks post-rAION induction. The survival rate and apoptosis of retinal ganglion cells were determined by FluoroGold labeling and TUNEL assay, respectively. ON inflammation was evaluated by staining of ED1 and Iba1, and ON vascular permeability was determined by Evans Blue extravasation. The type of macrophage polarization was evaluated using quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR). The protein levels of TNF-α and IL-1β were analyzed by western blotting. A therapeutic window during which G-CSF could rescue visual function and retinal ganglion cell survival was demonstrated at day 0 and day 1 post-infarct. Macrophage infiltration was reduced by 3.1- and 1.6-fold by G-CSF treatment starting on day 0 and 1 post-rAION induction, respectively, compared with the PBS-treated group (P<0.05). This was compatible with 3.3- and 1.7-fold reductions in ON vascular permeability after G-CSF treatment compared with PBS treatment (P<0.05). Microglial activation was increased by 3.8- and 3.2-fold in the early (beginning treatment at day 0 or 1) G-CSF-treated group compared with the PBS-treated group (P<0.05). Immediate (within 30 mins of infarct) treatment with G-CSF also induced M2 microglia/macrophage activation. The cytokine levels were lower in the group that received immediate G-CSF treatment compared to those in the later G-CSF treatment group (P<0.05). Early treatment with G-CSF stabilized the blood-ON barrier to reduce macrophage infiltration and induced M2 microglia/macrophage polarization to decrease the expressions of pro-inflammatory cytokines in this rAION model.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yao-Tseng Wen
- Institute of Eye Research, Buddhist Tzu Chi General Hospital, Hualien, Taiwan
| | - Tzu-Lun Huang
- Department of Ophthalmology, Far Eastern Memorial Hospital, Banciao District, New Taipei City, Taiwan Institute of Medical Sciences, Tzu Chi University, Hualien, Taiwan
| | - Sung-Ping Huang
- Department of Molecular Biology and Human Genetics, Tzu Chi University, Hualien, Taiwan
| | - Chung-Hsing Chang
- Department of Dermatology, China Medical University Hospital, Taichung, Taiwan Department of Dermatology, College of Medicine, China Medical University, Taichung, Taiwan
| | - Rong-Kung Tsai
- Institute of Eye Research, Buddhist Tzu Chi General Hospital, Hualien, Taiwan Institute of Medical Sciences, Tzu Chi University, Hualien, Taiwan
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Hu X, Adebiyi MG, Luo J, Sun K, Le TTT, Zhang Y, Wu H, Zhao S, Karmouty-Quintana H, Liu H, Huang A, Wen YE, Zaika OL, Mamenko M, Pochynyuk OM, Kellems RE, Eltzschig HK, Blackburn MR, Walters ET, Huang D, Hu H, Xia Y. Sustained Elevated Adenosine via ADORA2B Promotes Chronic Pain through Neuro-immune Interaction. Cell Rep 2016; 16:106-119. [PMID: 27320922 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2016.05.080] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2015] [Revised: 03/22/2016] [Accepted: 05/19/2016] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
The molecular mechanisms of chronic pain are poorly understood and effective mechanism-based treatments are lacking. Here, we report that mice lacking adenosine deaminase (ADA), an enzyme necessary for the breakdown of adenosine, displayed unexpected chronic mechanical and thermal hypersensitivity due to sustained elevated circulating adenosine. Extending from Ada(-/-) mice, we further discovered that prolonged elevated adenosine contributed to chronic pain behaviors in two additional independent animal models: sickle cell disease mice, a model of severe pain with limited treatment, and complete Freund's adjuvant paw-injected mice, a well-accepted inflammatory model of chronic pain. Mechanistically, we revealed that activation of adenosine A2B receptors on myeloid cells caused nociceptor hyperexcitability and promoted chronic pain via soluble IL-6 receptor trans-signaling, and our findings determined that prolonged accumulated circulating adenosine contributes to chronic pain by promoting immune-neuronal interaction and revealed multiple therapeutic targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xia Hu
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Texas Medical School at Houston, Houston, TX 77030, USA; Department of Anesthesiology, Third XiangYa Hospital, Central South University, Hunan 440851, China
| | - Morayo G Adebiyi
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Texas Medical School at Houston, Houston, TX 77030, USA; Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, The University of Texas, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Jialie Luo
- Department of Anesthesiology, Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Kaiqi Sun
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Texas Medical School at Houston, Houston, TX 77030, USA; Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, The University of Texas, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Thanh-Thuy T Le
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Texas Medical School at Houston, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Yujin Zhang
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Texas Medical School at Houston, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Hongyu Wu
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Texas Medical School at Houston, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Shushan Zhao
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Texas Medical School at Houston, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Harry Karmouty-Quintana
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Texas Medical School at Houston, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Hong Liu
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Texas Medical School at Houston, Houston, TX 77030, USA; Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, The University of Texas, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Aji Huang
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Texas Medical School at Houston, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Yuan Edward Wen
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Texas Medical School at Houston, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Oleg L Zaika
- Integrative Biology and Pharmacology, University of Texas Medical School at Houston, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Mykola Mamenko
- Integrative Biology and Pharmacology, University of Texas Medical School at Houston, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Oleh M Pochynyuk
- Integrative Biology and Pharmacology, University of Texas Medical School at Houston, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Rodney E Kellems
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Texas Medical School at Houston, Houston, TX 77030, USA; Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, The University of Texas, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Holger K Eltzschig
- Department of Anesthesiology, The University of Colorado, Aurora, CO 80045, USA
| | - Michael R Blackburn
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Texas Medical School at Houston, Houston, TX 77030, USA; Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, The University of Texas, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Edgar T Walters
- Integrative Biology and Pharmacology, University of Texas Medical School at Houston, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Dong Huang
- Department of Anesthesiology, Third XiangYa Hospital, Central South University, Hunan 440851, China
| | - Hongzhen Hu
- Department of Anesthesiology, Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Yang Xia
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Texas Medical School at Houston, Houston, TX 77030, USA; Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, The University of Texas, Houston, TX 77030, USA.
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17
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Kumar H, Ropper AE, Lee SH, Han I. Propitious Therapeutic Modulators to Prevent Blood-Spinal Cord Barrier Disruption in Spinal Cord Injury. Mol Neurobiol 2016; 54:3578-3590. [PMID: 27194298 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-016-9910-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2015] [Accepted: 05/03/2016] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
The blood-spinal cord barrier (BSCB) is a specialized protective barrier that regulates the movement of molecules between blood vessels and the spinal cord parenchyma. Analogous to the blood-brain barrier (BBB), the BSCB plays a crucial role in maintaining the homeostasis and internal environmental stability of the central nervous system (CNS). After spinal cord injury (SCI), BSCB disruption leads to inflammatory cell invasion such as neutrophils and macrophages, contributing to permanent neurological disability. In this review, we focus on the major proteins mediating the BSCB disruption or BSCB repair after SCI. This review is composed of three parts. Section 1. SCI and the BSCB of the review describes critical events involved in the pathophysiology of SCI and their correlation with BSCB integrity/disruption. Section 2. Major proteins involved in BSCB disruption in SCI focuses on the actions of matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs), tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1), angiopoietins (Angs), bradykinin, nitric oxide (NO), and endothelins (ETs) in BSCB disruption and repair. Section 3. Therapeutic approaches discusses the major therapeutic compounds utilized to date for the prevention of BSCB disruption in animal model of SCI through modulation of several proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hemant Kumar
- Department of Neurosurgery, CHA University, CHA Bundang Medical Center, Seongnam-si, Gyeonggi-do, 13496, Republic of Korea
| | - Alexander E Ropper
- Department of Neurosurgery, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Soo-Hong Lee
- Department of Biomedical Science, CHA University, Seongnam-si, Gyeonggi-do, 13488, Republic of Korea.
| | - Inbo Han
- Department of Neurosurgery, CHA University, CHA Bundang Medical Center, Seongnam-si, Gyeonggi-do, 13496, Republic of Korea.
