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Sha J, Yi Q, Jiang X, Wang Z, Cao H, Jiang S. Pacing strategies in marathons: A systematic review. Heliyon 2024; 10:e36760. [PMID: 39281580 PMCID: PMC11400961 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e36760] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2024] [Revised: 08/21/2024] [Accepted: 08/21/2024] [Indexed: 09/18/2024] Open
Abstract
Background The pacing strategy embodies the tactical behavior of athletes in distributing their energy across different segments of a race; therefore, a quantitative analysis of pacing strategies in marathon races could deepen the understanding of both pacing behavior and physical capacity in marathon athletics. Objective The objective of this systematic review was to synthesize and characterize pacing strategies in marathon road races by exploring the categories of pacing strategies and the factors that influence these strategies during marathon events. Methods Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews guidelines were followed for systematic searches, appraisals, and syntheses of literature on this topic. Electronic databases such as Science Direct, SPORTDiscuss, PubMed, and Web of Science were searched up to July 2024. Records were eligible if they included pace performance measurements during competition, without experimental intervention that may influence their pace, in healthy, adult athletes at any level. Results A total of 39 studies were included in the review. Twenty-nine were observational studies, and 10 were experimental (randomized controlled trials). The assessment of article quality revealed an overall median NOS score of 8 (range 5-9). The included studies examined the pacing profiles of master athletes and finishers in half-marathon (n = 7, plus numbers compared to full marathon), full-marathon (n = 21), and ultramarathon (n = 11) road races. Considering that some studies refer to multiple pacing strategies, in general, 5 studies (∼13 %) reported even pacing, 3 (∼8 %) reported parabolic pacing, 7 (∼18 %) reported negative pacing, and 30 (∼77 %) reported positive pacing during marathon competitions. Gender, age, performance, pack, and physiological and psychological factors influence pacing strategies. Conclusion This study synthesized pacing performance in marathons and highlighted the significance of examining pacing strategies in these events, offering valuable insights for coaches and athletes. Several key findings were highlighted: (1) pacing profiles and pacing ranges were identified as the primary indicators of pacing strategies; (2) the pacing strategy was found to be dynamic, with the most substantial effects attributed to gender and distance; and (3) three distinct types of pacing strategies for marathons were classified: positive, negative, and even pacing. These findings advance the understanding of marathon pacing strategies by shedding light on the factors that influence athletes' pacing decisions and behaviors. Additionally, these findings offer practical benefits, aiding athletes in making well-informed tactical choices and developing effective pace plans to enhance marathon performance. However, due to the complex nature of marathon racing, further research is required to explore additional factors that might impact pacing strategies. A better grasp of optimal pacing strategies will foster progress in this area and serve as a basis for future research and advancements.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jungong Sha
- School of Physical Education, Shanghai University of Sport, Shanghai, China
| | - Qing Yi
- College of Physical Education, Dalian University, Dalian, China
| | - Xin Jiang
- College of Physical Education, Dalian University, Dalian, China
| | - Zhengwei Wang
- Department of physical education, Dalian Jiaotong University, Dalian, China
| | - Houwen Cao
- School of Kinesiology and Health Promotion, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian, China
| | - Shan Jiang
- Department of Sports Science and Physical Education, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, Hong Kong
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Tiller NB, Illidi CR. Sex differences in ultramarathon performance in races with comparable numbers of males and females. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab 2024; 49:1129-1136. [PMID: 38684111 DOI: 10.1139/apnm-2024-0051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/02/2024]
Abstract
There is a prominent sex-based difference in athletic performance such that males outperform females by 7%-14% in races from 100 m to marathon. In ultramarathons, the difference is often much smaller, leading to speculation that females are "built" for the sport. However, data are confounded by the low number of female participants; just 10%-30% in any given race. This study compared data from two ultramarathons where males and females competed in comparable numbers. There were 116 and 146 starters in the 50 mile and 100 mile races, respectively (52% female). Finish times were compared using t tests or Mann-Whitney U tests, a Chi-squared test of independence examined the relationship between sex and ranking, and multivariable linear regressions examined relationships between sex, age, and finish time. There were 96 finishers in the 50 mile race (46% female) and 91 finishers in the 100 mile race (45% female). The median finish time for 50 miles was 12.64 ± 2.11 h with no difference between sexes (1.2%, p = 0.441). However, the top-10 males finished the race ∼85 min faster than the top-10 females (13.8%, p = 0.045). The mean finish time for 100 miles was 31.58 ± 3.36 h with no difference between sexes (3.2%, p = 0.132) and no difference between the top-10 males and top-10 females (4.4%, p = 0.150). Linear and multivariable regression models using sex and age were unable to predict overall finish time in either race. In conclusion, the sex-based performance discrepancy shrinks to 1%-3% in ultramarathons when males and females compete in comparable numbers. Top-performing males still retain a considerable advantage over shorter distances.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas B Tiller
- Institute of Respiratory Medicine and Exercise Physiology, The Lundquist Institute for Biomedical Innovation at Harbor-UCLA Medical Center, Torrance, CA, USA
| | - Camilla R Illidi
- Clinical Exercise and Respiratory Physiology Laboratory, Department of Kinesiology and Physical Education, Faculty of Education, McGill University, Montréal, QC, Canada
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Macchi R, Kunimasa Y, Chavet P, Corcelle B, Pomportes L, Fazzari C, Hays A, Vercruyssen F, Rossi F, Bendahan D, Nicol C. Effect of a graded running race on lower limb muscle damage, jump performance and muscle soreness in men and women. Scand J Med Sci Sports 2024; 34:e14643. [PMID: 38700004 DOI: 10.1111/sms.14643] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2024] [Revised: 04/02/2024] [Accepted: 04/22/2024] [Indexed: 05/05/2024]
Abstract
PURPOSE Delayed structural and functional recovery after a 20 km graded running race was analyzed with respect to the sex effect. METHODS Thirteen female and 14 male recreational runners completed the race and three test sessions: one before (PRE) and two after, once on Day 1 or 2 (D1-2) and then on Day 3 or 4 (D3-4). Muscle damage was assessed indirectly using ultrasonography to quantify changes in cross-sectional area (CSA) of 10 lower-limb muscles. Delayed onset of muscle soreness (DOMS) was assessed for three muscle groups. Functional recovery was quantified by kinetic analysis of a squat jump (SJ) and a drop jump (DJ) test performed on a sledge ergometer. Linear mixed models were used to assess control group reproducibility and recovery patterns according to sex. RESULTS Regardless of sex, DOMS peaked at D1-2 for all muscle groups and resolved at D3-4. CSA was increased in each muscle group until D3-4, especially in the semimembranosus muscle. A specific increase was found in the short head of the biceps femoris in women. Regardless of sex, SJ and DJ performances declined up to D3-4. Depending on the muscle, positive and/or negative correlations were found between structural and functional changes. Some of these were sex-specific. CONCLUSION Structural and functional recovery was incomplete in both sexes up to D3-4, although DOMS had disappeared. More emphasis should be placed on hamstring muscle recovery. Highlighting the intermuscular compensations that can occur during multi-joint testing tasks, the structural-functional relationships were either positive or negative, muscle- and sex-dependent.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robin Macchi
- Aix-Marseille Univ, CNRS, ISM, Marseille, France
- Laboratory Sport, Expertise and Performance (EA 7370), French Institute of Sport (INSEP), Paris, France
| | - Yoko Kunimasa
- Aix-Marseille Univ, CNRS, ISM, Marseille, France
- Niigata University, Niigata, Japan
| | | | - Baptiste Corcelle
- Laboratory of Human Motricity, Heath and Sport Expertise (LAMHESS), UPR 6312, University Côte d'Azur, Nice, France
| | - Laura Pomportes
- Aix-Marseille Université, HIPE Human-Lab (UAR202324378), Marseille, France
| | | | - Arnaud Hays
- Aix-Marseille Université, HIPE Human-Lab (UAR202324378), Marseille, France
| | | | - Francesca Rossi
- Department of Pharmacy and Biotechnology, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
- Aix-Marseille Univ, CNRS (UMR 7339), CRMBM, Marseille, France
| | - David Bendahan
- Aix-Marseille Univ, CNRS (UMR 7339), CRMBM, Marseille, France
