Antinociceptive, Anti-inflammatory and Antipyretic Effects of Solanum nigrum Chloroform Extract in Animal Models

An Improved and Simplified Agrobacterium-Mediated Genetic Transformation Protocol for Solanum nigrum with a Shorter Growth Time

Solanum nigrum (Solanaceae family) is widely consumed as a fruit or local leafy vegetable after boiling; it also serves as a medicinal plant. Although Agrobacterium-mediated genetic transformation has been established in S. nigrum, the transformation period is long. Specifically, induction of roots takes approximately five weeks for tetraploid and hexaploid S. nigrum, and 7 weeks for diploid Solanum americanum. In this study, we developed an improved rooting-induced method that requires only about 1 week and avoids the use of tissue culture. After generating the transgenic shoots, they were directly transplanted into the soil to facilitate root formation. Remarkably, 100% of the transgenic shoots developed roots within 6 days. Our improved method is time-saving (saving more than 1 month) and simpler to operate. The improved rooting-induced step can be applied to induce roots in various plants using tissue culture, exemplified by the carnation (Dianthus caryophyllus L.). Furthermore, we applied the improved method to generate S. americanum plants expressing AcMYB110 from kiwifruit (Actinidia chinensis spp.). This method will contribute to speeding up gene functional analysis and trait improvement in S. nigrum and might have potential in fast plant molecular breeding processes in crops and rapid rooting induction in tissue culture.

Bioactivities and chemical profiling comparison and metabolomic variations of polyphenolics and steroidal glycoalkaloids in different parts of Solanum nigrum L

INTRODUCTION

Solanum nigrum L. is a traditional medicinal herb and edible plant. Many studies provide evidence that S. nigrum L. is a nutritious vegetable. Polyphenols and steroidal glycoalkaloids are the main components.

OBJECTIVES

This study aimed to systemically evaluate the phytochemical profile, quantification, and bioactivities of polyphenolics and glycoalkaloids in different parts of S. nigrum L.

RESULTS

Total polyphenols (TPC) and total glycoalkaloids (TGK) were determined using the Folin-Ciocalteu and acid dye colorimetric methods, respectively. A total of 55 polyphenolic constituents (including 22 phenolic acids and 33 flavonoids) and 24 steroidal glycoalkaloids were identified from different parts using ultrahigh-performance liquid chromatography Q-exactive high-resolution mass spectrometry (UHPLC-QE-HRMS), of which 40 polyphenols (including 15 phenolic acids and 25 flavonoids) and one steroidal glycoalkaloid were characterised for the first time in S. nigrum L. Moreover, typical polyphenols and glycoalkaloids were determined using HPLC-UV and HPLC-evaporative light-scattering detector (ELSD), respectively. In addition, the TPC and TGK and their typical constituents were compared in different anatomical parts. Finally, the antioxidant capacities of polyphenolic extracts from different parts of S. nigrum L. were evaluated by ·OH, 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical scavenging and ferric-reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) assay in vitro. In addition, the antitumour effects of TGK from different parts of S. nigrum L. on the proliferation of PC-3 cells were investigated using 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay. Polyphenolic and glycoalkaloid extracts from different parts of S. nigrum L. showed different antioxidant and cytotoxic capacities in vitro.

CONCLUSION

This is the first study to systematically differentiate between polyphenolic and glycoalkaloid profiles from different parts of S. nigrum L.

Exploring biodiversity and ethnobotanical significance of Solanum species in Uzbekistan: unveiling the cultural wealth and ethnopharmacological uses

Despite its millennial existence and empirical documentation, the ethnological knowledge of herbs is a more recent phenomenon. The knowledge of their historical uses as food, medicine, source of income and small-scale businesses, and the sociological impacts are threatened due to the slow ethnobotanical research drive. Species of the genus Solanum have long been extensively used in folk medicine to treat various illnesses of humans since the dawn of civilization. All data were systematically obtained from papers, monographs, and books written in Uzbek, Russian, and English through various scientific online databases, including Google, Google Scholar, PubMed, Scopus, Semantic Scholar, Science Direct, and Web of Science using specific keywords focused on eight Solanum species. Eight native and non-native Solanum species as S. dulcamara L., S. lycopersicum L., S. melongena L., S. nigrum L., S. rostratum Dunal., S. sisymbriifolium Lam., S. tuberosum L., and S. villosum Mill. have been recorded in Uzbekistan of Central Asia. In this article we presented recently obtained data on the diversity, morphological characteristics, global distribution, habitat, population status, phenology, reproduction, pharmacology and phytochemistry of these Solanum species in Uzbekistan. Furthermore, relying on a combination of literature reviews and analyses from various scientific papers, we focus on food consumption coupled with global ethnobotanical and ethnopharmacological uses in human diseases of the Solanum species growing in Uzbekistan. Since the dawn of civilization, these eight cultivated and non-cultivated species of Solanum have provided sustainable resources of medicinal plants in Uzbekistan to prevent and treat various human diseases. Based on the collected data, it was shown that Solanum species have not been studied ethnobotanically and ethnomedicinally in Uzbekistan and it is necessary to conduct phytochemical and biotechnological research on them in the future. Traditional uses and scientific evaluation of Solanum indicate that S. nigrum, S. sisymbriifolium and S. tuberosum are one of the most widely used species in some parts of the world. Although considerable progress has been made to comprehend the chemical and biological properties of S. nigrum and S. tuberosum species, more research on the pharmacology and toxicology of these species is needed to ensure the safety, efficacy, and quality of their biologically active extracts and isolated bioactive compounds. Additionally, conducting additional research on the structure-activity relationship of certain isolated phytochemicals has the potential to enhance their biological efficacy and advance the scientific utilization of traditional applications of Solanum taxa.

Removal of nafcillin from aqueous solution with green synthesis iron oxide nanoparticles

In this study, iron oxide nanoparticles were synthesized from Solanum nigrum L. extract and used to remove nafcillin, which exhibits toxic properties in aqueous solutions. To understand the adsorption behavior of naphcillin on the nanoadsorbent, the optimum conditions, kinetics and isotherm of adsorption were studied in detail. It was found that the adsorption process was consistent with the pseudo-second order kinetic model and Langmuir's isothermal model. The FeONPs adsorbent achieved an adsorption capacity of 116.3 mg/g for nafcillin. It was also found that FeONPs retained ~90% of its adsorption capacity after five adsorption-desorption cycles. Apart from the fact that the nanoparticles synthesized in the study are composed of natural ingredients, S. nigrum L. which causes problems in plant cultivation, serves a useful purpose by being used in this method. The results show that this new nanoadsorbent provides an alternative option for the removal of pharmaceuticals and various pollutants in wastewater.