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Fenrich K, Gordon T. Canadian Association of Neuroscience Review: Axonal Regeneration in the Peripheral and Central Nervous Systems – Current Issues and Advances. Can J Neurol Sci 2016; 31:142-56. [PMID: 15198438 DOI: 10.1017/s0317167100053798] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
AbstractInjured nerves regenerate their axons in the peripheral (PNS) but not the central nervous system (CNS). The contrasting capacities have been attributed to the growth permissive Schwann cells in the PNS and the growth inhibitory environment of the oligodendrocytes in the CNS. In the current review, we first contrast the robust regenerative response of injured PNS neurons with the weak response of the CNS neurons, and the capacity of Schwann cells and not the oligodendrocytes to support axonal regeneration. We then consider the factors that limit axonal regeneration in both the PNS and CNS. Limiting factors in the PNS include slow regeneration of axons across the injury site, progressive decline in the regenerative capacity of axotomized neurons (chronic axotomy) and progressive failure of denervated Schwann cells to support axonal regeneration (chronic denervation). In the CNS on the other hand, it is the poor regenerative response of neurons, the inhibitory proteins that are expressed by oligodendrocytes and act via a common receptor on CNS neurons, and the formation of the glial scar that prevent axonal regeneration in the CNS. Strategies to overcome these limitations in the PNS are considered in detail and contrasted with strategies in the CNS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Keith Fenrich
- Centre for Neuroscience, Division of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada
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Abstract
Spinal cord injury (SCI) is a major health problem and is associated with a diversity of neurological symptoms. Pathophysiologically, dysfunction after SCI results from the culmination of tissue damage produced both by the primary insult and a range of secondary injury mechanisms. The application of hypothermia has been demonstrated to be neuroprotective after SCI in both experimental and human studies. The myriad of protective mechanisms of hypothermia include the slowing down of metabolism, decreasing free radical generation, inhibiting excitotoxicity and apoptosis, ameliorating inflammation, preserving the blood spinal cord barrier, inhibiting astrogliosis, promoting angiogenesis, as well as decreasing axonal damage and encouraging neurogenesis. Hypothermia has also been combined with other interventions, such as antioxidants, anesthetics, alkalinization and cell transplantation for additional benefit. Although a large body of work has reported on the effectiveness of hypothermia as a neuroprotective approach after SCI and its application has been translated to the clinic, a number of questions still remain regarding its use, including the identification of hypothermia's therapeutic window, optimal duration and the most appropriate rewarming rate. In addition, it is necessary to investigate the neuroprotective effect of combining therapeutic hypothermia with other treatment strategies for putative synergies, particularly those involving neurorepair.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiaqiong Wang
- The Miami Project to Cure Paralysis, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, the Lois Pope Life Center, Locator code (R-48), PO BOX 016960, Miami, FL 33136, USA.
| | - Damien D Pearse
- The Miami Project to Cure Paralysis, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, the Lois Pope Life Center, Locator code (R-48), PO BOX 016960, Miami, FL 33136, USA.
- The Department of Neurological Surgery, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, the Lois Pope Life Center, Locator code (R-48), PO BOX 016960, Miami, FL 33136, USA.
- The Neuroscience Program, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, the Lois Pope Life Center, Locator code (R-48), PO BOX 016960, Miami, FL 33136, USA.
- The Interdisciplinary Stem Cell Institute, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, the Lois Pope Life Center, Locator code (R-48), PO BOX 016960, Miami, FL 33136, USA.
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Yang F, Bai Y, Jiang Y. Effects of Apelin on RAW264.7 cells under both normal and hypoxic conditions. Peptides 2015; 69:133-43. [PMID: 25963277 DOI: 10.1016/j.peptides.2015.04.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2014] [Revised: 04/22/2015] [Accepted: 04/29/2015] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Macrophages are an important source of pro-inflammatory and pro-angiogenic factors, which can promote pathological processes involving inflammation and angiogenesis. This study investigated the effects of Apelin on macrophages under both normal and hypoxic conditions. Under normal culture conditions, Apelin down-regulated the mRNA expression levels of monocyte chemotactic protein 1 (MCP1), monocyte chemotactic protein 3 (MCP3), macrophage inflammatory protein 1 (MIP1α, MIP1β), vascular endothelial growth factor A (VEGFA), Angiopoietin 2 (Ang2) and tumor necrosis factor α (TNFα). The supernatant concentrations of MCP1, MCP3, MIP1α, MIP1β, macrophage inflammatory protein 2 (MIP2) and TNFα proteins were significantly decreased in the Apelin treated group. Hypoxia induced profound up-regulations of the angiogenic, chemokine, and inflammatory factors at both the mRNA and protein levels. Apelin suppressed the hypoxia-induced increases in MCP1, MCP3, MIP2, MIP1β and TNFα expression. The underlying mechanism of Apelin inhibit inflammation is regulating NF-κB/JNK signal pathway. Additionally, Apelin can protect macrophages from apoptosis and can enhance cell migration during hypoxia. And cleaved Caspase9/3 pathways were involved in Apelin inhibiting RAW264.7 apoptosis. In conclusion, we showed the effect of Apelin on RAW264.7 macrophage under normal and hypoxic condition, which could further influence the angiogenesis and inflammation process that promoted by macrophages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fan Yang
- Department of Ophthalmology, Peking University People's Hospital, Key Laboratory of Vision Loss and Restoration, Ministry of Education, Beijing Key Laboratory for the Diagnosis and Treatment of Retinal and Choroid Diseases, Beijing, China
| | - Yujing Bai
- Department of Ophthalmology, Peking University People's Hospital, Key Laboratory of Vision Loss and Restoration, Ministry of Education, Beijing Key Laboratory for the Diagnosis and Treatment of Retinal and Choroid Diseases, Beijing, China.
| | - Yanrong Jiang
- Department of Ophthalmology, Peking University People's Hospital, Key Laboratory of Vision Loss and Restoration, Ministry of Education, Beijing Key Laboratory for the Diagnosis and Treatment of Retinal and Choroid Diseases, Beijing, China.