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Cuk I, Markovic S, Weiss K, Knechtle B. Running Variability in Marathon-Evaluation of the Pacing Variables. MEDICINA (KAUNAS, LITHUANIA) 2024; 60:218. [PMID: 38399506 PMCID: PMC10890654 DOI: 10.3390/medicina60020218] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2023] [Revised: 01/21/2024] [Accepted: 01/24/2024] [Indexed: 02/25/2024]
Abstract
Background and Objectives: Pacing analyses for increasingly popular long-distance running disciplines have been in researchers' spotlight for several years. In particular, assessing pacing variability in long-distance running was hardly achievable since runners must repeat long-running trials for several days. Potential solutions for these problems could be multi-stage long-distance running disciplines. Therefore, this study aimed to assess the long-distance running variability as well as the reliability, validity, and sensitivity of the variables often used for pacing analyses. Materials and Methods: This study collected the split times and finish times for 20 participants (17 men and three women; mean age 55.5 years ± 9.5 years) who completed the multiday marathon running race (five marathons in 5 days), held as part of the Bretzel Ultra Tri in Colmar, France, in 2021. Seven commonly used pacing variables were subsequently calculated: Coefficient of variation (CV), Change in mean speed (CS), Change in first lap speed (CSF), Absolute change in mean speed (ACS), Pace range (PR), Mid-race split (MRS), and First 32 km-10 km split (32-10). Results: Multi-stage marathon running showed low variability between days (Intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) > 0.920), while only the CV, ACS, and PR variables proved to have moderate to good reliability (0.732 < ICC < 0.785). The same variables were also valid (r > 0.908), and sensitive enough to discern between runners of different performance levels (p < 0.05). Conclusions: Researchers and practitioners who aim to explore pacing in long-distance running should routinely utilize ACS, CV, and PR variables in their analyses. Other examined variables, CS, CSF, MRS, and 32-10, should be used cautiously. Future studies might try to confirm these results using different multi-stage event's data as well as by expanding sensitivity analysis to age and gender differences.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ivan Cuk
- Faculty of Sport and Physical Education, University of Belgrade, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Srdjan Markovic
- Faculty of Physical Education and Sports Management, Singidunum University, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia;
| | - Katja Weiss
- Institute of Primary Care, University of Zurich, 8006 Zurich, Switzerland;
| | - Beat Knechtle
- Institute of Primary Care, University of Zurich, 8006 Zurich, Switzerland;
- Medbase St. Gallen Am Vadianplatz, 9000 St. Gallen, Switzerland
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Jackman PC, Whitehead AE, Swann C, Brick NE. Self-regulatory processes in goal striving during excellent distance-running performances: A qualitative study. PSYCHOLOGY OF SPORT AND EXERCISE 2024; 70:102516. [PMID: 38065659 DOI: 10.1016/j.psychsport.2023.102516] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2022] [Revised: 08/17/2023] [Accepted: 08/23/2023] [Indexed: 12/18/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Goal setting can improve endurance performance, yet how endurance performers maintain goal striving and bring it to a successful close has received limited attention. In this study, we investigated the self-regulatory processes employed by long-distance runners during goal striving in excellent competitive performances. METHOD Through in-depth, event-focused interviews, we explored 21 long-distance runners' experiences of goal striving in excellent competitive performances (M = 77.43 h post-race). Furthermore, we recruited 10 additional participants with relevant experiences (runner n = 7, coach n = 2; sport psychologist n = 1) for external member-reflection interviews. FINDINGS Through our matrix analysis, we interpreted that by contrasting their current and future goal status periodically throughout their excellent performances, using a process called mental contrasting with implementation intentions (MCII), this helped the runners to make decisions about whether to persist with a goal, or disengage from a goal and reengage with an alternative. Furthermore, our findings depict how these goal decisions unfolded when runners perceived they were behind, equalling, or exceeding their goal(s). We also illustrate how goal revision was used as an adaptive process to maximise performance, and to avert or manage action crises. CONCLUSIONS Our findings extend theoretical understandings of goal striving and the self-regulatory processes endurance performers employ to attain and/or adapt their goals. Psychological support provided for athletes should go beyond simply setting goals, but also include training on mental frameworks such as MCII to manage goal-striving challenges and decisional conflict encountered during performances.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patricia C Jackman
- School of Sport and Exercise Science, University of Lincoln, Lincoln, UK.
| | - Amy E Whitehead
- School of Sport and Exercise Sciences, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, UK.
| | - Christian Swann
- Physical Activity, Sport, and Exercise Research Theme, Faculty of Health, Southern Cross University, Coffs Harbour, Australia.
| | - Noel E Brick
- School of Psychology, Ulster University, Coleraine, UK.
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Ristanović L, Cuk I, Villiger E, Stojiljković S, Nikolaidis PT, Weiss K, Knechtle B. The pacing differences in performance levels of marathon and half-marathon runners. Front Psychol 2023; 14:1273451. [PMID: 38187410 PMCID: PMC10771621 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1273451] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2023] [Accepted: 11/21/2023] [Indexed: 01/09/2024] Open
Abstract
Introduction Many studies indicate a considerable impact of optimal pacing on long-distance running performance. Given that the amount of carbohydrates in metabolic processes increases supralinearly with the running intensity, we may observe differences between the pacing strategies of two long-distance races and different performance levels of runners. Accordingly, the present study aimed to examine the differences in pacing strategies between marathon and half-marathon races regarding the performance levels of runners. Methods The official results and split times from a total of 208,760 (marathon, N = 75,492; half-marathon, N = 133,268) finishers in the "Vienna City Marathon" between 2006 and 2018 were analyzed. The percentage of the average change of speed for each of the five segments (CS 1-5), as well as the absolute change of speed (ACS) were calculated. The CS 1-5 for the marathon are as follows: up to the 10th km, 10th - 20th km, 20th - 30th km, 30th - 40th km, and from the 40th km to the 42.195 km. For the half-marathon, the CS 1-5 are half of the marathon values. Four performance groups were created as quartiles of placement separately for sexes and races: high-level (HL), moderate to high-level (MHL), moderate to low-level (MLL), and low-level (LL). Results Positive pacing strategies (i.e., decrease of speed) were observed in all performance groups of both sex and race. Across CS 1-5, significant main effects (p < 0.001) were observed for the segment, performance level, and their interaction in both sex and race groups. All LL groups demonstrated higher ACS (men 7.9 and 6.05%, as well as women 5.83 and 5.49%, in marathon and half-marathon, respectively), while the HL performance group showed significantly lower ACS (men 4.14 and 2.97%, as well as women 3.16 and 2.77%, in marathon and half-marathon, respectively). Significant main effects (p < 0.001) for the race were observed but with a low effect size in women (ŋ2 = 0.001). Discussion Better runners showed more even pacing than slower runners. The half-marathoners showed more even pacing than the marathoners across all performance groups but with a trivial practical significance in women.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ljubica Ristanović
- Faculty of Sport and Physical Education, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Ivan Cuk
- Faculty of Sport and Physical Education, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Elias Villiger
- Klinik für Allgemeine Innere Medizin, Kantonsspital St. Gallen, St. Gallen, Switzerland
| | | | - Pantelis T. Nikolaidis
- Exercise Physiology Laboratory, Nikaia, Greece
- School of Health and Caring Sciences, University of West Attica, Athens, Greece
| | - Katja Weiss
- Institute of Primary Care, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Beat Knechtle
- Institute of Primary Care, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
- Medbase St. Gallen Am Vadianplatz, St. Gallen, Switzerland
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7
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Hunter SK, S Angadi S, Bhargava A, Harper J, Hirschberg AL, D Levine B, L Moreau K, J Nokoff N, Stachenfeld NS, Bermon S. The Biological Basis of Sex Differences in Athletic Performance: Consensus Statement for the American College of Sports Medicine. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2023; 55:2328-2360. [PMID: 37772882 DOI: 10.1249/mss.0000000000003300] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/30/2023]
Abstract