Inhibition of lipid droplet accumulation by Solanum nigrum by suppressing adipogenesis and inducing lipolysis, thermogenesis and autophagy in 3T3‑L1 cells

It has been reported that Solanum nigrum exhibits anti-obesity effects in animal models induced by a high-fat diet. However, research on how Solanum nigrum exerts its anti-obesity effects is currently limited. Thus, the present study focused on identifying the mechanism of action associated with the anti-obesity activity of Solanum nigrum aerial part (SNAP), which significantly inhibited the accumulation of lipid droplets in differentiating 3T3-L1 cells. Intracellular lipid accumulation in 3T3-L1 cells was analyzed by Oil-Red O staining and glycerol content was analyzed using an ELISA kit. In addition, changes in protein expression within 3T3-L1 cells were analyzed using western blot analysis. It decreased the expression level of adipogenic proteins such as CCAAT/enhancer-binding protein α, Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ, fatty acid binding protein 4, and adiponectin. In addition, SNAP increased the expression levels of lipolytic proteins, such as adipose triglyceride lipase and hormone-sensitive lipase, while decreasing perilipin-1. The treatment of fully differentiated 3T3-L1 cells increased the free glycerol levels. SNAP treatment resulted in increased AMP-activated protein kinase phosphorylation and the expression levels of thermogenic proteins (peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ coactivator 1-α, PR domain containing 16 and uncoupling protein 1) and an autophagic protein (LC3-II). Overall, these results suggested that SNAP inhibited lipid droplet accumulation by suppressing adipogenesis and promoting lipolysis, thermogenesis and autophagy.

Ethnopharmacobotany and Diversity of Mediterranean Endemic Plants in Marmilla Subregion, Sardinia, Italy

Human populations in various regions across the world exploit the medicinal properties of plants to treat a wide variety of diseases. Areas with both high rates of endemic taxa and persisting traditional uses of the local botanical resources are key sites for the investigation of Traditional Botanical Knowledge (TBK). Commonly, in these areas, information regarding the medicinal properties of native plants has been transmitted orally from generation to generation, however, a rapid decline in this knowledge has been observed, which can be attributed to socio-economic changes in recent years. The Mediterranean basin is one such site, where human history is intimately entwined with nature. The unique geographical situation and unrivaled environmental heterogeneity of the area, have allowed both the development of diverse civilizations as well as providing the basis for the evolution of extraordinary biodiversity. The Mediterranean basin can therefore be considered a global hotspot of endemic vascular plants, and of traditional knowledge of medicinal and aromatic species. This study researches the historical subregion of Marmilla (central-southern Sardinia, Italy), which was chosen because of its specific cultural and demographic characteristics: i.e., prolonged isolation and extreme longevity of the inhabitants of the area. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 145 people from the region, and 137 medicinal plants belonging to 62 families were identified, of which around 57,3% were taxa exclusive to the Mediterranean Basin. Findings showed that the most used parts of the plant were the leaves (49%), while as far as preparations are concerned, decoction (50%) was the most used to prepare medicinal formulations, making this the highest number of medico-botanical taxa reported in a study carried out in Sardinia using a similar methodology. In addition, this study contributes towards preventing the loss of TBK by documenting the medicinal traditions, passed down orally for centuries, in the words of the participants, shedding new light on the traditional knowledge of the inhabitants of the island. The findings lay the foundations for future applied studies in the fields of phytotherapy and phytochemical investigation.

Antimalarial Activity of Crude Extract and Solvent Fractions of Leaves of Solanum nigrum L. (Solanaceae) against Plasmodium berghei in Mice

Background. Current malaria treatment is associated with continued development of drug resistance. Thus, there is a need to develop safe and effective new treatments from different sources. Solanum nigrum L. (Solanaceae) is a plant used for the treatment of malaria in Ethiopian traditional medicine. This study was aimed at evaluating of antimalarial activity of the crude extract and fractions of S. nigrum L. (Solanaceae) leaves against P. berghei infection in mice. Method. Both prophylactic and suppressive models were used in evaluating antimalarial activity using the ANKA Plasmodium strain. In these models, male mice were randomly grouped into eleven groups (n = 5). Mice in group I were given 4% Tween-80, mice from group II up to X were given 100, 200, and 400 mg/kg of plant extract, and the last group (XI) was treated with chloroquine (25 mg/kg). Data were analyzed using one-way ANOVA followed by post hoc Tukey’s multiple comparison test. Results. Crude extract of leaves of S. nigrum showed chemosuppression of 30.68 ( $P<0.05$ ), 42.42 ( $P<0.01$ ), and 50.75% ( $P<0.001$ ) at 100, 200, and 400 mg/kg doses of the extract, respectively. At doses of 100, 200, and 400 mg/kg, the chloroform fraction produced a chemosuppressive effect of 40.15% ( $P<0.01$ ), 53.78% ( $P<0.001$ ), and 65.15% ( $P<0.001$ ) and a chemoprophylactic effect of 42.7% ( $P<0.05$ ), 51.84% ( $P<0.001$ ), and 67.17% ( $P<0.001$ ) when compared with negative control. In the suppressive model, the ethyl acetate fraction demonstrated a mean chemosuppression of 56.81% ( $P<0.001$ ), 65.9% ( $P<0.001$ ), and 70.83% ( $P<0.001$ ). Similarly, in the prophylactic model, the fraction showed suppression of 42.70% ( $P<0.05$ ), 53.11% ( $P<0.001$ ), and 71.03% ( $P<0.001$ ) at 100, 200, and 400 mg/kg doses. On the acute oral toxicity test, the extracts were safe at 2 g/kg dose. Conclusion. S. nigrum L. has antimalarial activity and supports the traditional medical practice.

