Novel Dammarane-Type Triterpene Saponins from Panax ginseng Root

Research progress on chemical diversity of saponins in Panax ginseng

Saponins, the major bioactive components of Panax ginseng C. A. Mey., are gradually emerging as research hotspots owing to the possession of various pharmacological activities. This review updates the ginsenosides list from P. ginseng and the steam-processed ginseng (red ginseng and black ginseng) up to 271 by June of 2024, encompassing 243 saponins from different parts of P. ginseng (roots, stems, leaves, flowers, berries, and seeds), 103 from red ginseng, and 65 from black ginseng, respectively. Among 271 saponins, there are a total of 249 (1-249) dammarane type (with a - z subtypes) tetracyclic triterpene saponins reported from each part of P. ginseng and steam-processed ginseng, two (250-251) lanostane type tetracyclic triterpene saponins identified from red ginseng, 18 (252-269) oleanane type pentacyclic triterpenoid saponins discovered from each part of P. ginseng and steam-processed ginseng, and two (270-271) ursane type pentacyclic triterpenoid saponins reported from red ginseng. Overall, this review expounds on the chemical diversity of ginsenosides in various aspects, such as chemical structure, spatial distribution and subtype comparison, processed products, and transformation. This facilitates more in-depth research on ginsenosides and contributes to the future development of ginseng.

Characterization of Ginsenosides from the Root of Panax ginseng by Integrating Untargeted Metabolites Using UPLC-Triple TOF-MS

To compare the chemical distinctions of Panax ginseng Meyer in different growth environments and explore the effects of growth-environment factors on P. ginseng growth, an ultra-performance liquid chromatography-tandem triple quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UPLC-Triple-TOF-MS/MS) was used to characterize the ginsenosides obtained by ultrasonic extraction from P. ginseng grown in different growing environments. Sixty-three ginsenosides were used as reference standards for accurate qualitative analysis. Cluster analysis was used to analyze the differences in main components and clarified the influence of growth environment factors on P. ginseng compounds. A total of 312 ginsenosides were identified in four types of P. ginseng, among which 75 were potential new ginsenosides. The number of ginsenosides in L15 was the highest, and the number of ginsenosides in the other three groups was similar, but it was a great difference in specie of ginsenosides. The study confirmed that different growing environments had a great influence on the constituents of P. ginseng, and provided a new breakthrough for the further study of the potential compounds in P. ginseng.

Advances and challenges in ginseng research from 2011 to 2020: the phytochemistry, quality control, metabolism, and biosynthesis

Covering: 2011 to the end of 2020Panax species (Araliaceae), particularly P. ginseng, P. quinquefolius, and P. notoginseng, have a long history of medicinal use because of their remarkable tonifying effects, and currently serve as crucial sources for various healthcare products, functional foods, and cosmetics, aside from their vast clinical preparations. The huge market demand on a global scale prompts the continuous prosperity in ginseng research concerning the discovery of new compounds, precise quality control, ADME (absorption/disposition/metabolism/excretion), and biosynthesis pathways. Benefitting from the ongoing rapid development of analytical technologies, e.g. multi-dimensional chromatography (MDC), personalized mass spectrometry (MS) scan strategies, and multi-omics, highly recognized progress has been made in driving ginseng analysis towards "systematicness, integrity, personalization, and intelligentization". Herein, we review the advances in the phytochemistry, quality control, metabolism, and biosynthesis pathway of ginseng over the past decade (2011-2020), with 410 citations. Emphasis is placed on the introduction of new compounds isolated (saponins and polysaccharides), and the emerging novel analytical technologies and analytical strategies that favor ginseng's authentic use and global consumption. Perspectives on the challenges and future trends in ginseng analysis are also presented.

Mass spectrometry as a tool for the dereplication of saponins from Ampelozizyphus amazonicus Ducke bark and wood

INTRODUCTION

Mass spectrometry in natural products research has been used as a first step to identify possible chemical structures and to guide subsequent efforts to isolate novel compounds. Preparations of Ampelozizyphus amazonicus Ducke (AA) are known for their high content of saponins, especially dammarane-type triterpenoid aglycones. In the Amazon, where it is known as "saracura-mirá", roots and bark are widely used for the treatment and prevention of malaria, while the wood is discarded. The extract prepared from the wood is also saponin-rich, but its exact chemical composition has not been described.

OBJECTIVE

This study provides information on the chemical profiling and tentative structural identification of the major compounds (saponins) present in aqueous and ethanol extracts of bark and wood of AA by mass spectrometry.

METHODS

The strategy used to identify compounds present in all samples was ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography with an ultraviolet detector coupled to tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-UV-MS/MS) for the analysis of fragmentation patterns through product ion scan using MZmine 2 software. Also, direct sample injection and electrospray ionisation combined with high-resolution mass spectrometry (DI-ESI-HRMS) measurements were performed.

RESULTS

The extracts showed chemical similarity, and 95 saponins were tentatively identified in AA wood and bark, including 73 which are described for the first time as tentative structures for this plant species.