ABSTRACT Biological sex is a primary determinant of athletic performance because of fundamental sex differences in anatomy and physiology dictated by sex chromosomes and sex hormones. Adult men are typically stronger, more powerful, and faster than women of similar age and training status. Thus, for athletic events and sports relying on endurance, muscle strength, speed, and power, males typically outperform females by 10%-30% depending on the requirements of the event. These sex differences in performance emerge with the onset of puberty and coincide with the increase in endogenous sex steroid hormones, in particular testosterone in males, which increases 30-fold by adulthood, but remains low in females. The primary goal of this consensus statement is to provide the latest scientific knowledge and mechanisms for the sex differences in athletic performance. This review highlights the differences in anatomy and physiology between males and females that are primary determinants of the sex differences in athletic performance and in response to exercise training, and the role of sex steroid hormones (particularly testosterone and estradiol). We also identify historical and nonphysiological factors that influence the sex differences in performance. Finally, we identify gaps in the knowledge of sex differences in athletic performance and the underlying mechanisms, providing substantial opportunities for high-impact studies. A major step toward closing the knowledge gap is to include more and equitable numbers of women to that of men in mechanistic studies that determine any of the sex differences in response to an acute bout of exercise, exercise training, and athletic performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandra K Hunter
- Exercise Science Program, Department of Physical Therapy, and Athletic and Human Performance Center, Marquette University, Milwaukee, WI
| | | | - Aditi Bhargava
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Center for Reproductive Sciences, University of California, San Francisco, CA
| | - Joanna Harper
- Loughborough University, Loughborough, UNITED KINGDOM
| | - Angelica Lindén Hirschberg
- Department of Women's and Children's Health, Karolinska Institutet, and Department of Gynecology and Reproductive Medicine, Karolinska University Hospital, Stockholm, SWEDEN
| | - Benjamin D Levine
- Institute for Exercise and Environmental Medicine, Texas Health Presbyterian Hospital Dallas, and the Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Cardiology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX
| | - Kerrie L Moreau
- Department of Medicine, Division of Geriatric Medicine, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, and Eastern Colorado Health Care System, Geriatric Research Education and Clinical Center, Aurora, CO
| | - Natalie J Nokoff
- Department of Pediatrics, Section of Endocrinology, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO
| | - Nina S Stachenfeld
- The John B. Pierce Laboratory and Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology and Reproductive Sciences, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT
| | - Stéphane Bermon
- Health and Science Department, World Athletics, Monaco and the LAMHESS, University Côte d'Azur, Nice, FRANCE
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Knechtle B, Cuk I, Villiger E, Forte P, Thuany M, Andrade MS, Nikolaidis PT, Weiss K. Performance and pacing of professional IRONMAN triathletes: the fastest IRONMAN World Championship ever-IRONMAN Hawaii 2022. Sci Rep 2023; 13:15708. [PMID: 37735607 PMCID: PMC10514275 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-42800-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2023] [Accepted: 09/14/2023] [Indexed: 09/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Pacing during cycling and running in an IRONMAN triathlon has been investigated in only one study with elite IRONMAN triathletes. We have, however, no knowledge of how professional triathletes pace during an IRONMAN World Championship. To investigate the split-by-split speed, pacing strategies and pacing variability in professional female and male IRONMAN World Championship participants in the fastest IRONMAN World Championship ever in IRONMAN Hawaii 2022. For both cycling and running, 25 specific split times were recorded in each discipline. The best 30 men and 30 women overall were chosen from the official IRONMAN website database for further analysis. They were divided into three performance groups: Top 10, 11-20th place, and 21st-30th place. Mean speed, individual linear regressions with the corresponding correlation coefficients, and coefficient of variation were calculated to assess split-by-split speed, pacing strategies, and pacing variability, respectively. In both men's and women's cycling and running segments, the top ten participants exhibited faster split times compared to the slower performance groups. Notably, no discernible differences existed between the 11-20th and 21st-30th place in men's cycling and women's running times. Conversely, in men's running and women's cycling segments, those in the 11-20th place displayed quicker times than those in the 21st-30th place. In the cycling segment across all groups, men demonstrated a more negative pacing pattern (indicating an increase in speed), whereas women exhibited more consistent pacing. In the running segment, the top 10 men and all women's groups showcased relatively similar slightly positive pacing profiles. However, men ranking 11-20th and 21st-30th displayed more pronounced positive pacing strategies, implying a more significant decline in speed over time. In terms of cycling, the variability in pacing remained relatively consistent across the three performance groups. Conversely, during the running segment, the top ten male triathletes and those in the 11-20th place displayed lower pacing variability than their counterparts in the 21st-30th position place and all women's groups. In summary, performance and pacing were examined in professional male and female IRONMAN World Championship participants during IRONMAN Hawaii 2022. Top performers showed faster cycling and running split times, with differences in pacing strategies between sexes. The pacing was more consistent in cycling, while running pacing varied more, particularly among male triathletes in different performance groups.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beat Knechtle
- Medbase St. Gallen Am Vadianplatz, Vadianstrasse 26, 9001, St. Gallen, Switzerland.
- Institute of Primary Care, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland.
| | - Ivan Cuk
- Faculty of Sport and Physical Education, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Elias Villiger
- Klinik für Allgemeine Innere Medizin, Kantonsspital St. Gallen, St. Gallen, Switzerland
| | - Pedro Forte
- CI-ISCE, Higher Institute of Educational Sciences of the Douro, Penafiel, Portugal
- Department of Sports Sciences, Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal
- Research Center in Sports, Health and Human Development, Covilhã, Portugal
| | | | | | | | - Katja Weiss
- Institute of Primary Care, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
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9
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Fariod M, Olher RR, Sousa CV, Scheer V, Cuk I, Nikolaidis PT, Thuany M, Weiss K, Knechtle B. Pacing Variation in Multistage Ultramarathons: Internet-Based Cross-Sectional Study. JMIR Form Res 2023; 7:e46650. [PMID: 37610796 PMCID: PMC10483293 DOI: 10.2196/46650] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2023] [Revised: 05/14/2023] [Accepted: 05/15/2023] [Indexed: 08/24/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Ultramarathon running is the most popular ultraendurance competition in terms of the number of races and runners competing annually worldwide; however, no study has compared pacing and performance over a long period. OBJECTIVE This study analyzes the pacing of successful finishers and nonfinishers in multistage ultramarathons worldwide. METHODS A total of 4079 athletes (men=3288; women=791) competing in 99 multistage ultramarathon events from 1983 to 2021 were analyzed, including the number of participants, age, gender, rank, and running speed of successful finishers. RESULTS The results showed a significant increase in the number of events (n=338) and a significant increase in the number of finishers and nonfinishers (n=5575) in the ultramarathons worldwide during this period. The general linear models (GLMs) of pacing variation showed nonsignificant effects for gender (F1,36.2=2.5; P=.127; ηp2=0.063) and age group (F10,10=0.6; P=.798; ηp2=0.367), but it showed a significant interaction (gender × age) effect (F10,2689=2.3; P=.008; ηp2=0.009). Post hoc analyses showed that men have a higher pacing variation than women in the under 30 years (U30), U35, U45, and U50 groups. Additionally, the fastest women's age group (U35) had the lowest pacing variation. The GLM of pacing variation by gender and event distance showed significant effects for both gender (F1,3=18.5; P<.001; ηp2=0.007) and distance (F2,3=20.1; P<.001; ηp2=0.015). Post hoc analyses showed a growing pacing variation with increasing race distance for both men and women. In addition, men had a higher variation in long events. Furthermore, there was a significant main effect for both genders (F1,3=33.7; P<.001; ηp2=0.012) and rank (F1,3=136.6; P<.001; ηp2=0.048) on performance, with men being faster than women. Pacing varied greatly due to gender (F1,3=4.0; P=.047; ηp2=0.001), with a lower (ie, more even) pacing variation for male athletes in the top 3 finishers. Male nonfinishers showed a higher performance than female nonfinishers (F1,1340=25.6; P<.001), and no difference was identified for pacing variation (F1,789=1.5; P=.228) based on gender. In addition, a weak but significant correlation (r=-0.130; P<.001) was identified between the average running speed and pacing variation for both female and male nonfinishers. CONCLUSIONS In summary, multistage ultramarathon competitions showed an increasing number of competitors and a higher performance challenge. Men have a higher pacing (ie, less even) variation than women, especially observed in longer events. A higher pacing variation was associated with lower performance for men, women, and nonfinishers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mielad Fariod