Solasonine Inhibits Pancreatic Cancer Progression With Involvement of Ferroptosis Induction

Pancreatic cancer is a highly fatal malignant tumor of the digestive system. It is characterized by early metastasis and high mortality rates. Solasonine, a steroidal alkaloid, is derived from Solanum nigrum L., a natural herb. Solasonine is associated with excellent anti-tumor effects, however, its effects on pancreatic cancer have not been fully established. Pancreatic cancer cells (PANC-1 and CFPAC-1) were used to verify the in vitro and in vivo effects of solasonine. Metabolomics were used to evaluate its underlying mechanisms. Solasonine promoted PANC-1 and CFPAC-1 cell apoptosis while inhibiting their proliferation, migration and invasion. Mouse xenograft models and metastasis models of ANC-1 and CFPAC-1 confirmed that solasonine blocked tumor formation and metastasis. Metabolomics confirmed the effects of solasonine on glutathione metabolism and SLC7A11-mediated ferroptosis. Furthermore, Co-Immunoprecipitation and Duolink^®in situ PLA confirmed that OTUB1, a deubiquitylating enzyme, interacted with SLC7A11 and solasonine to enhance ubiquitinated degradation of SLC7A11 in PANC-1 and CFPAC-1 cells. Besides, molecular docking confirmed that solasonine directly bound TFAP2A and suppressed its protein levels. Bioinformatics and luciferase assays revealed that TFAP2A binds the OTUB1 promoter region, thereby promoting its transcription. In summary, solasonine inhibits the TFAP2A/OTUB1 SLC7A11 axis to activate ferroptosis and suppress pancreatic cancer cell progression.

Solanum nigrum Line inhibits osteoclast differentiation and suppresses bone mineral density reduction in the ovariectomy‑induced osteoporosis model

Bone homeostasis is maintained by osteoclasts that absorb bone and osteoblasts that form bone tissue. Menopausal osteoporosis is a disease associated with aging and hormonal changes due to menopause causing abnormal activation of osteoclasts, resulting in a decrease in bone density. Existing treatments for osteoporosis have been reported to have serious side effects, such as jawbone necrosis and breast and uterine cancer; therefore, their use by patients is decreasing, whilst studies focusing on alternative treatments are increasingly popular. Solanum nigrum Line (SL) has been used as a medicinal plant that possesses several pharmacological effects, such as anti‑inflammatory and hepatotoxic protective effects. To the best of our knowledge, however, its effects on osteoporosis and osteoclasts have not been demonstrated previously. In the present study, the anti‑osteoporotic effect of SL was investigated using a postmenopausal model of osteoporosis in which Sprague‑Dawley rat ovaries were extracted. In addition, the inhibitory effects on osteoclast differentiation and function of SL was confirmed using an osteoclast model treated with receptor activator of NF‑κB ligand (RANKL) on murine RAW 264.7 macrophages. In vivo experiments showed that SL reduced the decrease in bone mineral density and improved changes in the morphological index of bone microstructure, such as trabecular number and separation. In addition, the number of tartrate resistant acid phosphatase‑positive cells in the femur and the expression levels of nuclear factor of activated T‑cells cytoplasmic 1 (NFATc1) and cathepsin K protein were inhibited. In vitro, SL suppressed RANKL‑induced osteoclast differentiation and bone resorption ability; this was mediated by NFATc1/c‑Fos, a key transcription factor involved in osteoclast differentiation, ultimately inhibiting expression of various osteoclast‑associated genes. These experimental results show that SL may be an alternative treatment for osteoporosis caused by abnormal activation of osteoclasts in the future.

Solanum nigrum polyphenols reduce body weight and body fat by affecting adipocyte and lipid metabolism

Obesity, being overweight and deposition of body fat are critically associated with metabolic disorders.

Awareness and current knowledge of epilepsy

Epilepsy is a severe neural disorder that affects approximately fifty million individuals globally. Despite the fact that for most of the people with epilepsy, convulsions are better controlled by current accessible antiepileptic medicines, yet there are more than 30% of individuals affected with medically intractable epilepsy and around 30-40% of all patients with epilepsy affected by many adverse reactions and convulsion resistance to the present antiepileptic drugs. Consequently, various scientists attempt to develop new strategies to treat epilepsy, for instance, to find out novel antiepileptic ingredients from traditional medicines. This work aims to present a complete summary of natural medicines prescribed as antiepileptic agents all over the world by ethnic groups and different tribes. We undertook an extensive bibliographic analysis by searching peer reviewed papers and classical textbooks and further consulting well accepted worldwide scientific databases. We carried out PubMed, EMbase and CENTRAL searches by means of terms such as "antiepileptic" and "anti-convulsant" activity of plants. Medicinal plants have been prescribed to treat epilepsy and have been recognized as antiepileptic medicines. In this review, a variety of herbs have been reviewed for thorough studies such as Cuminum cyminum, Butea monosperma, Solanum americanum, Anacyclus pyrethrum, Leonotis leonurus, Elaeocarpus ganitrus and Angelica archangelica. This paper shows that it was high time experimental studies are increased to obtain novel potential active principles from medicinal plants. Plant extracts and their chemical constituents should be further evaluated to clarify their mechanisms of action. This paper provides a solid base upon which to further investigate the clinical efficacy of medicinal plants that are both currently prescribed by physicians as traditional antiepileptic agents, but also could be effective as an antiepileptic drug with further research and study.

The Genus Solanum: An Ethnopharmacological, Phytochemical and Biological Properties Review

Over the past 30 years, the genus Solanum has received considerable attention in chemical and biological studies. Solanum is the largest genus in the family Solanaceae, comprising of about 2000 species distributed in the subtropical and tropical regions of Africa, Australia, and parts of Asia, e.g., China, India and Japan. Many of them are economically significant species. Previous phytochemical investigations on Solanum species led to the identification of steroidal saponins, steroidal alkaloids, terpenes, flavonoids, lignans, sterols, phenolic comopunds, coumarins, amongst other compounds. Many species belonging to this genus present huge range of pharmacological activities such as cytotoxicity to different tumors as breast cancer (4T1 and EMT), colorectal cancer (HCT116, HT29, and SW480), and prostate cancer (DU145) cell lines. The biological activities have been attributed to a number of steroidal saponins, steroidal alkaloids and phenols. This review features 65 phytochemically studied species of Solanum between 1990 and 2018, fetched from SciFinder, Pubmed, ScienceDirect, Wikipedia and Baidu, using "Solanum" and the species' names as search terms ("all fields").