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21
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Lo MC, Wang S, Singh S, Damodaran VB, Kaplan HM, Kohn J, Shreiber DI, Zahn JD. Coating flexible probes with an ultra fast degrading polymer to aid in tissue insertion. Biomed Microdevices 2015; 17:34. [PMID: 25681971 PMCID: PMC4827618 DOI: 10.1007/s10544-015-9927-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
We report a fabrication process for coating neural probes with an ultrafast degrading polymer to create consistent and reproducible devices for neural tissue insertion. The rigid polymer coating acts as a probe insertion aid, but resorbs within hours post-implantation. Despite the feasibility for short term neural recordings from currently available neural prosthetic devices, most of these devices suffer from long term gliosis, which isolates the probes from adjacent neurons, increasing the recording impedance and stimulation threshold. The size and stiffness of implanted probes have been identified as critical factors that lead to this long term gliosis. Smaller, more flexible probes that match the mechanical properties of brain tissue could allow better long term integration by limiting the mechanical disruption of the surrounding tissue during and after probe insertion, while being flexible enough to deform with the tissue during brain movement. However, these small flexible probes inherently lack the mechanical strength to penetrate the brain on their own. In this work, we have developed a micromolding method for coating a non-functional miniaturized SU-8 probe with an ultrafast degrading tyrosine-derived polycarbonate (E5005(2K)). Coated, non-functionalized probes of varying dimensions were reproducibly fabricated with high yields. The polymer erosion/degradation profiles of the probes were characterized in vitro. The probes were also mechanically characterized in ex vivo brain tissue models by measuring buckling and insertion forces during probe insertion. The results demonstrate the ability to produce polymer coated probes of consistent quality for future in vivo use, for example to study the effects of different design parameters that may affect tissue response during long term chronic intra-cortical microelectrode neural recordings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meng-chen Lo
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Rutgers, the State University of New Jersey, Piscataway, NJ, USA,
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Siddiqui AM, Khazaei M, Fehlings MG. Translating mechanisms of neuroprotection, regeneration, and repair to treatment of spinal cord injury. PROGRESS IN BRAIN RESEARCH 2015; 218:15-54. [PMID: 25890131 DOI: 10.1016/bs.pbr.2014.12.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 101] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
One of the big challenges in neuroscience that remains to be understood is why the central nervous system is not able to regenerate to the extent that the peripheral nervous system does. This is especially problematic after traumatic injuries, like spinal cord injury (SCI), since the lack of regeneration leads to lifelong deficits and paralysis. Treatment of SCI has improved during the last several decades due to standardized protocols for emergency medical response teams and improved medical, surgical, and rehabilitative treatments. However, SCI continues to result in profound impairments for the individual. There are many processes that lead to the pathophysiology of SCI, such as ischemia, vascular disruption, neuroinflammation, oxidative stress, excitotoxicity, demyelination, and cell death. Current treatments include surgical decompression, hemodynamic control, and methylprednisolone. However, these early treatments are associated with modest functional recovery. Some treatments currently being investigated for use in SCI target neuroprotective (riluzole, minocycline, G-CSF, FGF-2, and polyethylene glycol) or neuroregenerative (chondroitinase ABC, self-assembling peptides, and rho inhibition) strategies, while many cell therapies (embryonic stem cells, neural stem cells, induced pluripotent stem cells, mesenchymal stromal cells, Schwann cells, olfactory ensheathing cells, and macrophages) have also shown promise. However, since SCI has multiple factors that determine the progress of the injury, a combinatorial therapeutic approach will most likely be required for the most effective treatment of SCI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ahad M Siddiqui
- Department of Genetics and Development, Toronto Western Research Institute, University Health Network, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Mohamad Khazaei
- Department of Genetics and Development, Toronto Western Research Institute, University Health Network, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Michael G Fehlings
- Department of Genetics and Development, Toronto Western Research Institute, University Health Network, Toronto, Ontario, Canada; Department of Surgery, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada; Institute of Medical Sciences, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.
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Thomas AM, Palma JL, Shea LD. Sponge-mediated lentivirus delivery to acute and chronic spinal cord injuries. J Control Release 2015; 204:1-10. [PMID: 25724274 DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2015.02.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2014] [Revised: 02/17/2015] [Accepted: 02/21/2015] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
The environment within the spinal cord after injury, which changes in the progression from the acute to chronic stages, limits the extent of regeneration. The delivery of inductive factors to promote regeneration following spinal cord injury has been promising, yet, few strategies are versatile to allow delivery during acute or chronic injury that would facilitate screening of candidate therapies. This report investigates the intrathecal delivery of lentiviruses for long-term expression of regenerative factors. Lentivirus-filled sponges were inserted into the intrathecal space surrounding the spinal cord, with transgene expression observed within multiple cell types that persists for 12 weeks for both intact and injured spinal cord, without any apparent damage to the spinal cord tissue. Sponges loaded with lentivirus encoding for Sonic hedgehog (Shh) were investigated for acute (delivered at 0 weeks) and chronic (at 4 weeks) injuries, and for multiple locations relative to the injury. In an acute model, sponges placed directly above the injury increased oligodendrocyte and decreased astrocyte presence. Sponges placed caudal to the injury had reduced impact on oligodendrocytes and astrocytes in the injury. In a chronic model, sponges increased oligodendrocyte and decreased astrocyte presence. Furthermore, the effect of Shh was shown to be mediated in part by reduction of Bmp signaling, monitored with an Msx2-sensitive reporter vector. The implantation of lentivirus-loaded biomaterials intrathecally provides the opportunity to induce the expression of a factor at a specified time without entering the spinal cord, and has the potential to promote gene delivery within the spinal cord, which can influence the extent of regeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aline M Thomas
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, McCormick School of Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois
| | - Jaime L Palma
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, McCormick School of Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, USA
| | - Lonnie D Shea
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, McCormick School of Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, USA; Institute for BioNanotechnology in Medicine (IBNAM), Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, USA; Center for Reproductive Science (CRS), Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, USA; Robert H. Lurie Comprehensive Cancer Center, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, USA; Chemistry of Life Processes Institute (CLP), Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, USA.
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Rauck BM, Novosat TL, Oudega M, Wang Y. Biocompatibility of a coacervate-based controlled release system for protein delivery to the injured spinal cord. Acta Biomater 2015; 11:204-11. [PMID: 25266504 DOI: 10.1016/j.actbio.2014.09.037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2014] [Revised: 09/18/2014] [Accepted: 09/22/2014] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
The efficacy of protein-based therapies for treating injured nervous tissue is limited by the short half-life of free proteins in the body. Affinity-based biomaterial delivery systems provide sustained release of proteins, thereby extending the efficacy of such therapies. Here, we investigated the biocompatibility of a novel coacervate delivery system based on poly(ethylene argininylaspartate diglyceride) (PEAD) and heparin in the damaged spinal cord. We found that the presence of the [PEAD:heparin] coacervate did not affect the macrophage response, glial scarring or nervous tissue loss, which are hallmarks of spinal cord injury. Moreover, the density of axons, including serotonergic axons, at the injury site and the recovery of motor and sensorimotor function were comparable in rats with and without the coacervate. These results revealed the biocompatibility of our delivery system and supported its potential to deliver therapeutic proteins to the injured nervous system.