- Department of Orthopedic, Traumatology and Reconstructive Surgery, Klinikum Frankfurt-Höchst, Frankfurt, Germany
| | - Rafael Reis Olher
- Department of Physical Education, University Center of Central Plateau Apparecido dos Santos, Brasilia, Brazil
| | - Caio Victor Sousa
- Health and Human Sciences, Loyola Marymount University, Los Angeles, CA, United States
| | - Volker Scheer
- Ultra Sports Science Foundation, Pierre-Benite, France
| | - Ivan Cuk
- Faculty of Sport and Physical Education, University of Belgrade, Belgrade,
| | | | | | - Katja Weiss
- Institute of Primary Care, University Hospital Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Beat Knechtle
- Medbase St Gallen Am Vadianplatz, St Gallen, Switzerland
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10
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Knechtle B, Witthöft A, Valero D, Thuany M, Nikolaidis PT, Scheer V, Forte P, Weiss K. Elderly female ultra-marathoners reduced the gap to male ultra-marathoners in Swiss running races. Sci Rep 2023; 13:12521. [PMID: 37532766 PMCID: PMC10397271 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-39690-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2023] [Accepted: 07/29/2023] [Indexed: 08/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Recent studies showed that female runners reduced the performance gap to male runners in endurance running with increasing age and race distance. However, the investigated samples were generally small. To investigate this further, the present study examined sex differences by age across various race distances (5, 10 km, half-marathon, marathon, and ultra-marathon) using a large dataset of over 1,100,000 race records from Switzerland over two decades (1999-2019). The study explored performance and participation disparities between male and female runners by employing diverse methods, such as descriptive statistics, histograms, scatter and line plots, correlations, and a predictive machine learning model. The results showed that female runners were more prevalent in shorter races (5, 10 km, half-marathon) and outnumbered male runners in 5 km races. However, as the race distance increased, the male-to-female ratio declined. Notably, the performance gap between sexes reduced with age until 70 years, after which it varied depending on the race distance. Among participants over 75 years old, ultra-marathon running exhibited the smallest sex difference in performance. Elderly female ultra-marathoners (75 years and older) displayed a performance difference of less than 4% compared to male ultra-marathoners, which may be attributed to the presence of highly selected outstanding female performers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beat Knechtle
- Medbase St. Gallen am Vadianplatz, Vadianstrasse 26, 9001, St. Gallen, Switzerland.
- Institute of Primary Care, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland.
| | | | - David Valero
- Ultra Sports Science Foundation, Pierre-Benite, France
| | | | | | - Volker Scheer
- Ultra Sports Science Foundation, Pierre-Benite, France
| | - Pedro Forte
- CI-ISCE, Higher Institute of Educational Sciences of the Douro, Penafiel, Portugal
- Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal
- Research Center in Sports, Health and Human Development, Covilhã, Portugal
| | - Katja Weiss
- Institute of Primary Care, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
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11
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Huang CT, Ruan SY, Lai F, Chien JY, Yu CJ. Prognostic Value of Pace Variability, a Novel 6MWT-Derived Feature, in Patients with Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease. Int J Chron Obstruct Pulmon Dis 2023; 18:1555-1564. [PMID: 37497382 PMCID: PMC10368117 DOI: 10.2147/copd.s407708] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2023] [Accepted: 07/03/2023] [Indexed: 07/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Purpose The 6-minute walk test (6MWT) is often used to evaluate chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) patients' functional capacity, with 6-minute walk distance (6MWD) and related measures being linked to mortality and hospitalizations. This study investigates the prognostic value of pace variability, a significant indicator in sports medicine, during the 6MWT for COPD patients. Patients and Methods We retrospectively screened consecutive COPD patients who had been prospectively enrolled in a pay-for-performance program from January 2019 to May 2020 to determine their eligibility. Patient characteristics, including demographics, exacerbation history, and 6MWT data, were analyzed to investigate their potential associations with prognosis. The primary outcome was a composite of adverse events, including overall mortality or hospitalizations due to exacerbations during a 1-year follow-up period. To analyze the 6MWT data, we divided it into three 2-minute epochs and calculated the average walk speed for each epoch. We defined pace variability as the difference between the maximum and minimum average speed in a single 2-minute epoch, divided by the average speed for the entire 6-minute walk test. Results A total of 163 patients with COPD were included in the study, and 19 of them (12%) experienced the composite adverse outcome. Multivariable logistic regression analyses revealed that two predictors were independently associated with the composite outcome: % predicted 6MWD <72 (adjusted odds ratio [aOR] 7.080; 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.481-33.847) and pace variability ≥0.39 (aOR 9.444; 95% CI 2.689-33.170). Patients with either of these adverse prognostic features had significantly worse composite outcome-free survival, with both log-rank P values less than 0.005. Notably, COPD patients with both adverse features experienced an especially poor outcome after 1 year. Conclusion Patients with COPD who exhibited greater pace variability during the 6MWT had a significantly higher risk of overall mortality and COPD-related hospitalizations, indicating a worse prognosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chun-Ta Huang
- Department of Internal Medicine, National Taiwan University Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Sheng-Yuan Ruan
- Department of Internal Medicine, National Taiwan University Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Feipei Lai
- Graduate Institute of Biomedical Electronics and Bioinformatics, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan
- Department of Computer Science & Information Engineering, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan
- Department of Electrical Engineering, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Jung-Yien Chien
- Department of Internal Medicine, National Taiwan University Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Chong-Jen Yu
- Department of Internal Medicine, National Taiwan University Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan
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12
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Fulton TJ, Sundberg CW, Arney BE, Hunter SK. Sex Differences in the Speed-Duration Relationship of Elite Runners across the Lifespan. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2023; 55:911-919. [PMID: 36728809 PMCID: PMC10106388 DOI: 10.1249/mss.0000000000003112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE To determine if the speed-duration relationship is altered with age and sex of elite Master's runners. METHODS The world's top 10 performances for men and women in three events (800, 1500, and 5000 m) across six age groups (18-34 yr, 40-49 yr, 50-59 yr, 60-69 yr, 70-79 yr, and 80-89 yr) were analyzed from public data to establish theoretical models of the speed-duration relationship. Critical speed (CS) and the curvature constant ( D ') were estimated by fitting the average speeds and performance times with a two-parameter hyperbolic model. RESULTS Critical speed expressed relative to the 18- to 34-yr-olds, declined with age (92.2% [40-49] to 55.2% [80-89]; P < 0.001), and absolute CS was higher in men than women within each age group ( P < 0.001). The percent difference in CS between the men and women progressively increased across age groups (10.8% [18-34] to 15.5% [80-89]). D ' was lower in women than men in the 60-69 yr, 70-79 yr, and 80-89 yr age groups ( P < 0.001), but did not differ in the 18-34 yr, 40-49 yr, or 50-59 yr age groups. CONCLUSIONS Critical speed progressively decreased with age, likely due to age-related decrements in several physiological systems that cause reduced aerobic capacity. The mechanism for the larger sex difference in CS in the older age groups is unknown but may indicate physiological differences that occur with aging and/or historical sociological factors that have reduced participation opportunities of older female runners resulting in a more limited talent pool.