Bioactive glycoalkaloides isolated from Solanum melongena fruit peels with potential anticancer properties against hepatocellular carcinoma cells

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is progressively increasing tumor with lack of accurate prognosis and inadequate systemic treatment approaches. Solanum sp. (such as Solanum melongena) is a folk herb which is reported to possess anticancer properties. In a continuity for our interest in pursuing the anticancer activity of compounds isolated from the fruit peels of Solanum melongena, the HPLC profiling and ESI-MS assessment for the methanolic extract evidenced the presence of bioactive glycoalkaloids (solasonine, solasodine and solamargine). These glycoalkaloids were isolated, purified and proved to possess in vitro cytotoxicity against human liver cancer cell lines (Huh7 and HepG2). Herein, we investigated the potential mechanism of action of these compounds using DNA content flow-cytometry and apoptosis/necrosis differential anaylsis using annexin-V/FITC staining. Solasonine, solasodine and solamargine inducd significant antiproliferative effect against liver cancer cells (Huh7 and HepG2) which was attributed to cell cycle arrest at S-phase. Solamargine, solasodine and solasonine induced significant apoptosis in Huh7 cells. Only solamargine-induced cell cycle arrest, was reflected as apoptotic cell killing effect against HepG2 cells. In conclusion, glycoalkaloids derived from Solanum melongena and particularly, solamargine are promising antiproliferative agents with potential anticancer effects.

Degalactotigonin, a Steroidal Glycoside from Solanum nigrum, Induces Apoptosis and Cell Cycle Arrest via Inhibiting the EGFR Signaling Pathways in Pancreatic Cancer Cells

Degalactotigonin (1) and three other steroidal compounds solasodine (2), O-acetyl solasodine (3), and soladulcoside A (4) were isolated from the methanolic extract of Solanum nigrum, and their chemical structures were elucidated by spectroscopic analyses. The isolated compounds were evaluated for cytotoxic activity against human pancreatic cancer cell lines (PANC1 and MIA-PaCa2) and lung cancer cell lines (A549, NCI-H1975, and NCI-H1299). Only degalactotigonin (1) showed potent cytotoxicity against these cancer cell lines. Compound 1 induced apoptosis in PANC1 and A549 cells. Further study on its mechanism of action in PANC1 cells demonstrated that 1 significantly inhibited EGF-induced proliferation and migration in a concentration-dependent manner. Treatment of PANC1 cells with degalactotigonin induced cell cycle arrest at G0/G1 phase. Compound 1 induced downregulation of cyclin D1 and upregulation of p21 in a time- and concentration-dependent manner and inhibited EGF-induced phosphorylation of EGFR, as well as activation of EGFR downstream signaling molecules such as Akt and ERK.

Histomorphology, Sperm Quality and Hormonal Profile in Adult Male Sprague-Dawley Rats following administration of aqueous crude Extract of Solanum nigrum by gastric gavage

Objective

The present study focused on histomorphology, sperm quality, hormonal profile and hematological parameters in adult male Sprague-Dawley rats following the administration of aqueous crude extract of Solanum nigrum by gastric gavage.

Methods

Fourty healthy male adult (12-14 weeks old) Sprague-Dawley rats weighing 200-220g were randomly divided into four groups (A,B,C and D) of ten (n=10) rats each. Group A which served as control were given distilled water 2ml/kg b.wt each, daily for 28 days. Group B, C and D rats were administered 100, 300 and 500mg/kg b.wt each daily respectively for 28 days. The extract was saved with LD₅₀ >5000mg/Kg. Sperm counts, percentage motility, morphology and percentage live sperm, hormonal profile and hematological parameter were quantified; testis, epididymal and general body weights were measured using a weighing scale. The extract was administered once daily for six days within a week via oral gavage. After the last administration, all rats were sacrificed by cervical dislocation, the testis were harvested and fixed in Bouin‘s fluid for histology processing.

Results

Our results revealed an increase in sperm counts, percentage of motility, morphology and percentage of live sperm, blood level of follicle stimulating hormone, Luteinizing hormone and testosterone, hematological parameters, testis, epididymal and general body weights across the groups in a dose-depentant manner. The testis histoarchtecture showed normal cellular composition in their germinal epithelium, with sperm cells in the lumen and a normal interstitium.

Conclusion

This experiment revealed that aqueous extract of Solanum nigrum bears profertility properties which may be beneficial to those who consume it.

Brewer's yeast is a potent inducer of fever, sickness behavior and inflammation within the brain

Brewer's yeast, derived from the yeast species Saccharomyces cerevisiae (S. cerevisiae), is commonly used for inducing pyrexia in pharmacological studies screening antipyretics in rats. Despite its widespread use, the peripheral and central inflammatory response associated with Brewer's yeast-induced fever and sickness behavior in rats has not been investigated. Thus, we injected male Sprague-Dawley rats (150-200 g) subcutaneously with a high (4 g/kg, n = 9), medium (2 g/kg, n = 5) or low (0.4 g/kg, n = 6) dose of Brewer's yeast solution or saline (0.9%, n = 6) and measured core body temperature, cage activity, food intake and body mass for six days after injection. Blood and brain samples were collected at 2, 8, 18 and 72 h after injection; n = 5-7 per time point. Brewer's yeast administration dose-dependently induced fever, lethargy, anorexia and body mass stunting that was accompanied by increased blood plasma levels of interleukin (IL)-6 and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α and activation of inflammatory transcription factors (nuclear factor (NF) for interleukin-6, signal transducer and activator of transcription (STAT)-3, and NF-κB)) in the hypothalamus and circumventricular organs. The increased activation of transcription factors following Brewer's yeast administration was accompanied by increased hypothalamic mRNA expression of TNF-α, IL-1β and IL-6 and rate-limiting enzymes for prostaglandin synthesis. Our results show that subcutaneous administration of S. cerevisae induces prolonged fever, anorexia and lethargy that is accompanied by a pronounced increase in the synthesis of pro-inflammatory cytokines, key prostaglandin synthesizing enzymes and transcription factors, in the periphery and brain.

Italian folk plant-based remedies to heal headache (XIX-XX century)

BACKGROUND

Headache has been recognized since antiquity. From the late nineteenth to the early to mid-twentieth century, Italian folk remedies to treat headache were documented in a vast corpus of literature sources.

AIM

The purpose of this paper is to bring to light the plant-based treatments utilized by Italian folk medicine to heal headache in an attempt to discuss these remedies from a modern pharmacological point of view. Moreover, we compare the medical applications described by Hippocrates, Pliny the Elder, Dioscorides, Galen and Serenus Sammonicus with those utilized by Italian folk medicine to check if they result from a sort of continuity of use by over two thousand years.