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25
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Tzekou A, Fehlings MG. Treatment of spinal cord injury with intravenous immunoglobulin G: preliminary evidence and future perspectives. J Clin Immunol 2014; 34 Suppl 1:S132-8. [PMID: 24722853 PMCID: PMC4050295 DOI: 10.1007/s10875-014-0021-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2014] [Accepted: 03/19/2014] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
Neuroinflammation plays an important role in the secondary pathophysiological mechanisms of spinal cord injury (SCI) and can exacerbate the primary trauma and thus worsen recovery. Although some aspects of the immune response are beneficial, it is thought that leukocyte recruitment and activation in the acute phase of injury results in the production of cytotoxic substances that are harmful to the nervous tissue. Therefore, suppression of excessive inflammation in the spinal cord could serve as a therapeutic strategy to attenuate tissue damage. The immunosuppressant methylprednisolone has been used in the setting of SCI, but there are complications which have attenuated the initial enthusiasm. Hence, there is interest in other immunomodulatory approaches, such as intravenous Immunoglobulin G (IVIg). Importantly, IVIg is used clinically for the treatment of several auto-immune neuropathies, such as Guillain-Barre syndrome, chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyneuropathy (CIPD) and Kawasaki disease, with a good safety profile. Thus, it is a promising treatment candidate for SCI. Indeed, IVIg has been shown by our team to attenuate the immune response and result in improved neurobehavioral recovery following cervical SCI in rats through a mechanism that involves the attenuation of neutrophil recruitment and reduction in the levels of cytokines and cytotoxic enzymes Nguyen et al. (J Neuroinflammation 9:224, 2012). Here we review published data in the context of relevant mechanisms of action that have been proposed for IVIg in other conditions. We hope that this discussion will trigger future research to provide supporting evidence for the efficiency and detailed mechanisms of action of this promising drug in the treatment of SCI, and to facilitate its clinical translation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Apostolia Tzekou
- Toronto Western Research Institute and Krembil Neuroscience Centre, University Health Network, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada
| | - Michael G. Fehlings
- Toronto Western Research Institute and Krembil Neuroscience Centre, University Health Network, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada
- Division of Neurosurgery, Toronto Western Hospital, University Health Network, University of Toronto, 399 Bathurst St. Suite 4WW-449, Toronto, ON M5T2S8 Canada
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Xue H, Zhang XY, Liu JM, Song Y, Liu TT, Chen D. NDGA reduces secondary damage after spinal cord injury in rats via anti-inflammatory effects. Brain Res 2013; 1516:83-92. [DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2013.04.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2012] [Revised: 03/30/2013] [Accepted: 04/08/2013] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
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Kramer AS, Harvey AR, Plant GW, Hodgetts SI. Systematic Review of Induced Pluripotent Stem Cell Technology as a Potential Clinical Therapy for Spinal Cord Injury. Cell Transplant 2013; 22:571-617. [DOI: 10.3727/096368912x655208] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Transplantation therapies aimed at repairing neurodegenerative and neuropathological conditions of the central nervous system (CNS) have utilized and tested a variety of cell candidates, each with its own unique set of advantages and disadvantages. The use and popularity of each cell type is guided by a number of factors including the nature of the experimental model, neuroprotection capacity, the ability to promote plasticity and guided axonal growth, and the cells' myelination capability. The promise of stem cells, with their reported ability to give rise to neuronal lineages to replace lost endogenous cells and myelin, integrate into host tissue, restore functional connectivity, and provide trophic support to enhance and direct intrinsic regenerative ability, has been seen as a most encouraging step forward. The advent of the induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC), which represents the ability to “reprogram” somatic cells into a pluripotent state, hails the arrival of a new cell transplantation candidate for potential clinical application in therapies designed to promote repair and/or regeneration of the CNS. Since the initial development of iPSC technology, these cells have been extensively characterized in vitro and in a number of pathological conditions and were originally reported to be equivalent to embryonic stem cells (ESCs). This review highlights emerging evidence that suggests iPSCs are not necessarily indistinguishable from ESCs and may occupy a different “state” of pluripotency with differences in gene expression, methylation patterns, and genomic aberrations, which may reflect incomplete reprogramming and may therefore impact on the regenerative potential of these donor cells in therapies. It also highlights the limitations of current technologies used to generate these cells. Moreover, we provide a systematic review of the state of play with regard to the use of iPSCs in the treatment of neurodegenerative and neuropathological conditions. The importance of balancing the promise of this transplantation candidate in the light of these emerging properties is crucial as the potential application in the clinical setting approaches. The first of three sections in this review discusses (A) the pathophysiology of spinal cord injury (SCI) and how stem cell therapies can positively alter the pathology in experimental SCI. Part B summarizes (i) the available technologies to deliver transgenes to generate iPSCs and (ii) recent data comparing iPSCs to ESCs in terms of characteristics and molecular composition. Lastly, in (C) we evaluate iPSC-based therapies as a candidate to treat SCI on the basis of their neurite induction capability compared to embryonic stem cells and provide a summary of available in vivo data of iPSCs used in SCI and other disease models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anne S. Kramer
- Spinal Cord Repair Laboratory, School of Anatomy, Physiology and Human Biology, The University of Western Australia, Perth, Western Australia
| | - Alan R. Harvey
- Spinal Cord Repair Laboratory, School of Anatomy, Physiology and Human Biology, The University of Western Australia, Perth, Western Australia
| | - Giles W. Plant
- Stanford Partnership for Spinal Cord Injury and Repair, Stanford Institute for Neuro-Innovation and Translational Neurosciences, Department of Neurosurgery, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Stuart I. Hodgetts
- Spinal Cord Repair Laboratory, School of Anatomy, Physiology and Human Biology, The University of Western Australia, Perth, Western Australia
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Suzuki M, Yoshida H, Hayakawa N, Matsumoto Y. Blockade of IL-6 receptor accelerates nerve regeneration in experimental sciatic nerve crush injury. Inflamm Regen 2013. [DOI: 10.2492/inflammregen.33.156] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022] Open
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Sharma A, Sharma HS. Monoclonal antibodies as novel neurotherapeutic agents in CNS injury and repair. INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF NEUROBIOLOGY 2012; 102:23-45. [PMID: 22748825 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-386986-9.00002-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Central nervous system (CNS) injury is a complex in which numerous neurochemicals and other vasoactive agents actively contribute towards the development of posttraumatic brain pathology and/or repair mechanisms. A focal trauma to the brain or spinal cord releases several endogenous neurodestructive agents within the CNS, resulting in adverse cellular reactions. Our laboratory is engaged in identifying these endogenous neurodestructive signals in the CNS following injury caused by trauma or hyperthermia. Our observations show that serotonin (5-HT), dynorphin A (Dyn A 1-17), nitric oxide synthase (NOS), and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) could be potential neurodestructive signals in the CNS injury. Thus, neutralization of these agents using monoclonal antibodies directed against 5-HT, NOS, Dyn A (1-17), and TNF-α in vivo will result in marked neuroprotection and enhance neurorepair after trauma. In addition, a suitable combination of monoclonal antibodies, for example, NOS and TNF-α, when applied 60-90 min after trauma, is capable to enhance neuroprotective ability and thwart cell and tissue injury after spinal cord insult. Taken together, our novel observations suggest a potential use of monoclonal antibodies as suitable therapeutic agents in CNS injuries to achieve neuroprotection and/or neurorepair.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aruna Sharma