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Affiliation(s)
- Timothy J. Fulton
- Exercise Science Program, Department of Physical Therapy, Marquette University, Milwaukee, WI
| | - Christopher W. Sundberg
- Exercise Science Program, Department of Physical Therapy, Marquette University, Milwaukee, WI
- Athletic and Human Performance Research Center, Marquette University, Milwaukee, WI
| | - Blaine E. Arney
- Exercise Science Program, Department of Physical Therapy, Marquette University, Milwaukee, WI
| | - Sandra K. Hunter
- Exercise Science Program, Department of Physical Therapy, Marquette University, Milwaukee, WI
- Athletic and Human Performance Research Center, Marquette University, Milwaukee, WI
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13
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Le Mat F, Géry M, Besson T, Ferdynus C, Bouscaren N, Millet GY. Running Endurance in Women Compared to Men: Retrospective Analysis of Matched Real-World Big Data. Sports Med 2023; 53:917-926. [PMID: 36802328 DOI: 10.1007/s40279-023-01813-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 01/24/2023] [Indexed: 02/23/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE To determine whether the gap in endurance performance between men and women is reduced as distances increase, i.e. if there is a sex difference in endurance, one can analyse the performance of elite runners, all participants, or one can pair women and men during short-distance events and examine the difference over longer distances. The first two methods have caveats, and the last method has never been performed with a large dataset. This was the goal of the present study. METHODS A dataset including 38,860 trail running races from 1989 to 2021 in 221 countries was used. It provided information on 1,881,070 unique runners, allowing 7251 pairs of men and women with the same relative level of performance to be obtained, i.e. the same percentage of the winner time of the considered race on short races (25-45 km-effort) that were compared during longer races (45-260 km-effort). The effect of distance on sex differences in average speed was determined using a gamma mixed model. RESULTS The gap between sexes decreased as distance increases, i.e. men's speed decreased by 4.02% (confidence interval 3.80-4.25) for every 10 km-effort increase, whereas it decreased by 3.25% (confidence interval 3.02-3.46) for women. The men-women ratio decreases from 1.237 (confidence interval 1.232-1.242) for a 25 km-effort to 1.031 (confidence interval 1.011-1.052) for a 260 km-effort. This interaction was modulated by the level of performance, i.e. the greater the performance level of the runner, the lower the difference in endurance between sexes. CONCLUSIONS This study shows for the first time that the gap between men and women shrinks when trail running distance increases, which demonstrates that endurance is greater in women. Although women narrow the performance gap with men as race distance increases, top male performers still outperform the top women.
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Affiliation(s)
- Franck Le Mat
- Université Jean Monnet Saint-Etienne, Lyon 1, Université Savoie Mont-Blanc, Inter-university Laboratory of Human Movement Biology, F-42023, Saint-Etienne, France
| | - Mathias Géry
- Université Jean Monnet Saint-Etienne, CNRS, Institut d'Optique Graduate School, Laboratoire Hubert Curien UMR 5516, F-42023, Saint-Etienne, France
| | - Thibault Besson
- Université Jean Monnet Saint-Etienne, Lyon 1, Université Savoie Mont-Blanc, Inter-university Laboratory of Human Movement Biology, F-42023, Saint-Etienne, France
| | - Cyril Ferdynus
- INSERM, CIC 1410, 97410, Saint Pierre, La Réunion, France
| | - Nicolas Bouscaren
- Université Jean Monnet Saint-Etienne, Lyon 1, Université Savoie Mont-Blanc, Inter-university Laboratory of Human Movement Biology, F-42023, Saint-Etienne, France
- INSERM, CIC 1410, 97410, Saint Pierre, La Réunion, France
| | - Guillaume Y Millet
- Université Jean Monnet Saint-Etienne, Lyon 1, Université Savoie Mont-Blanc, Inter-university Laboratory of Human Movement Biology, F-42023, Saint-Etienne, France.
- Institut Universitaire de France (IUF), Paris, France.
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14
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Lerebourg L, Saboul D, Clémençon M, Coquart JB. Prediction of Marathon Performance using Artificial Intelligence. Int J Sports Med 2023; 44:352-360. [PMID: 36473492 DOI: 10.1055/a-1993-2371] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Although studies used machine learning algorithms to predict performances in sports activities, none, to the best of our knowledge, have used and validated two artificial intelligence techniques: artificial neural network (ANN) and k-nearest neighbor (KNN) in the running discipline of marathon and compared the accuracy or precision of the predicted performances. Official French rankings for the 10-km road and marathon events in 2019 were scrutinized over a dataset of 820 athletes (aged 21, having run 10 km and a marathon in the same year that was run slower, etc.). For the KNN and ANN the same inputs (10-km race time, body mass index, age and sex) were used to solve a linear regression problem to estimate the marathon race time. No difference was found between the actual and predicted marathon performances for either method (p>0,05). All predicted performances were significantly correlated with the actual ones, with very high correlation coefficients (r>0,90; p<0,001). KNN outperformed ANN with a mean absolute error of 2,4 vs 5,6%. The study confirms the validity of both algorithms, with better accuracy for KNN in predicting marathon performance. Consequently, the predictions from these artificial intelligence methods may be used in training programs and competitions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucie Lerebourg
- Centre d'Etudes des Transformations des Activités Physiques et Sportives Normandie Univ, UNIROUEN, CETAPS, 76000 Rouen, France
| | - Damien Saboul
- Research and Innovation, Be-ys-research, Argonay, France
| | - Michel Clémençon
- Centre d'Etudes des Transformations des Activités Physiques et Sportives Normandie Univ, UNIROUEN, CETAPS, 76000 Rouen, France
| | - Jérémy Bernard Coquart
- Centre d'Etudes des Transformations des Activités Physiques et Sportives Normandie Univ, UNIROUEN, CETAPS, 76000 Rouen, France.,Unité de Recherche Pluridisciplinaire Sport, Santé, Société Eurasport, 413 avenue Eugène Avinée, 59 120 Loos, France
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15
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Corbí-Santamaría P, Herrero-Molleda A, García-López J, Boullosa D, García-Tormo V. Variable Pacing Is Associated with Performance during the OCC ® Ultra-Trail du Mont-Blanc ® (2017-2021). INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2023; 20:3297. [PMID: 36833992 PMCID: PMC9962197 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph20043297] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2022] [Revised: 02/01/2023] [Accepted: 02/11/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
The current evidence suggests that pacing may not be affected by performance level or sex in trail-running races as may occur in road running races. However, the previous studies included races of >100 km. Therefore, we aimed to verify the influence of performance level and sex on pacing in the last four (2017, 2018, 2019, and 2021) editions of a shorter (56.3 km) ultra-trail running race (i.e., Orsières-Champex-Chamonix; OCC®) that maintained the same race profile. The mean finishing time for the 5656 participants was 10 h 20 min 33 s ± 2 h 01 min 19 s. Pacing variability (CV%) was higher in high-level participants, thus showing a greater ability to adapt their pace to the race profile than low-level runners. Males also had a higher pacing variability than females although the effect sizes were small. Based on the current findings, we may recommend for non-elite OCC® participants to adapt their pace to the race profile with a slower pace during uphills and a faster pace during downhills. Further studies including participants' experience are necessary to confirm the effectiveness of this suggestion in trail-running races of variable distances.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Alba Herrero-Molleda
- Faculty of Physical Activity and Sports Sciences, AMRED, Human Movement and Sports Performance Analysis, Universidad de León, 24071 León, Spain
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16
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Leslie E, Ducharme JB, Coffey P, Van Horn ML. Pacing and heat stress independently and differentially effect elite marathon performance. SPORT SCIENCES FOR HEALTH 2023. [DOI: 10.1007/s11332-022-01034-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
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17