RESULTS

A detailed search of the scientific data banks such as Medline and Scopus was undertaken to uncover recent results concerning the anti-inflammatory, anti-nociceptive and analgesic activities of the plants. Fifty-eight (78.4%) plant-based remedies have shown in vivo, in vitro or in human trials a large spectrum of anti-inflammatory, anti-nociceptive and analgesic activities. Moreover, thirty-one of remedies (41.9%) were already included in the pharmacopoeia between the 5th century BC and the 2nd century AD.

CONCLUSION

Italian folk medicine could be a promising source of knowledge and could provide evidences for active principles that have not as of yet been fully used for their potential.

Effect of Solanum Nigrun on Uterus of Non-gravid Rats

Background

Solanum nigrum is a widely used plant in oriental medicine where it is considered to be antioxidant, anti- inflammatory and diuretic. This study aimed to evaluate the effect of Solanum Nigrum on uterine contractions.

Method

Female Wistar Wister albino rats were used for the study. They were housed in a single large cage in an atmospheric controlled environment. Twenty-four hours before every experiment, 0.2 mg/kg of diethylstilbesterol constituted in 1:1 ethanol/water solution, was administered intraperitoneally as a pre-treatment to the rats to induce oestrus. It was done for two weeks during the study period. The phytochemical analysis was carried out to test for the phytochemical constituent of the plant.

Result

The result showed that the extract inhibited the release of intracellular calcium ion. The effect of acetylcholine was significantly inhibited by the extract that is at 200mg/ml (p>0.05) and 300 mg/ml (p<0.01). The highest mean inhibitory effect of the extract observed on acetylcholine induced contractions was 90.54 ± 1.15. The oxytocin induced contraction was significantly inhibited by the extract at 200 mg/ml (p<0.05) and at 300 mg/ml (p<0.001) doses respectively. The highest mean inhibitory effect of the extract observed on Oxytocin induced contractions was 41.10±1.02 and was significantly stronger compared with acetylcholine induced contractions.

Conclusion

The aqueous extract of Solanum nigrun inhibited the activity of oxytocin on the uterus, and it may possess relaxant activity.

Aglycone solanidine and solasodine derivatives: A natural approach towards cancer

Over the past few years, it was suggested that a rational approach to treat cancer in clinical settings requires a multipronged approach that augments improvement in systemic efficiency along with modification in cellular phenotype leads to more efficient cell death response. Recently, the combinatory delivery of traditional chemotherapeutic drugs with natural compounds proved to be astonishing to deal with a variety of cancers, especially that are resistant to chemotherapeutic drugs. The natural compounds not only synergize the effects of chemotherapeutics but also minimize drug associated systemic toxicity. In this review, our primary focus was on antitumor effects of natural compounds. Previously, the drugs from natural sources are highly precise and safer than drugs of synthetic origins. Many natural compounds exhibit anti-cancer potentials by inducing apoptosis in different tumor models, in-vitro and in-vivo. Furthermore, natural compounds are also found equally useful in chemotherapeutic drug resistant tumors. Moreover, these Phyto-compounds also possess numerous other pharmacological properties such as antifungal, antimicrobial, antiprotozoal, and hepatoprotection. Aglycone solasodine and solanidine derivatives are the utmost important steroidal glycoalkaloids that are present in various Solanum species, are discussed here. These natural compounds are highly cytotoxic against different tumor cell lines. As the molecular weight is concerned; these are smaller molecular weight chemotherapeutic agents that induce cell death response by initiating apoptosis through both extrinsic and intrinsic pathways.

Identification of Anthocyanin Composition and Functional Analysis of an Anthocyanin Activator in Solanum nigrum Fruits

Solanum nigrum fruits have been conventionally used in beverages due to their nutritional substances such as minerals, vitamins, amino acids, proteins, sugars, polyphenols, and anthocyanins. The characterization of components and regulatory mechanism of anthocyanins in S. nigrum fruits have rarely been reported. In this study, we determined that the peel and flesh of S. nigrum fruits shared similar HPLC profiles but different contents and total antioxidant activities for anthocyanins. After an efficient purification method, mainly including extraction with pH 1.0 distilled water and then desorption with pH 1.0 95% ethanol after a DM-130 resin adsorption step to obtain more pure anthocyanin extracts, the purity of anthocyanins extracted from S. nigrum fruits reached 56.1%. Moreover, eight anthocyanins from S. nigrum fruit were identified with HPLC-MS/MS for the first time. A typical R2R3-MYB transcription factor gene, SnMYB, was also cloned for the first time by rapid amplification of cDNA ends (RACE)-PCR from S. nigrum. Moreover, the contents of anthocyanins were shown to correlate well (r = 0.93) with the expression levels of SnMYB gene during the fruit's developmental stages. Most significantly, SnMYB gene successfully produced high anthocyanin content (1.03 mg/g) when SnMYB gene was transiently expressed in tobacco leaves. Taken together, S. nigrum fruits are a promising resource for anthocyanin extraction, and SnMYB gene is an activator that positively regulates anthocyanin biosynthesis in S. nigrum.

Prophylactic and curative anti-ulcerogenic activity and the possible mechanisms of action of some desert plants

The present study aimed to evaluate the anti-ulcerogenic activities and the possible mechanisms of action of seven desert plants from different families. Conyza dioscoridis (L.) Desf. (Asteraceae), Euphorbia hirta L. (Euphorpiaceae), Origanum syriacum L., Salvia lanigera L. (Lamiaceae), Sisymbrium irio L., Solanum nigrum Linn. (Solanaceae) and Solenostemma arghel (Del.) Hayne. (Asclepiadaceae), were tested using prophylactic and curative models of absolute ethanol-induced ulcer, at three doses (125, 250 & 500 mg/kg) of each extract.

The investigated extracts possessed dose dependent anti-ulcerogenic activities in both models, with LD₅₀ higher than 5 g/kg. The most effective extracts were C. dioscoridis and S. irio with percent protection of control ulcer; 91.1% and 85.4% respectively. The antisecretory activity of both C. dioscoridis and S. irio appears to be mainly related to the suppression of gastrin release. The in vitro potential radical (DPPH) scavenging activities of the investigated extracts were well supported with the reduction in gastric MDA (50.6% and 43.3%) and enhancing the level of reduced GSH (2.84, 2.59 mg/g tissue) for C. dioscoridis and S. irio respectively. In addition, suppression of the inflammatory mediator TNF-α may be one of the possible mechanisms of action. The alcohol extracts of C. dioscoridis and S. irio showed no alteration on liver and kidney functions. Phytochemical screening of the investigated extracts revealed the presence of flavonoids, tannins and sterols which could be related to the activities.