- Laboratory of Cerebrovascular Research, Department of Surgical Sciences, Anesthesiology & Intensive Care Medicine, University Hospital, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
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Motskin M, Müller KH, Genoud C, Monteith AG, Skepper JN. The sequestration of hydroxyapatite nanoparticles by human monocyte-macrophages in a compartment that allows free diffusion with the extracellular environment. Biomaterials 2011; 32:9470-82. [PMID: 21889202 DOI: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2011.08.060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2011] [Accepted: 08/18/2011] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Calcium phosphate and hydroxyapatite nanoparticles are extensively researched for medical applications, including bone implant materials, DNA and SiRNA delivery vectors and slow release vaccines. Elucidating the mechanisms by which cells internalize nanoparticles is fundamental for their long-term exploitation. In this study, we demonstrate that hydrophilic hydroxyapatite nanoparticles are sequestered within a specialized compartment called SCC (surface-connected compartment). This membrane-bound compartment is an elaborate labyrinth-like structure directly connected to the extracellular space. This continuity is demonstrated by in vivo 2-photon microscopy of ionic calcium using both cell-permeable and cell-impermeable dyes and by 3-D reconstructions from serial block-face SEM of fixed cells. Previously, this compartment was thought to be initiated specifically by exposure of macrophages to hydrophobic nanoparticles. However, we show that the SCC can be triggered by a much wider range of nanoparticles. Furthermore, we demonstrate its formation in A549 human lung epithelial cells, which are considerably less phagocytic than macrophages. EDX shows that extensive amounts of hydroxyapatite nanoparticles can be sequestered in this manner. We propose that SCC formation may be a means to remove large amounts of foreign material from the extracellular space, followed by slow degradation, may be to avoid excessive damage to surrounding cells or tissues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Motskin
- Multi-Imaging Centre, Dept. of Physiology, Development and Neuroscience, Anatomy Building, Cambridge University, Cambridge CB2 3DY, UK
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Dubový P. Wallerian degeneration and peripheral nerve conditions for both axonal regeneration and neuropathic pain induction. Ann Anat 2011; 193:267-75. [PMID: 21458249 DOI: 10.1016/j.aanat.2011.02.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 126] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2011] [Revised: 02/15/2011] [Accepted: 02/16/2011] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Wallerian degeneration is a cascade of stereotypical events in reaction to injury of nerve fibres. These events consist of cellular and molecular alterations, including macrophage invasion, activation of Schwann cells, as well as neurotrophin and cytokine upregulation. This review focuses on cellular and molecular changes distal to various types of peripheral nerve injury which simultaneously contribute to axonal regeneration and neuropathic pain induction. In addition to the stereotypical events of Wallerian degeneration, various types of nerve damage provide different conditions for both axonal regeneration and neuropathic pain induction. Wallerian degeneration of injured peripheral nerve is associated with an inflammatory response including rapid upregulation of the immune signal molecules like cytokines, chemokines and transcription factors with both beneficial and detrimental effects on nerve regeneration or neuropathic pain induction. A better understanding of the molecular interactions between the immune system and peripheral nerve injury would open the possibility for targeting these inflammatory mediators in therapeutic interventions. Understanding the pleiotropic effects of cytokines/chemokines, however, requires investigating their highly specific pathways and precise points of action.
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Affiliation(s)
- Petr Dubový
- Department of Anatomy, Division of Neuroanatomy, Faculty of Medicine and Central European Institute of Technology (CEITEC), Masaryk University, Kamenice 3, Brno, Czech Republic.
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32
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Tas N, Bakar B, Kasimcan MO, Gazyagci S, Ayva SK, Kilinc K, Evliyaoglu C. Evaluation of protective effects of the alpha lipoic acid after spinal cord injury: an animal study. Injury 2010; 41:1068-74. [PMID: 20637463 DOI: 10.1016/j.injury.2010.05.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2010] [Revised: 05/03/2010] [Accepted: 05/24/2010] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE Many of the hypotheses have been suggested to explain the mechanism of the secondary effects of traumatic spinal cord injury (TSCI) as follows: ischaemia/reperfusion disability theory, free radicals theory, exitotoxicity theory, immunological destruction theory, apoptosis theory. Recently, free radicals,lipid peroxidation reactions and apoptosis theories have been much more accepted than others. In this study, possible protective effects of the alpha lipoic acid were evaluated in the traumatic spinal cord of rats. METHODS Using a well characterised weight drop technique, spinal cord contusions were formed to 48 Wistar albino rats at thoracal 8–10 level. After alpha lipoic acid and methylprednisolone were administered intraperitoneally, the spinal cord tissues were harvested for histopathological and biochemical studies. RESULTS Histopathological examination results showed that neither methylprednisolone nor alpha lipoic acid can play an act to decrease or block the neural tissue destruction and necrosis in hyperacute and subacute stage of the TSCI in rats. Biochemical study results showed that alpha lipoic acid was much more decreased the lipid peroxidation levels than methylprednisolone in subacute stage. However, none of the agents was changed the myeloperoxidation level in subacute stage. INTERPRETATION Alpha lipoic acid and methylprednisolone administrations did not alter the onset or degree of necrosis at the zone of the TSCI in rats. On the other hand, alpha lipoic acid is more effective than methylprednisolone treatment for the prevention of lipid peroxidation after spinal cord injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nilufer Tas
- Kirikkale University, School of Medicine, Department of Neurosurgery, 71100 Kirikkale, Turkey
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33
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Chin MP, Deen WM. Prediction of nitric oxide concentrations in melanomas. Nitric Oxide 2010; 23:319-26. [PMID: 20854923 DOI: 10.1016/j.niox.2010.09.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2010] [Revised: 06/16/2010] [Accepted: 09/13/2010] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The presence of iNOS and nitrotyrosine in cutaneous melanomas has been correlated with poor survival rates of patients, suggesting that NO plays a role in the tumor pathophysiology. However, the concentrations of NO that melanoma cells are exposed to in vivo have been unknown. To provide cell kinetic data for use in predicting those concentrations, synthesis and consumption of NO was examined in A375 melanoma cells. Nitric oxide synthesis was undetectable. The rate of intracellular NO consumption was determined by continuous monitoring of NO concentrations following injection of NO solutions in a closed chamber. After correcting for autoxidation and consumption from media-generated O(2)(-), the rate constant obtained for cellular consumption was 7.1±1.1 s(-1). This information was combined with previous data on macrophage NO kinetics to develop a mathematical model to predict NO levels in cutaneous melanomas. Synthesis of NO by macrophages in the stroma was found to give a maximum concentration at the tumor periphery of 0.2 μM. Because of the high rates of cellular consumption, the elevation in NO concentration is predicted to be very localized, approximately 90% of the concentration decay occurring within 30 μm of the tumor edge. High NO concentrations at the periphery of a melanoma may contribute to metastasis by stimulating cell proliferation, inhibiting apoptosis, or acting as a lymphangiogenic factor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melanie P Chin