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McGuirk E, Snyder E, Betker M, Rourk Z, Uithoven K, Lee E, Lundstrom C. The relationship between climatic condition, sex, and degree of slowing in the marathon. Sci Sports 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.scispo.2022.02.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
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18
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Menting SGP, Edwards AM, Hettinga FJ, Elferink-Gemser MT. Pacing Behaviour Development and Acquisition: A Systematic Review. SPORTS MEDICINE - OPEN 2022; 8:143. [PMID: 36484867 PMCID: PMC9733766 DOI: 10.1186/s40798-022-00540-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2022] [Accepted: 11/18/2022] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The goal-directed decision-making process of effort distribution (i.e. pacing) allows individuals to efficiently use energy resources as well as to manage the impact of fatigue on performance during exercise. Given the shared characteristics between pacing behaviour and other skilled behaviour, it was hypothesized that pacing behaviour would adhere to the same processes associated with skill acquisition and development. METHODS PubMed, Web of Science and PsycINFO databases between January 1995 and January 2022 were searched for articles relating to the pacing behaviour of individuals (1) younger than 18 years of age, or (2) repeatedly performing the same exercise task, or (3) with different levels of experience. RESULTS The search resulted in 64 articles reporting on the effect of age (n = 33), repeated task exposure (n = 29) or differing levels of experience (n = 13) on pacing behaviour. Empirical evidence identifies the development of pacing behaviour starts during childhood (~ 10 years old) and continues throughout adolescence. This development is characterized by an increasingly better fit to the task demands, encompassing the task characteristics (e.g. duration) and environment factors (e.g. opponents). Gaining task experience leads to an increased capability to attain a predetermined pace and results in pacing behaviour that better fits task demands. CONCLUSIONS Similar to skilled behaviour, physical maturation and cognitive development likely drive the development of pacing behaviour. Pacing behaviour follows established processes of skill acquisition, as repeated task execution improves the match between stimuli (e.g. task demands and afferent signals) and actions (i.e. continuing, increasing or decreasing the exerted effort) with the resulting exercise task performance. Furthermore, with increased task experience attentional capacity is freed for secondary tasks (e.g. incorporating opponents) and the goal selection is changed from achieving task completion to optimizing task performance. As the development and acquisition of pacing resemble that of other skills, established concepts in the literature (e.g. intervention-induced variability and augmented feedback) could enrich pacing research and be the basis for practical applications in physical education, healthcare, and sports.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stein Gerrit Paul Menting
- Department of Human Movement Sciences, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, PO Box 196, 9700 AD, The Netherlands
| | - Andrew Mark Edwards
- School of Psychology and Life Sciences, Canterbury Christ Church University, Canterbury, UK
| | - Florentina Johanna Hettinga
- Department of Sport, Exercise and Rehabilitation, Faculty of Health and Life Sciences, Northumbria University, Room 238, Northumberland Building, Newcastle Upon Tyne, NE1 8ST, UK.
| | - Marije Titia Elferink-Gemser
- Department of Human Movement Sciences, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, PO Box 196, 9700 AD, The Netherlands
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19
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Bojkowski Ł. Psychological Femininity and Masculinity and Motivation in Team Sports. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2022; 19:15767. [PMID: 36497841 PMCID: PMC9735654 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph192315767] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2022] [Revised: 11/12/2022] [Accepted: 11/19/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
It is hypothesized that levels of femininity and masculinity may be relevant to specific types of engagement in action. For this reason, the aim of this study was to search for relationships between psychological dimensions of femininity and masculinity and different forms of motivation, as well as their specific parts, among women and male athletes practicing team sports games. We researched 49 women aged 19 to 32 years representing sports such as football, handball, hockey, volleyball, and basketball and 56 men aged 18 to 31 years practicing football, hockey, volleyball, basketball, and handball. The respondents completed the Inventory to Assess Psychological Gender (IPP) and the Polish adaptation of the Sport Motivation Scale (SMS). It was determined that the psychological dimension of femininity was (in the male group) positively related to the dimension of amotivation, i.e., the lack of perception of a relationship between one's action and the outcome. In turn, the psychological dimension of masculinity was positively related to the motivation to know, motivation to accomplish, and motivation to experience stimulation, as well as the overall level of intrinsic motivation and the overall dimension of extrinsic motivation. Furthermore, the masculinity dimension is, in male athletes, related to the level of the introjection motive, i.e., the process of integrating accepted patterns.
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Affiliation(s)
- Łukasz Bojkowski
- Department of Psychology, Poznan University of Physical Education, Królowej Jadwigi 27/39, 61-871 Poznań, Poland
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20
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Genitrini M, Fritz J, Zimmermann G, Schwameder H. Downhill Sections Are Crucial for Performance in Trail Running Ultramarathons-A Pacing Strategy Analysis. J Funct Morphol Kinesiol 2022; 7:jfmk7040103. [PMID: 36412765 PMCID: PMC9680470 DOI: 10.3390/jfmk7040103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2022] [Revised: 11/15/2022] [Accepted: 11/17/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Trail running is an increasingly popular discipline, especially over long-distance races (>42.195 km). Pacing strategy, i.e., how athletes modulate running speed for managing their energies during a race, appears to have a significant impact on overall performance. The aims of this study were to investigate whether performance level, terrain (i.e., uphill or downhill) and race stage affect pacing strategy and whether any interactions between these factors are evident. Race data from four race courses, with multiple editions (total races = 16), were retrieved from their respective events websites. A linear mixed effect model was applied to the full dataset, as well as to two subgroups of the top 10 male and female finishers, to assess potential differences in pacing strategy (i.e., investigated in terms of relative speed). Better finishers (i.e., athletes ranking in the best positions) tend to run downhill sections at higher relative speeds and uphill sections at lower relative speeds than slower counterparts (p < 0.001). In the later race stages, the relative speed decrease is larger in downhill sections than in uphill ones (p < 0.001) and in downhill sections, slower finishers perform systematically worse than faster ones, but the performance difference (i.e., between slower and faster finishers) becomes significantly larger in the later race stages (p < 0.001). Among elite athletes, no difference in pacing strategy between faster and slower finishers was found (p > 0.05). Both men (p < 0.001) and women (p < 0.001), in the later race stages, slow down more in downhill sections than in uphill ones. Moreover, elite women tend to slow down more than men (p < 0.001) in the later race stages, regardless of the terrain, in contrast to previous studies focusing on road ultramarathons. In conclusion, running downhill sections at higher relative speeds, most likely due to less accentuated fatigue effects, as well as minimizing performance decrease in the later race stages in downhill sections, appears to be a hallmark of the better finishers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matteo Genitrini
- Department of Sport and Exercise Science, University of Salzburg, 5400 Hallein-Rif, Austria
| | | | - Georg Zimmermann
- Team Biostatistics and Big Medical Data, IDA Lab, 5020 Salzburg, Austria
- Research Management & Technology Transfer, Paracelsus Medical University, 5020 Salzburg, Austria
| | - Hermann Schwameder
- Department of Sport and Exercise Science, University of Salzburg, 5400 Hallein-Rif, Austria
- Correspondence:
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21