Solanum nigrum Suppress Angiogenesis-Mediated Tumor Growth Through Inhibition of the AKT/mTOR Pathway

Solanum nigrum L., an edible plant and local dish, has been assigned anticancer activities. However, the anticancer mechanisms of S. nigrum are poorly understood. Here, we investigated whether the water or polyphenol extracts of S. nigrum (SNWE or SNPE) could inhibit angiogenesis-mediated tumor growth. In nude mice bearing tumor xenografts, SNWE or SNPE significantly reduced the volume and weight of the tumors, and decreased the expression of CD31, a marker for angiogenesis. SNWE or SNPE was found to inhibit the VEGF-induced capillary structure formation of endothelial cells. The chicken egg chorioallantoic membrane (CAM) and matrigel plug assays showed further that SNWE or SNPE inhibited tumor angiogenesis. In human umbilical vascular endothelial cells (HUVECs), SNWE or SNPE suppressed the VEGF-induced activation of AKT and mTOR. Moreover, SNWE or SNPE inhibited the viability of human hepatoma HepG2 cells, and these effects were correlated with the extent of inhibition of the AKT/mTOR pathway. Taken together, our data imply that SNWE or SNPE downregulated the AKT/mTOR pathway in HUVECs and HepG2 cells, which lead to reduced tumor growth and angiogenesis.

Anti-inflammatory effects of royal poinciana through inhibition of toll-like receptor 4 signaling pathway

Inflammation is part of the non-specific immune response that occurs in reaction to any type of bodily injury. In some disorders the inflammatory process, which under normal conditions is self-limiting, becomes continuous and chronic inflammatory diseases develop subsequently including cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, cancer etc. Barks of Delonix regia is used traditionally in the treatment of inflammatory diseases. Therefore, in this study we evaluated the therapeutic potential of D. regia ethanol extract and its active constituent β-Elemene with special interest in inflammation model using standard in vivo anti-inflammatory models: Carrageenan-induced paw edema, Cotton pellet granuloma, and Acetic acid-induced vascular permeability. To explicate the mechanism of action for the possible anti-inflammatory activity, we determined the level of major inflammatory mediators (NO, iNOS, COX-2-dependent prostaglandin E2 or PGE2), and pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNF-a, IL-1b, IL-6, and IL-12). Additionally, we determined the toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4), Myeloid differentiation primary response gene 88 (MyD88), by mRNA expression in drug treated LPS-induced murine macrophage model. To explore the mechanism of anti-inflammatory activity, we evaluated expression of c-Jun N-terminal kinases (JNK), nuclear factor kappa-B cells (NF-kB), and NF-kB inhibitor alpha (IK-Ba). Furthermore, we determined the acute and sub-acute toxicity of D. regia extract in BALB/c mice. This study established a significant anti-inflammatory activity of D. regia extract and β-Elemene along with the inhibition of TNF-a, IL-1b, IL-6 and IL-12 expressions. Further, the expression of TLR4, NF-kBp65, MyD88, iNOS and COX-2 molecules were reduced in drug-treated groups, but not in the LPS-stimulated untreated or control groups, Thus, our results collectively indicated that the D. regia extract and β-Elemene can efficiently inhibit inflammation.

Scientific evaluation of medicinal plants used for the treatment of abnormal uterine bleeding by Avicenna

PURPOSE

Abnormal uterine bleeding (AUB) is one of the prevalent gynecological disorders that cause considerable morbidity and management of that plays an important role in protecting women's health. This review focuses on medicinal plants mentioned by Avicenna, a great Iranian philosopher and physician (A.D. 980-1037), in his book Canon for treatment of AUB.

METHODS

Medicinal plants mentioned in Canon for treatment of AUB were elicited and searched in electronic databases including PubMed, Scopus, Google Scholar and Cochrane library to find studies that confirmed their efficacy. Data were collected for the years 1980-2014.

RESULTS

The findings included 23 plants belonging to 18 families. Scientific findings have revealed that these plants control AUB through four mechanisms of action including inhibition of inflammatory process, inhibition of prostaglandins production, antiproliferative activity on human cervical cancer cells (HeLa), and estrogenic activity. All of the plants exhibited anti-inflammatory activity in vitro and/or in vivo. Cuscuta chinensis and Portulaca oleracea exhibited estrogenic activity. Boswellia carteri, Lens culinaris, Myrtus communis, Polygonum aviculare, Pistacia lentiscus, and Punica granatum have revealed inhibitory activity on biosynthesis of prostaglandins. Some of the mentioned plants including: Ceratonia siliqua, Cuscuta chinensis, Cuscuta epithymum, Cydonia oblonga, Paeonia sp., Portulaca oleracea, Solanum nigrum, Rumex acetosa and Onopordum acanthium have shown antiproliferative activity on HeLa cells.

CONCLUSION

Investigation of traditional Iranian medicine literatures can lead to the identification of effective natural medicines for the management of AUB; however, conclusive confirmation of the efficacy and safety of these treatments needs more evaluations.

Mechanisms Underlying the Antinociceptive, Antiedematogenic, and Anti-Inflammatory Activity of the Main Flavonoid from Kalanchoe pinnata

Kalanchoe pinnata (KP) is popularly used for treating inflammatory diseases. This study investigated the antinociceptive, antiedematogenic, and anti-inflammatory potential of the subcutaneous administration of KP flower aqueous extract (KPFE), its ethyl acetate (EtOAcF) and butanol (BuOHF) fractions, and the main KP flavonoid [quercetin 3-O-α-L-arabinopyranosyl (1 → 2) α-L-rhamnopyranoside] (KPFV) in mice, as well as its possible mechanisms of action. KPFE (30–300 mg/kg) and KPFV (1–10 mg/kg) inhibited the acetic acid-induced writhing (ID₅₀ = 164.8 and 9.4 mg/kg, resp.). KPFE (300 mg/kg), EtOAcF (12 mg/kg), BuOHF (15 mg/kg), or KPFV (0.3–3.0 mg/kg) reduced leukocyte migration on carrageenan-induced pleurisy (ID₅₀ = 2.0 mg/kg for KPFV). KPFE (3–30 mg/kg) and KPFV (0.3–3.0 mg/kg) reduced the croton oil-induced ear edema (ID₅₀ = 4.3 and 0.76 mg/kg, resp.). KPFE and KPFV reduced the TNF-α concentration in the pleural exudates on carrageenan-induced pleurisy test. Moreover, KPFV inhibited COX-1 (IC₅₀ = 22.1 μg/mL) and COX-2 (IC₅₀ > 50 μg/mL). The selectivity index (COX-1_IC50/COX-2_IC50) was <0.44. These results indicate that KPFE and KPFV produced antinociceptive, antiedematogenic, and anti-inflammatory activities through COX inhibition and TNF-α reduction, revealing that the main flavonoid in KP flowers and leaves plays an important role in the ethnomedicinal use of the plant.