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
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Girolami EI, Bouhy D, Haber M, Johnson H, David S. Differential expression and potential role of SOCS1 and SOCS3 in Wallerian degeneration in injured peripheral nerve. Exp Neurol 2009; 223:173-82. [PMID: 19576891 DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2009.06.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2009] [Revised: 06/23/2009] [Accepted: 06/24/2009] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
Pro-inflammatory chemokines and cytokines play an important role in Wallerian degeneration (WD) after peripheral nerve injury. These pro-inflammatory signals are "turned-off" in a timely manner to ensure that the inflammatory response in the injured nerve is limited. The factors that regulate the turning-off of the pro-inflammatory state are not fully understood. The suppressors of cytokine signaling (SOCS) proteins are potential candidates that could limit the inflammatory response by acting to regulate cytokine signaling at the intracellular level. In this work we show that the expression SOCS1 and SOCS3 proteins differ from each other during WD in the mouse sciatic nerve after cut/ligation and crush injuries. SOCS1 is mainly expressed by macrophages and its expression is inversely correlated with phosphorylation of JAK2 and STAT3 signaling proteins and the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-1beta and TNFalpha. In addition, treatment of cut/ligated nerves, which express lower levels of SOCS1 as compared to crush injury, with a SOCS1 mimetic peptide leads to a decrease in macrophage numbers at 14 days post-injury and reduces IL-1beta mRNA expression 1 day post-injury. In contrast, SOCS3 expression is restricted mainly to Schwann cells and is negatively correlated with the expression of IL-6 and LIF. These data suggest that SOCS1 and SOCS3 may play different roles in WD and provide a better understanding of some of the potential regulatory mechanisms that may control inflammation and regeneration in the injured peripheral nerve.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth I Girolami
- Centre for Research in Neuroscience, The Research Institute of the McGill University Health Centre, Livingston Hall, Room L7-210, 1650 Cedar Ave., Montreal, Quebec, Canada H3G 1A4
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Wang L, Hu B, Wong WM, Lu P, Wu W, Xu XM. Glial and axonal responses in areas of Wallerian degeneration of the corticospinal and dorsal ascending tracts after spinal cord dorsal funiculotomy. Neuropathology 2009; 29:230-41. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1440-1789.2008.00969.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
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Koopmans GC, Deumens R, Buss A, Geoghegan L, Myint AM, Honig WHH, Kern N, Joosten EA, Noth J, Brook GA. Acute rolipram/thalidomide treatment improves tissue sparing and locomotion after experimental spinal cord injury. Exp Neurol 2009; 216:490-8. [PMID: 19320007 DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2009.01.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Traumatic spinal cord injury (SCI) causes severe and permanent functional deficits due to the primary mechanical insult followed by secondary tissue degeneration. The cascade of secondary degenerative events constitutes a range of therapeutic targets which, if successfully treated, could significantly ameliorate functional loss after traumatic SCI. During the early hours after injury, potent pro-inflammatory cytokines, including tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-alpha) and interleukin-1 beta (IL-1beta) are synthesized and released, playing key roles in secondary tissue degeneration. In the present investigation, the ability of rolipram and thalidomide (FDA approved drugs) to reduce secondary tissue degeneration and improve motor function was assessed in an experimental model of spinal cord contusion injury. The combined acute single intraperitoneal administration of both drugs attenuated TNF-alpha and IL-1beta production and improved white matter sparing at the lesion epicenter. This was accompanied by a significant (2.6 point) improvement in the BBB locomotor score by 6 weeks. There is, at present, no widely accepted intervention strategy that is appropriate for the early treatment of human SCI. The present data suggest that clinical trials for the acute combined application of rolipram and thalidomide may be warranted. The use of such "established drugs" could facilitate the early initiation of trials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guido C Koopmans
- Department of Anesthesiology, Academic Hospital Maastricht, Maastricht, 6200 AZ, The Netherlands.
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Cui Q, Yin Y, Benowitz LI. The role of macrophages in optic nerve regeneration. Neuroscience 2009; 158:1039-48. [PMID: 18708126 PMCID: PMC2670061 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2008.07.036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2008] [Revised: 07/18/2008] [Accepted: 07/20/2008] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Following injury to the nervous system, the activation of macrophages, microglia, and T-cells profoundly affects the ability of neurons to survive and to regenerate damaged axons. The primary visual pathway provides a well-defined model system for investigating the interactions between the immune system and the nervous system after neural injury. Following damage to the optic nerve in mice and rats, retinal ganglion cells, the projection neurons of the eye, normally fail to regenerate their axons and soon begin to die. Induction of an inflammatory response in the vitreous strongly enhances the survival of retinal ganglion cells and enables these cells to regenerate lengthy axons beyond the injury site. T cells modulate this response, whereas microglia are thought to contribute to the loss of retinal ganglion cells in this model and in certain ocular diseases. This review discusses the complex and sometimes paradoxical actions of blood-borne macrophages, resident microglia, and T-cells in determining the outcome of injury in the primary visual pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Q Cui
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, 147K Argyle Street, Kowloon, Hong Kong, PR China.
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Intrathecal transplantation of autologous macrophages genetically modified to secrete proenkephalin ameliorated hyperalgesia and allodynia following peripheral nerve injury in rats. Neurosci Res 2009; 64:56-62. [PMID: 19428684 DOI: 10.1016/j.neures.2009.01.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2008] [Revised: 01/19/2009] [Accepted: 01/21/2009] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
To develop a novel genetic approach for the treatment of pain, we tested the transplantation of gene-transferred autologous macrophages by lumbar puncture. A rat neuropathic pain model was produced by chronic constriction of the sciatic nerve. Autologous macrophages were collected from the intraperitoneal space. Then human proenkephalin gene was transferred into the macrophages by electroporation. The gene-transferred macrophages were transplanted into the subarachnoid space by lumbar puncture. One week after transplantation, the heat hyperalgesia and allodynia induced by sciatic nerve constriction completely remitted. The analgesic action continued until at least 4 weeks after transplantation. The transplanted macrophages migrated into the spinal cord and expressed proenkephalin mRNA and Met-enkephalin protein. The method we tested in the present study may be a safe, simple and effective way to inhibit pain sensation after peripheral nerve injuries.