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Motevalli M, Tanous D, Wirnitzer G, Leitzmann C, Rosemann T, Knechtle B, Wirnitzer K. Sex Differences in Racing History of Recreational 10 km to Ultra Runners (Part B)-Results from the NURMI Study (Step 2). INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2022; 19:13291. [PMID: 36293872 PMCID: PMC9602481 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph192013291] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2022] [Revised: 09/27/2022] [Accepted: 10/11/2022] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
Sex differences in anatomy and physiology are the primary underlying factor for distinctions in running performance. Overall participation in recreational running events has been dominated by males, although increasing female participation has been reported in recent years. The NURMI study participants filled in a survey following the cross-sectional study design with questions on sociodemographic data, running and racing motivations, training behaviors, and racing history and experience. Data analysis included 141 female and 104 male participants aged 39 (IQR 17) with a healthy median BMI (21.7 kg/m²; IQR 3.5). Statistical analyses revealed sex differences with the males performing faster at half-marathon (p < 0.001) and marathon (p < 0.001) events but no difference at ultra-marathons (p = 0.760). Mediation analyses revealed no significant sex differences in the performance of half-marathon and marathon when considering training behaviors (p > 0.05), racing history (p > 0.05), or racing experience (p > 0.05). Differences in recreational performance may be more closely related to social constraints and expectations of females rather than the physiological advantages of the male athlete. Health professionals who guide and support recreational runners as well as the runners themselves and their coaches may benefit from this study's results in order to improve the best time performance through a deeper understanding of the areas that mediate sex differences.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohamad Motevalli
- Department of Sport Science, Leopold-Franzens University of Innsbruck, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria
- Department of Research and Development in Teacher Education, University College of Teacher Education, Tyrol, 6010 Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Derrick Tanous
- Department of Sport Science, Leopold-Franzens University of Innsbruck, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria
- Department of Research and Development in Teacher Education, University College of Teacher Education, Tyrol, 6010 Innsbruck, Austria
| | | | - Claus Leitzmann
- Institute of Nutrition, University of Gießen, 35390 Gießen, Germany
| | - Thomas Rosemann
- Institute of Primary Care, University of Zurich, 8000 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Beat Knechtle
- Institute of Primary Care, University of Zurich, 8000 Zurich, Switzerland
- Medbase St. Gallen Am Vadianplatz, 9000 St. Gallen, Switzerland
| | - Katharina Wirnitzer
- Department of Sport Science, Leopold-Franzens University of Innsbruck, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria
- Department of Research and Development in Teacher Education, University College of Teacher Education, Tyrol, 6010 Innsbruck, Austria
- Research Center Medical Humanities, Leopold-Franzens University of Innsbruck, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria
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22
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Tiller NB, Wheatley-Guy CM, Fermoyle CC, Robach P, Ziegler B, Gavet A, Schwartz JC, Taylor BJ, Constantini K, Murdock R, Johnson BD, Stewart GM. Sex-Specific Physiological Responses to Ultramarathon. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2022; 54:1647-1656. [PMID: 35653262 DOI: 10.1249/mss.0000000000002962] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE Despite a growing body of literature on the physiological responses to ultramarathon, there is a paucity of data in females. This study assessed the female physiological response to ultramarathon and compared the frequency of perturbations to a group of race- and time-matched males. METHODS Data were collected from 53 contestants of an ultramarathon trail race at the Ultra-Trail du Mont-Blanc (UTMB®) in 2018/19. Before and within 2 h of the finish, participants underwent physiological assessments, including blood sampling for biomarkers (creatine kinase-MB isoenzyme [CK-MB], cardiac troponin I [cTnI], brain natriuretic peptide [BNP], and creatinine [Cr]), pulmonary function testing (spirometry, exhaled NO, diffusing capacities, and mouth pressures), and transthoracic ultrasound (lung comet tails, cardiac function). Data from eight female finishers (age = 36.6 ± 6.9 yr; finish time = 30:57 ± 11:36 h:min) were compared with a group of eight time-matched males (age = 40.3 ± 8.3 yr; finish time = 30:46 ± 10:32 h:min). RESULTS Females exhibited significant pre- to postrace increases in BNP (25.8 ± 14.6 vs 140.9 ± 102.7 pg·mL -1 ; P = 0.007) and CK-MB (3.3 ± 2.4 vs 74.6 ± 49.6 IU·L -1 ; P = 0.005), whereas males exhibited significant pre- to postrace increases in BNP (26.6 ± 17.5 vs 96.4 ± 51.9 pg·mL -1 ; P = 0.002), CK-MB (7.2 ± 3.9 vs 108.8 ± 37.4 IU·L -1 ; P = 0.002), and Cr (1.06 ± 0.19 vs 1.23 ± 0.24 mg·dL -1 ; P = 0.028). Lung function declined in both groups, but males exhibited additional reductions in lung diffusing capacities (DL CO = 34.4 ± 5.7 vs 29.2 ± 6.9 mL⋅min -1 ⋅mm Hg -1 , P = 0.004; DL NO = 179.1 ± 26.2 vs 152.8 ± 33.4 mL⋅min -1 ⋅mm Hg -1 , P = 0.002) and pulmonary capillary blood volumes (77.4 ± 16.7 vs 57.3 ± 16.1 mL; P = 0.002). Males, but not females, exhibited evidence of mild postrace pulmonary edema. Pooled effect sizes for within-group pre- to postrace changes, for all variables, were generally larger in males versus females ( d = 0.86 vs 0.63). CONCLUSIONS Ultramarathon negatively affects a range of physiological functions but generally evokes more frequent perturbations, with larger effect sizes, in males compared to females with similar race performances.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas B Tiller
- Institute of Respiratory Medicine and Exercise Physiology, Lundquist Institute for Biomedical Innovation at Harbor-UCLA Medical Center, Torrance, CA
| | | | | | - Paul Robach
- Ecole Nationale des Sports de Montagne, Chamonix, FRANCE
| | - Briana Ziegler
- Department of Cardiovascular Diseases, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN
| | - Alice Gavet
- Ecole Nationale des Sports de Montagne, Chamonix, FRANCE
| | - Jesse C Schwartz
- Department of Cardiovascular Diseases, Mayo Clinic, Scottsdale, AZ
| | - Bryan J Taylor
- Department of Cardiovascular Diseases, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL
| | - Keren Constantini
- School of Public Health, Sackler Faculty of Medicine, and Sylvan Adams Sports Institute, Tel-Aviv University, ISRAEL
| | | | - Bruce D Johnson
- Department of Cardiovascular Diseases, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN
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Tan GCW, Zheng K, Cheong WK, Byrne C, Iversen JN, Lee JKW. Small changes in thermal conditions hinder marathon running performance in the tropics. Temperature (Austin) 2022; 9:373-388. [PMID: 36339089 PMCID: PMC9629073 DOI: 10.1080/23328940.2022.2086777] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2022] [Revised: 05/31/2022] [Accepted: 06/02/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
We examined marathon performance of the same group of runners in relation to small changes in dry bulb temperature (Tdb) and wet bulb temperature (Twb) across 3 consecutive y, and investigated whether performance was poorer during an evening marathon compared with morning marathons. Marathon results were obtained from the 2017, 2018, and 2019 Standard Chartered Singapore Marathons. Tdb, Twb, Td, relative humidity, and absolute humidity were gathered for each marathon. K-means clustering and linear regressions were performed on 610 runners who participated in all three marathons. Analysis of the 610 runners' marathon performance was contrasted with Tdb and Twb. Linear regressions were also performed on 190 runners filtered by percentile, yielding similar results. For clusters with similar Tdb from all runners K-means clustering, an increase in mean Twb by 1.5°C coincided with an increase in finishing time by 559 s (9.3 min) (p < 0.033). Twb hinders marathon performance more than Tdb, with each percentage rise in Tdb and Twb resulting in an increase in net time by 7.6% and 39.1%, respectively (p < 0.025). Male and female runners' response to Tdb and Twb changes were similar (overlap in 95% confidence intervals for the respective regression coefficients). In conclusion, small variations in environmental parameters affected marathon performance, with Twb impairing marathon performance more than Tdb. Marathon performance was likely better in the morning than evening, possibly due to time of day differences, along with unfavorable Tdb that superseded training effects and the effects of lower Twb.