Comparative assessment for hyperaccumulatory and phytoremediation capability of three wild weeds

The composition and the organization of soil are changing rapidly by the diverged mankind activities, leading to the contamination of environment. Several methods are employed to clean up the environment from these kinds of contaminants, but most of them are costly and ineffective to yield optimum results. Phytoremediation is a natural green technology, which is eco-friendly for the removal of toxic metals from the polluted environment. Phytoremediation is a cost-effective technique through which the cleanup of contaminated soil laced with heavy metals is performed by wild weeds and small herbal plants. The phytoremediation technique provides a promising tool for hyperaccumulation of heavy metals; arsenic, lead, mercury, copper, chromium, and nickel, etc., by the wild weeds and that has been discussed here in detail in case of Cannabissativa, Solanum nigrum and Rorippa globosa. In general, weeds that have the intrinsic capacity to accumulate metals into their shoots and roots, have the ability to form phytochelates and formation of stable compound with ions. This behavior of accumulation along with chelate and stable compound formation is utilized as a tool for phytoremediation activity.

Protective effects of aqueous extract of Solanum nigrum Linn. leaves in rat models of oral mucositis

Oral mucositis is one of the most debilitating side effects in patient undergoing chemotherapy or chemoradiotherapy. Leaves of the plant Solanum nigrum are used in folklore medicine to treat oral ulcers in India. However, no pharmacological investigation has been carried out till date. Aqueous extract of Solanum nigrum leaves (AESN) was prepared and subjected to various phytochemical screening. HPLC analysis of the ethyl acetate fraction was carried out. The aqueous extract (100 and 200 mg/kg) was further evaluated for its protective effect on two rat models: (a) busulfan plus infrared radiation (chemoradiotherapy) induced oral mucositis and (b) methotrexate (chemotherapy) induced oral mucositis. Various parameters including body weight change, food intake, and mortality were measured. AESN showed protective effect in both models of oral mucositis; however, the higher dose was more effective in chemotherapy induced oral mucositis. A reduction in oral mucositis score (P < 0.05) was observed in the treatment groups. Significant (P < 0.05) improvement in food intake was also observed in AESN treated groups. Aqueous extract of Solanum nigrum leaves has protective effect on chemotherapy and chemoradiotherapy induced oral mucositis in rats.

Prophylactic and curative anti-ulcerative colitis activity and the possible mechanisms of action of some desert plants

The aim of the present study was to evaluate both prophylactic and curative anti-ulcerative colitis activity and the possible mechanism of action of seven desert plant extracts. Seven desert plants from different families; Conyza dioscoridis (L.) Desf. (Asteraceae), Euphorbia hirta L. (Euphorpiaceae), Origanum syriacum L. and Salvia lanigera L. (Lamiaceae), Sisymbrium irio L., Solanum nigrum Linn. (Solanaceae) and Solenostemma arghel (Del.) Hayne. (Asclepiadaceae) were separately evaluated at three doses (125, 250, and 500 mg/kg) using the acetic acid-induced colitis model. The investigated extracts possessed prophylactic and curative anti-ulcerative colitis activities in a dose-dependent manner, where Salvia lanigera (87.9) and Solenostemma arghel (89.2) were the most effective extracts whereas the dexamesathone produced 68%. These extracts were further investigated for estimation of their mechanism of action. The in vitro potential radical (DPPH) scavenging activities of the investigated extracts were well supported with the reduction of colonic MDA content for both extracts. Suppression of the inflammatory mediator TNF-α and inhibition of both PLA2 and protease enzymes may play an important role in the anti-ulcerative colitis activities. The investigated extracts were safe for use up to 5 g/kg and the total alcohol extracts of Salvia lanigera and Solenostemma arghel (400 mg/kg for 35 d) showed no alteration on liver and kidney functions. Phytochemical screening of the investigated extracts revealed the presence of flavonoids, tannins, unsaturated sterols, and proteins which could be responsible for the activities.

The Chloroform Fraction of Solanum nigrum Suppresses Nitric Oxide and Tumor Necrosis Factor-α in LPS-Stimulated Mouse Peritoneal Macrophages Through Inhibition of p38, JNK and ERK1/2

Solanum nigrum L., commonly known as black nightshade, is used worldwide for the treatment of skin and mucosal ulcers, liver cirrhosis and edema. We aimed to determine the anti-inflammatory active fraction of S. nigrum by serial extractions. S. nigrum was first extracted with methanol, then fractionated with chloroform and water. The effects of S. nigrum fractions, diosgenin and α-solanine on LPS/interferon-gamma-induced nitric oxide (NO) and inducible NO synthase (iNOS), or LPS-induced tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and interleukin (IL)-6, in mouse peritoneal macrophages were determined. Western blotting analysis was used to detect LPS-induced phosphorylation of p38, JNK and ERK1/2. The chloroform fraction of S. nigrum was cytotoxic in a time and concentration dependent manner; however, the methanol and water fractions were not. The chloroform fraction reduced NO through inhibition of iNOS synthesis and inhibited TNF-α and IL-6 at the level of protein secretion; the methanol and water fractions showed a weak or no effect. The chloroform fraction also suppressed p38, JNK and ERK1/2. Diosgenin and α-solanine were cytotoxic at a high concentration. In particular, diosgenin was able to inhibit TNF-α and IL-6, but both compounds did not affect LPS-induced iNOS expression. These results indicate that the anti-inflammatory compounds of S. nigrum exist preferentially in the nonpolar fraction, ruling out the possibility that diosgenin and α-solanine are the likely candidates. The inhibition of iNOS, TNF-α and IL-6 by the chloroform fraction may be partly due to the suppression of p38, JNK and ERK1/2. Further study is required to identify the active compounds of S. nigrum.