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Chin MP, Schauer DB, Deen WM. Prediction of nitric oxide concentrations in colonic crypts during inflammation. Nitric Oxide 2008; 19:266-75. [PMID: 18501201 DOI: 10.1016/j.niox.2008.04.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2008] [Revised: 04/14/2008] [Accepted: 04/29/2008] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Nitric oxide production in the colon has been linked to inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and increased risk for colon cancer. However, measurements of NO concentration in the inflamed colon have not been available and it is not known what NO levels are pathophysiological. A computational model, based on anatomical length scales and rates of NO production measured in cell cultures, was used to predict spatially varying NO concentrations within a colonic crypt under inflammatory conditions. A variety of scenarios were considered, including different spatial distributions of macrophages and a range of possible macrophage and epithelial synthesis rates for NO. Activated macrophages arranged as a monolayer at the base of the crypt elicited maximum NO concentrations of approximately 0.3 microM. The epithelial contribution to NO synthesis was calculated to be negligible. Assuming a uniform macrophage layer, NO synthesis rates greater than 20 microM/s, or more than three times that measured in vitro, would be necessary to achieve maximum NO concentrations of 1 microM in the crypt. Thus, unless NO synthesis rates in macrophages and/or epithelial cells greatly exceed those measured in cell cultures, NO concentrations will remain submicromolar in the crypt during inflammation. Additionally, the results were used to predict the range of NO concentrations (<0.3 microM) and cumulative NO dose (560 microM min) experienced by a given epithelial cell migrating from the base to the top of the crypt. These estimates of NO concentrations in inflamed crypts should facilitate efforts to elucidate the molecular biological linkage between NO exposure and carcinogenesis in IBD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melanie P Chin
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Room 66-572, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
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40
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Feng SQ, Zhou XF, Rush RA, Ferguson IA. Graft of pre-injured sural nerve promotes regeneration of corticospinal tract and functional recovery in rats with chronic spinal cord injury. Brain Res 2008; 1209:40-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2008.02.075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2008] [Revised: 02/25/2008] [Accepted: 02/26/2008] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Gris D, Hamilton EF, Weaver LC. The systemic inflammatory response after spinal cord injury damages lungs and kidneys. Exp Neurol 2008; 211:259-70. [PMID: 18384773 DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2008.01.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2007] [Revised: 01/25/2008] [Accepted: 01/30/2008] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Spinal cord injury (SCI) triggers a well characterized, acute, local inflammation leading to secondary damage at the lesion site. Another little recognized problem may be the activation of circulating inflammatory cells that potentially damage tissues outside the cord. We investigated this problem using severe clip-compression SCI in rats. We studied systemic inflammation after SCI and its effects on lungs and kidneys, as dysfunction of these organs is a frequent, early complication after SCI. From 2-24 h after SCI, the number of circulating neutrophils (especially immature cells) significantly increased by 3-10 fold. Flow cytometry experiments revealed that SCI transiently activates these neutrophils, causing increased oxidative responses to phorbolmyristic acid at 2 h after SCI; then, from 4-24 h, the neutrophils were less responsive. Neutrophil longevity was increased (30-50% decrease in apoptosis) at 2-8 h after SCI. Immunohistochemical analyses demonstrated the invasion of neutrophils into lungs and kidneys (2 h-7 d after SCI) and more phagocytic macrophages in lungs (12 h, 3 d after SCI). Myeloperoxidase and matrix metalloproteinase-9 activity in lung and kidney homogenates increased (12 h-7 d after SCI). Expression of COX-2 increased and lipid peroxidation also occurred within this time. Control experiments inducing local cord damage by excitotoxic quisqualate injection verified that SCI per se is sufficient to trigger systemic inflammation and organ damage. In summary, SCI mobilizes and activates neutrophils that then migrate into visceral organs, a phenomenon occurring in parallel with their well-known entry into the cord injury site. The systemic inflammatory response to SCI should be targeted in the development of new therapeutic strategies to treat SCI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Denis Gris
- The Spinal Cord Injury Laboratory, BioTherapeutics Research Group, Robarts Research Institute, University of Western Ontario, 100 Perth Drive, London, Ontario, Canada
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42
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Hauk TG, Müller A, Lee J, Schwendener R, Fischer D. Neuroprotective and axon growth promoting effects of intraocular inflammation do not depend on oncomodulin or the presence of large numbers of activated macrophages. Exp Neurol 2008; 209:469-82. [DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2007.09.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2007] [Revised: 09/03/2007] [Accepted: 09/11/2007] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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Multifaceted aspects of inflammation in multiple sclerosis: The role of microglia. J Neuroimmunol 2007; 191:39-44. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jneuroim.2007.09.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2007] [Accepted: 09/07/2007] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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44
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Barclay J, Clark AK, Ganju P, Gentry C, Patel S, Wotherspoon G, Buxton F, Song C, Ullah J, Winter J, Fox A, Bevan S, Malcangio M. Role of the cysteine protease cathepsin S in neuropathic hyperalgesia. Pain 2007; 130:225-234. [PMID: 17250968 DOI: 10.1016/j.pain.2006.11.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 105] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2006] [Revised: 10/11/2006] [Accepted: 11/29/2006] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Using a gene expression analysis approach we found that the mRNA encoding the lysosomal cysteine protease cathepsin S (CatS) was up-regulated in rat dorsal root ganglia (DRG) following peripheral nerve injury. CatS protein was expressed in infiltrating macrophages in DRG and near the site of injury. At both sites CatS expression progressively increased from day 3 to day 14 after injury. In naïve rats, intraplantar injection of activated rat recombinant (rr) CatS (0.3, 1 microg/rat) induced a mechanical hyperalgesia that developed within half-an-hour, diminished by 3h and was absent after 24h. Activated rrCathepsin B (CatB) and non-activated rrCatS injected intraplantarly at the same or higher doses than activated rrCatS had no effect on rat nociceptive thresholds. In nerve-injured rats, mechanical hyperalgesia, but not allodynia, was significantly reversed for up to 3h by systemic administration of a non-brain penetrant, irreversible CatS inhibitor (LHVS, 3-30 mg/kg s.c.). Depletion of peripheral macrophages by intravenous injection of liposome encapsulate clodronate (1ml, 5 mg/ml) partially reduced established mechanical hyperalgesia but not allodynia, and abolished the anti-hyperalgesic effect of LHVS. Our results demonstrate a pro-nociceptive effect of CatS and indicate that endogenous CatS released by peripheral macrophages contributes to the maintenance of neuropathic hyperalgesia following nerve injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jane Barclay
- Novartis Institutes for Biomedical Research, 5 Gower Place, London WC1E 6BS, UK Department of Functional Genomics, Novartis Institutes for Biomedical Research, 100 Technology Square, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA Wolfson CARD, King's College London, Guy's Campus, London SE1 1UL, UK
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Fry EJ, Ho C, David S. A role for Nogo receptor in macrophage clearance from injured peripheral nerve. Neuron 2007; 53:649-62. [PMID: 17329206 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuron.2007.02.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 93] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2005] [Revised: 09/13/2006] [Accepted: 02/08/2007] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
We report a role for Nogo receptors (NgRs) in macrophage efflux from sites of inflammation in peripheral nerve. Increasing numbers of macrophages in crushed rat sciatic nerves express NgR1 and NgR2 on the cell surface in the first week after injury. These macrophages show reduced binding to myelin and MAG in vitro, which is reversed by NgR siRNA knockdown and by inhibiting Rho-associated kinase. Fourteen days after sciatic nerve crush, regenerating nerves with newly synthesized myelin have fewer macrophages than cut/ligated nerves that lack axons and myelin. Almost all macrophages in the cut/ligated nerves lie within the Schwann cell basal lamina, while in the crushed regenerating nerves the majority migrate out. Furthermore, crush-injured nerves of NgR1- and MAG-deficient mice and Y-27632-treated rats show impaired macrophage efflux from Schwann cell basal lamina containing myelinated axons. These data have implications for the resolution of inflammation in peripheral nerve and CNS pathologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth J Fry
- Center for Research in Neuroscience, The McGill University Health Center, 1650 Cedar Avenue, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
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Mueller BK, Yamashita T, Schaffar G, Mueller R. The role of repulsive guidance molecules in the embryonic and adult vertebrate central nervous system. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2007; 361:1513-29. [PMID: 16939972 PMCID: PMC1664662 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2006.1888] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
During the development of the nervous system, outgrowing axons often have to travel long distances to reach their target neurons. In this process, outgrowing neurites tipped with motile growth cones rely on guidance cues present in their local environment. These cues are detected by specific receptors expressed on growth cones and neurites and influence the trajectory of the growing fibres. Neurite growth, guidance, target innervation and synapse formation and maturation are the processes that occur predominantly but not exclusively during embryonic or early post-natal development in vertebrates. As a result, a functional neural network is established, which is usually remarkably stable. However, the stability of the neural network in higher vertebrates comes at an expensive price, i.e. the loss of any significant ability to regenerate injured or damaged neuronal connections in their central nervous system (CNS). Most importantly, neurite growth inhibitors prevent any regenerative growth of injured nerve fibres. Some of these inhibitors are associated with CNS myelin, others are found at the lesion site and in the scar tissue. Traumatic injuries in brain and spinal cord of mammals induce upregulation of embryonic inhibitory or repulsive guidance cues and their receptors on the neurites. An example for embryonic repulsive directional cues re-expressed at lesion sites in both the rat and human CNS is provided with repulsive guidance molecules, a new family of directional guidance cues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bernhard K Mueller
- Neuroscience Discovery Research, Abbott GmbH & Co. KG, Knollstrasse 50, 67061 Ludwigshafen, Germany.