CONCLUSION

This research describes a useful method for the fast and simultaneous tentative identification of major saponins in AA, contributing to the study of the chemical properties of this genus and family. Furthermore, it demonstrates the importance of the qualitative dereplication process, allowing a straightforward way to propose the tentative identification of compounds.

The applicability of high-speed counter current chromatography to the separation of natural antioxidants

Antioxidants play an essential role in human health, as they have been found to be capable of lowering the incidence of many diseases, such as cancer and angiocardiopathy. Currently, more attention is paid to natural antioxidants because of the possible insecurity of synthetic antioxidants. Thus, the development of efficient techniques or methods to separate antioxidants from natural sources is requested urgently. High-speed counter current chromatography (HSCCC) is a unique support-free liquid-liquid chromatographic technique and has been widely applied in the field of separation of natural products. In this review, we summarize and analyze the related researches on the application of HSCCC in the separation of various natural antioxidants so far. The purpose of the article is to provide a certain theoretical support for the separation of natural antioxidants by HSCCC, and to make full use of advantages of HSCCC in the separation of bioactive components. In particular, some key problems associated with the separation strategies, the structural categories of natural antioxidants, solvent system choices, and the application of different elution modes in HSCCC separation, are summarized and commented. We expect that the content reviewed can offer more evidence for the development of the field of natural antioxidants separation, so as to achieve large-scale preparation of natural antioxidants.

Functional Regulation of Ginsenosides on Myeloid Immunosuppressive Cells in the Tumor Microenvironment

Ginsenosides, the key components isolated from ginseng, have been extensively studied in antitumor treatment. Numerous studies have shown that ginsenosides have direct function in tumor cells through the induction of cancer cell apoptosis and the inhibition of cancer cell growth and enhance the antitumor immunity through the activation of cytotoxic T lymphocytes and natural killer cells. However, little is known about the function of ginsenosides on myeloid immunosuppressive cells including dendritic cells in tumor, tumor-associated macrophages, and myeloid-derived suppressor cells in the tumor microenvironments. Those myeloid immunosuppressive cells play important roles in promoting tumor angiogenesis, invasion, and metastasis. In the review, we summarize the regulatory functions of ginsenosides on myeloid immunosuppressive cells in tumor microenvironment, providing the novel therapeutic methods for clinical cancer treatment.

Triterpenoids

This review covers newly isolated triterpenoids that have been reported during 2015.

A immunosuppressive triterpenoid saponin from the stems of Epigynum griffithianum

Chemical investigation of the stems of Epigunum griffithianum led to the isolation and identification of a new triterpenoid saponin (1) and two known compounds (epigynosides A (2) and B (3)). These structures were elucidated by means of spectroscopic analysis (1D and 2D NMR, MS, UV, IR) as well as comparison with the reported data. Compound 1 was evaluated in vitro for the immunosuppressive activities on proliferation of mice splenocyte and displayed significant immunosuppressive activities compared to the positive control (dexamethasone) with the concentration at 25 μM.[Formula: see text].

Functional mechanism of Ginsenosides on tumor growth and metastasis

Ginsengs, has long been used as one medicinal herb in China for more than two thousand years. Many studies have shown that ginsengs have preventive and therapeutic roles for cancer, and play a good complementary role in cancer treatment. Ginsenosides, as most important constituents of ginseng, have been extensively investigated and emphasized in cancer chemoprevention and therapeutics. However, the functional mechanism of Ginsenosides on cancer is not well known. This review will focus on introducing the functional mechanisms of ginsenosides and their metabolites, which regulate signaling pathways related with tumor growth and metastasis. Ginsenosides inhibit tumor growth via upregulating tumor apoptosis, inducing tumor cell differentiation and targeting cancer stem cells. In addition, Ginsenosides regulate tumor microenvironment via suppressing tumor angiogenesis-related proteins and pathways. Structural modification of ginsenosides and their administration alone or combinations with other Chinese medicines or chemical medicines have recently been developed to be a new therapeutic strategy for cancer.

Dammarane-type triterpene ginsenoside-Rg18 inhibits human non-small cell lung cancer A549 cell proliferation via G1 phase arrest

A previous study reported that a novel dammarane-type triterpene saponin, ginsenoside-Rg18, derived from the root of Panax ginseng, displayed hydroxyl radical scavenging, anti-bacterial and cytotoxic activities. However, the underlying molecular mechanisms of its anti-proliferative effect on non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) A549 cells remains unclear. In the present study, it was determined that Rg18 inhibited the proliferation of A549 cells with a half-maximal inhibitory concentration of 150 µM. Flow cytometry analysis indicated that cell cycle progression was blocked by Rg18 at G₁ phase in A549 cells, which was accompanied by downregulation of cyclin-dependent kinase 2 (CDK2), CDK4, CDK6, cyclin D1, cyclin D2, cyclin E and phosphorylated retinoblastoma protein expression at the protein level. In addition, the CDK inhibitors (CDKNs), CDKN1A and CDKN1B, were upregulated following Rg18 treatment. Furthermore, Rg18 treatment resulted in the intracellular accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), and a dose-dependent inhibition of p38 mitogen activated protein kinase (p38), c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) and nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB)/p65 phosphorylation. Taken together, Rg18-mediated G₁ phase arrest was closely associated with the generation of intracellular ROS, and p38, JNK and NF-κB/p65 inhibition in A549 human NSCLC cells.