Bioactivities of glycoalkaloids and their aglycones from Solanum species

Potatoes, tomatoes, and aubergines are all species of the Solanum genus and contain a vast array of secondary metabolites including calystegine alkaloids, phenolic compounds, lectins, and glycoalkaloids. Glycoalkaloids have been the subject of many literature papers, occur widely in the human diet, and are known to induce toxicity. Therefore, from a food safety perspective further information is required regarding their analysis, toxicity, and bioavailability. This is especially important in crop cultivars derived from wild species to prevent glycoalkaloid-induced toxicity. A comprehensive review of the bioactivity of glycoalkaloids and their aglycones of the Solanum species, particularly focused on comparison of their bioactivities including their anticancer, anticholesterol, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, antinociceptive, and antipyretic effects, toxicity, and synergism of action of the principal Solanum glycoalkaloids, correlated to differences of their individual molecular structures is presented.

Chemical composition of Solanum nigrum linn extract and induction of autophagy by leaf water extract and its major flavonoids in AU565 breast cancer cells

Solanum nigrum Linn (SN) belongs to the Solanaceae family, is a plant growing widely in south Asia, and has been used in traditional folk medicine. It is believed to have antipyretic, diuretic, anticancer, and hepatoprotective effects. During the summertime, this plant has been heavily used to supplement beverages to quench thirst on hot days in Taiwan and several southern Asian countries. In this study, the polyphenols and anthocyanidin in various parts of the SN plant were analyzed by HPLC. The leaves were found to be richer in polyphenols than stem and fruit. SN leaves contained the highest concentration of gentisic acid, luteolin, apigenin, kaempferol, and m-coumaric acid. However, the anthocyanidin existed only in the purple fruits. Additionally, the cytotoxicity of the leaf, stem, or fruit extract was evaluated against cancer cell lines and normal cells. The results showed that AU565 breast cancer cells were more sensitive to the extract. Furthermore, the results demonstrated a significant cytotoxic effect of SN leaf extract on AU565 cells that was mediated via two different mechanisms depending on the exposure concentrations. A low dose of SN leaf extract induced autophagy but not apoptosis. Higher doses (>100 microg/mL) of SN leaf extract could inhibit the level of p-Akt and cause cell death due to the induction of autophagy and apoptosis. However, these findings indicate that SN leaf extract induced cell death in breast cells via two distinct antineoplastic activities, the abilities to induce apoptosis and autophagy, therefore suggesting that it may provide a useful remedy to treat breast cancer.

Polyphenol-rich extracts from Solanum nigrum attenuated PKC alpha-mediated migration and invasion of hepatocellular carcinoma cells

Solanum nigrum L. (SN) has exhibited multiple biological effects such as anti-inflammation and antiproliferation. Protein kinase C (PKC) regulates cellular functions including proliferation, migration, and invasion. In the present investigation, we demonstrated that 12-o-tetradecanoylphobor-13-acetate (TPA) and constitutively activated PKC alpha significantly increased migration and invasion of HepG2 cells, while treatment with water or polyphenol extracts of SN (SNWE or SNPE) attenuated TPA-induced migration and invasion. SNWE and SNPE reduced TPA-elicited PKC alpha expression in a dose-dependent manner and obviously inhibited TPA-induced phosphorylation of p38 and ERK, respectively. Constitutively activated PKC alpha (caPKC alpha) significantly reversed the inhibitory effects of SNWE and SNPE on ERK and p38 activation. However, the antimigration effect of SNWE and SNPE could not be abrogated by caPKC alpha. Our results revealed the antimigration and anti-invasion effects of both extracts derived from SN, which may act as a promising therapeutic agent for the treatment of hepatocellular carcinoma.

Antioxidant and antihyperlipidemic effect of Solanum nigrum fruit extract on the experimental model against chronic ethanol toxicity

The possible protective effect of Solanum nigrum fruit extract (SNFEt) was investigated for its antioxidant and antihyperlipidemic activity against ethanol-induced toxicity in rats. The experimental animals were intoxicated with 20% ethanol (7.9 g/kg/day) for 30 days via gastric intubation. SNFEt was administered at the dose of 250 mg/kg body weight along with the daily dose of ethanol for 30 days. From the result it was observed that ethanol-induced rats showed a significant elevation in the levels of Thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS), which lowered the antioxidant defense systems, such as, reduced glutathione (GSH) and vitamins C and E, when compared to the controls. In the lipid profiles, the levels of total cholesterol (TC), triglycerides (TG), low density lipoproteins (LDL), very low density lipoproteins (VLDL), free fatty acids (FFA), and phospholipids were significantly elevated in the ethanol-induced group, whereas, the high density lipoproteins (HDL) were found to be reduced in the plasma, and the phospholipid levels were significantly decreased in the tissues. Supplementation of SNFEt improved the antioxidant status by decreasing the levels of TBARS and altering the lipid profiles to near normal. These activities were also compared to the standard drug silymarin (25 mg/kg body weight). Thus the findings of the present study indicated a significant antioxidant and antihyperlipidemic activity of Solanum nigrum fruits, which offered protection against ethanol-induced toxicity.

Antinociceptive, anti-inflammatory and antipyretic properties of the aqueous extract of Bauhinia purpurea leaves in experimental animals

OBJECTIVE

The present study was carried out to determine the antinociceptive, anti-inflammatory and antipyretic activities of the aqueous extract of Bauhinia purpurea leaves using animal models.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The air-dried, powdered leaves (approximately 20 g) were soaked in distilled water (1:20; w/v) at room temperature for 72 h and the supernatant obtained was freeze-dried. The crude dried extract (approximately 2.4 g) was prepared in doses of 6.0, 30.0 and 60.0 mg/kg, and subjected to the respective antinociceptive (abdominal constriction, hot plate and formalin tests), anti-inflammatory (carrageenan-induced paw edema test) and antipyretic (brewer's yeast-induced pyrexia test) assays.

RESULTS

The results obtained indicate that the extract possessed significant (p < 0.05) antinociceptive, anti-inflammatory and antipyretic activities, which were not dependent on the doses of extract used. The highest concentration of extract was less effective as an anti-inflammatory and an antipyretic agent.

CONCLUSION

This study showed that the aqueous extract of B. purpurea leaves possesses potential pharmacological activities that require further investigation and, thus, confirms the folklore use of the plant in the treatment of ailments associated with pain and inflammation.