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Shin T. Increases in the phosphorylated form of caveolin-1 in the spinal cord of rats with clip compression injury. Brain Res 2007; 1141:228-34. [PMID: 17275798 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2007.01.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2006] [Revised: 01/02/2007] [Accepted: 01/03/2007] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The phosphorylation of caveolin-1, a lipid raft protein, alters cell shape, which is an important finding in the activation and migration of inflammatory cells. We studied the level of the phosphorylated form of caveolin-1 (p-caveolin-1) in the spinal cord of rats with a clip compression injury to determine whether the phosphorylation of caveolin-1 is involved in the pathogenesis of spinal cord injury. Spinal cords, sampled on days 0, 1, 4, 7, and 14 post-injury, were analyzed by Western blot and immunohistochemistry. Western blot analysis showed that the level of p-caveolin-1 significantly increased in the spinal cord at day 4 post-injury compared to the sham-operated control (p<0.05), and its increased level remained in the elevated condition until day 14 post-injury. Immunohistochemistry showed that p-caveolin-1 was mainly localized in the macrophages/activated microglia in the injured spinal cords, even though caveolin-1 was immunodetected in neurons and reactive astrocytes as well as in inflammatory macrophages. Considering these findings, we postulated that the increased level of p-caveolin-1 is involved in intracellular signaling in affected cells, particularly macrophages/activated microglia, in the course of rat spinal cord injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Taekyun Shin
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, Cheju National University, Jeju 690-756, South Korea.
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Hendriks WTJ, Eggers R, Verhaagen J, Boer GJ. Gene transfer to the spinal cord neural scar with lentiviral vectors: predominant transgene expression in astrocytes but not in meningeal cells. J Neurosci Res 2007; 85:3041-52. [PMID: 17671987 DOI: 10.1002/jnr.21432] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Viral vector-mediated overexpression of neurotrophins in cells constituting the neural scar may represent a powerful approach to rendering scar tissue of a central nervous system (CNS) lesion permissive for neuronal regrowth. In this study a lentiviral vector encoding green fluorescent protein (LV-GFP) was injected in and around the neural scar 2 weeks after a dorsal column lesion in the rat spinal cord in order to analyze transduction characteristics of the neural scar after 4, 7, and 14 days. GFP expression was found at all points after injection and increased from 4 to 7 days, with no apparent difference observed between 7 and 14 days. The core of the lesion was virtually devoid of GFP signal despite direct vector injections in this area. The colocalization of GFP with specific cell markers (GFAP, vimentin, Raldh2, NeuN, OX-42, ED-1, and NG-2) indicated that the predominant cells transduced in the rim of the lesion were astrocytes, with neurons, microglia, oligodendrocyte precursors, and macrophages transduced to a lesser extent. None of the Raldh2-positive meningeal cells, present in the core of the scar, expressed GFP. In vitro meningeal cells were readily transduced, indicating that in vivo the formation of an extracellular matrix might prevent LV particles from transducing cells in the core of the scar. Because astrocytes are important cellular constituents of the glial scar after CNS injury, transduction of astrocytes with LV vectors encoding neurotrophic factors like BDNF or NT-3 may be used to enhance regeneration of severed axonal tracts through or along boundaries of a CNS lesion.
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Affiliation(s)
- W T J Hendriks
- Laboratory for Neurodegeneration, Netherlands Institute for Neuroscience, an Institute of the Royal Academy of Arts and Sciences, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
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49
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Ben Simon GJ, Hovda DA, Harris NG, Gomez-Pinilla F, Goldberg RA. Traumatic Brain Injury Induced Neuroprotection of Retinal Ganglion Cells to Optic Nerve Crush. J Neurotrauma 2006; 23:1072-82. [PMID: 16866620 DOI: 10.1089/neu.2006.23.1072] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Optic nerve crush injury leads to death of retinal ganglion cells (RGCs), both as a direct result of the primary injury and via secondary degeneration induced by neurotoxins secreted by dying RGCs. Studies have shown that, if optic nerve crush is preceded by an unrelated injury to another part of the central nervous system, for example, the spinal cord, the ensuing T cell-mediated protective autoimmunity results in a significant increase in RGC survival. In this study, we used the controlled cortical impact paradigm to induce unilateral traumatic brain injury (TBI) in rats at different times before they were contralaterally subjected to a mild optic nerve crush. Survival of RGCs, assessed 2 weeks after crush injury, was significantly increased when the crush was inflicted 11 days after TBI, but not when the two injuries were concomitant. The beneficial effect was unaffected by injection of low-dose methylprednisolone MP (1 mg/kg), but was inhibited after a high-dose injection (30 mg/kg). Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) mRNA, assayed at intervals after TBI, was increased in the retina ipsilateral to TBI but decreased in the contralateral retina. BDNF peaked 1 day after TBI, decreased on day 11, and rose again on day 21. It thus seems that brain injury sustained a certain time before optic nerve injury has a protective effect on RGC survival. This neuroprotective effect, which appears unrelated to retinal BDNF, is inhibited by high-dose MP, commonly used clinically to treat traumatic optic neuropathy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guy J Ben Simon
- Jules Stein Eye Institute and Department of Ophthalmology, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, California, USA.
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50
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Debate: "is increasing neuroinflammation beneficial for neural repair?". J Neuroimmune Pharmacol 2006; 1:195-211. [PMID: 18040798 DOI: 10.1007/s11481-006-9021-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2006] [Accepted: 04/26/2006] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
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