High-performance liquid chromatography analysis of phytosterols in Panax ginseng root grown under different conditions

BACKGROUND

The Panax ginseng plant is used as an herbal medicine. Phytosterols of P. ginseng have inhibitory effects on inflammation-related factors in HepG2 cells.

METHODS

Phytosterols (e.g., stigmasterol and β-sitosterol) in the roots of P. ginseng grown under various conditions were analyzed using high-performance liquid chromatography. The P. ginseng roots analyzed in this study were collected from three cultivation areas in Korea (i.e., Geumsan, Yeongju, and Jinan) and differed by cultivation year (i.e., 4 years, 5 years, and 6 years) and production process (i.e., straight ginseng, red ginseng, and white ginseng).

RESULTS

The concentrations of stigmasterol and β-sitosterol in P. ginseng roots were 2.22-23.04 mg/g and 7.35-59.09 mg/g, respectively. The highest concentrations of stigmasterol and β-sitosterol were in the roots of 6-year-old P. ginseng cultivated in Jinan (82.14 mg/g and 53.23 mg/g, respectively).

CONCLUSION

Six-year-old white ginseng and white ginseng cultivated in Jinan containing stigmasterol and β-sitosterol are potentially a new source of income in agriculture.

Countercurrent chromatography separation of saponins by skeleton type from Ampelozizyphus amazonicus for off-line ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography/high resolution accurate mass spectrometry analysis and characterisation

Ampelozizyphus amazonicus Ducke (Rhamnaceae), a medicinal plant used to prevent malaria, is a climbing shrub, native to the Amazonian region, with jujubogenin glycoside saponins as main compounds. The crude extract of this plant is too complex for any kind of structural identification, and HPLC separation was not sufficient to resolve this issue. Therefore, the aim of this work was to obtain saponin enriched fractions from the bark ethanol extract by countercurrent chromatography (CCC) for further isolation and identification/characterisation of the major saponins by HPLC and MS. The butanol extract was fractionated by CCC with hexane - ethyl acetate - butanol - ethanol - water (1:6:1:1:6; v/v) solvent system yielding 4 group fractions. The collected fractions were analysed by UHPLC-HRMS (ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography/high resolution accurate mass spectrometry) and MSn. Group 1 presented mainly oleane type saponins, and group 3 showed mainly jujubogenin glycosides, keto-dammarane type triterpene saponins and saponins with C31 skeleton. Thus, CCC separated saponins from the butanol-rich extract by skeleton type. A further purification of group 3 by CCC (ethyl acetate - ethanol - water (1:0.2:1; v/v)) and HPLC-RI was performed in order to obtain these unusual aglycones in pure form.

Pretreatment with Ginseng Fruit Saponins Affects Serotonin Expression in an Experimental Comorbidity Model of Myocardial Infarction and Depression

We previously demonstrated that serotonin (5-HT) and 5-HT_2A receptor (5-HT_2AR) levels in platelets were up- or down-regulated after myocardial infarction (MI) associated with depression. In this study, we further evaluated the effects of pretreatment with ginseng fruit saponins (GFS) on the expression of 5-HT and 5-HT_2AR in MI with or without depression. Eighty Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats were treated with saline and GFS (n=40 per group). The animals were then randomly divided into four subgroups: sham, MI, depression, and MI + depression (n=10 per subgroup). Protein levels of 5-HT and 5-HT_2AR in the serum, platelets and brain tissues were determined with ELISA. The results demonstrated that serum 5-HT levels was significantly increased by GFS pretreatment in all subgroups (except the sham subgroup) when compared with saline-treated counterparts (p<0.01). In platelets, GFS pretreatment significantly increased 5-HT levels in all subgroups when compared with their respective saline-treated counterparts (p<0.01). Brain 5-HT levels also declined with GFS pretreatment in the MI-only and depression-only subgroups (p<0.05 vs. saline pretreatment). With respect to 5-HT_2AR levels, platelet 5-HT_2AR was decreased in GFS pretreated MI, depression and MI + depression subgroups (p<0.01 vs. saline pretreatment). Similarly, brain 5-HT_2AR levels decreased in all four subgroups pretreated with GFS (p<0.01 vs. saline pretreatment). We conclude that GFS plays a clear role in modulating 5-HT and 5-HT_2AR expressions after MI and depression. Although the effects of GFS on brain 5-HT remain to be elucidated, its therapeutic potential for comorbidities of acute cardiovascular events and depression appears to hold much promise.