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Affiliation(s)
- Glenn C. W. Tan
- Human Potential Translational Research Programme, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Kaiyuan Zheng
- Meteorological Service Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Wee K. Cheong
- Meteorological Service Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Christopher Byrne
- Sport and Health Sciences, College of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Exeter, Exeter, UK
| | - Jan N. Iversen
- Department of Surgery, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
- Department of Physiology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Jason K. W. Lee
- Human Potential Translational Research Programme, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
- Department of Surgery, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
- Global Asia Institute, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
- N.1 Institute for Health, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
- Institute for Digital Medicine, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
- Singapore Institute for Clinical Sciences, Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR), Singapore, Singapore
- Campus for Research Excellence and Technological Enterprise (CREATE), Singapore, Singapore
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24
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Weiss K, Valero D, Villiger E, Scheer V, Thuany M, Cuk I, Rosemann T, Knechtle B. The Influence of Environmental Conditions on Pacing in Age Group Marathoners Competing in the “New York City Marathon”. Front Physiol 2022; 13:842935. [PMID: 35774288 PMCID: PMC9237513 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2022.842935] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/24/2021] [Accepted: 05/24/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: The two aspects of the influence of environmental conditions on marathon running performance and pacing during a marathon have been separately and widely investigated. The influence of environmental conditions on the pacing of age group marathoners has, however, not been considered yet.Objective: The aim of the present study was to investigate the association between environmental conditions (i.e., temperature, barometric pressure, humidity, precipitation, sunshine, and cloud cover), gender and pacing of age group marathoners in the “New York City Marathon”.Methodology: Between 1999 and 2019, a total of 830,255 finishes (526,500 males and 303,755 females) were recorded. Time-adjusted averages of weather conditions for temperature, barometric pressure, humidity, and sunshine duration during the race were correlated with running speed in 5 km-intervals for age group runners in 10 years-intervals.Results: The running speed decreased with increasing temperatures in athletes of age groups 20–59 with a pronounced negative effect for men aged 30–64 years and women aged 40–64 years. Higher levels of humidity were associated with faster running speeds for both sexes. Sunshine duration and barometric pressure showed no association with running speed.Conclusion: In summary, temperature and humidity affect pacing in age group marathoners differently. Specifically, increasing temperature slowed down runners of both sexes aged between 20 and 59 years, whereas increasing humidity slowed down runners of <20 and >80 years old.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katja Weiss
- Medbase St. Gallen Am Vadianplatz, St. Gallen, Switzerland
| | - David Valero
- Ultra Sports Science Foundation, Pierre-Benite, France
| | - Elias Villiger
- Klinik für Allgemeine Innere Medizin, Kantonsspital St. Gallen, St. Gallen, Switzerland
| | - Volker Scheer
- Ultra Sports Science Foundation, Pierre-Benite, France
| | - Mabliny Thuany
- Centre of Research, Education Innovation and Intervention in Sport (CIFI2D), Faculty of Sport, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Ivan Cuk
- Faculty of Physical Education and Sports Management, Singidunum University, Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Thomas Rosemann
- Institute of Primary Care, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Beat Knechtle
- Medbase St. Gallen Am Vadianplatz, St. Gallen, Switzerland
- Institute of Primary Care, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
- *Correspondence: Beat Knechtle,
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Tarkhan AH, Anwardeen NR, Sellami M, Donati F, Botrè F, de la Torre X, Elrayess MA. Comparing metabolic profiles between female endurance athletes and non-athletes reveals differences in androgen and corticosteroid levels. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 2022; 219:106081. [PMID: 35182726 DOI: 10.1016/j.jsbmb.2022.106081] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2022] [Accepted: 02/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Endurance training is associated with physiological changes in elite athletes, but little is known about female-specific effects of endurance training. Despite the significant rise in female sports participation, findings from studies performed on male athletes are largely extrapolated to females without taking into consideration sex-specific differences in metabolism. Subsequently, this study aimed to investigate the steroid hormone profiles of elite female endurance athletes in comparison with their non-athletic counterparts. Untargeted metabolomics-based mass spectroscopy combined with ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography was performed on serum samples from 51 elite female endurance athletes and 197 non-athletic females. The results showed that, compared to non-athletic females, certain androgen, pregnenolone, and progestin steroid hormones were reduced in elite female endurance athletes, while corticosteroids were elevated. The most significantly altered steroid hormones were 5alpha-androstan-3alpha,17alpha-diol monosulfate (FDR = 1.90 × 10-05), androstenediol (3alpha, 17alpha) monosulfate (FDR = 2.93 × 10-04), and cortisol (FDR = 2.93 × 10-04). Conclusively, the present study suggests that elite female endurance athletes have a unique steroid hormone profile with implications on their general health and performance.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Maha Sellami
- Physical Education Department (PE), College of Education, Qatar University, Doha, Qatar.
| | - Francesco Donati
- Laboratorio Antidoping, Federazione Medico Sportiva Italiana, Rome, Italy.
| | - Francesco Botrè
- Laboratorio Antidoping, Federazione Medico Sportiva Italiana, Rome, Italy.
| | - Xavier de la Torre
- Laboratorio Antidoping, Federazione Medico Sportiva Italiana, Rome, Italy.
| | - Mohamed A Elrayess
- Biomedical Research Center, Qatar University, Doha, Qatar; Vice President for Medical and Health Sciences Office, QU Health, Qatar University, Doha, Qatar.
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Jaenes JC, Alarcón D, Trujillo M, Méndez-Sánchez MDP, León-Guereño P, Wilczyńska D. A Moderated Mediation Model of Wellbeing and Competitive Anxiety in Male Marathon Runners. Front Psychol 2022; 13:800024. [PMID: 35432105 PMCID: PMC9011145 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.800024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2021] [Accepted: 02/11/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Running marathons is an increasingly popular activity with an ever-increasing number of events and participants. Many participants declare that they pursue a variety of goals by running, namely, the maintenance of good health, the development of strength and improvement of fitness, the management of emotions, and the achievement of resilience and psychological wellbeing (PWB). The research has examined marathon running, like many other sports, and has studied various factors that reduce athletic performance, such as the experience of anxiety, and that enhance such performance, such as an increase in general wellbeing. This article reports the results of a study on the experience of competitive anxiety among 238 male marathon runners who participated in Seville's (Spain) 26th Marathon race on February 23, 2020, and investigates the relationship between anxiety and key dimensions of wellbeing as measured by the Spanish-adapted 20-item PWB Scale. We hypothesized that participating athletes who rated high on the dimensions of PWB would experience lower levels of competitive anxiety with respect to this race. We also proposed that PWB would function as a mediating factor with respect to the experience of anxiety. The results show, as hypothesized, that marathon running enhances wellbeing and reduces anxiety. The data showed significant negative correlations between four of five wellbeing dimensions and the three types of anxiety measured, namely, somatic anxiety, worry, and concentration-impairing anxiety. Other findings supported our hypothesis that wellbeing, as measured, functions as a mediating factor for the moderation of competitive anxiety. Generalization of these findings is limited by the fact that the low number of female participants recruited did not permit valid statistical analyses in this respect. It is known that both anxiety and wellbeing are subjects to variation by gender. The future inclusion of male and female subjects in equivalent studies will undoubtedly add valuable information concerning the dynamics of anxiety and wellbeing. The implications of these findings and the limitations of the study will be discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jose C. Jaenes
- Department of Social Anthropology, Basic Psychology and Public Health, Pablo de Olavide University, Seville, Spain
| | - David Alarcón
- Department of Social Anthropology, Basic Psychology and Public Health, Pablo de Olavide University, Seville, Spain
| | - Manuel Trujillo
- Grossman School of Medicine, New York University, New York, NY, United States
| | | | - Patxi León-Guereño
- Health, Physical Activity and Sports Science Laboratory (HealthPASS), Department of Physical Activity and Sports, Faculty of Education and Sports, University of Deusto, Bilbao, Spain
| | - Dominika Wilczyńska
- Department of Social Science, Gdańsk University of Physical Education and Sport, Gdańsk, Poland
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27
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Ponzi D. An introduction to the Special Issue on “Sports Science: Evolutionary Perspectives and Biological Mechanisms”. ADAPTIVE HUMAN BEHAVIOR AND PHYSIOLOGY 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s40750-022-00187-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
AbstractThe goal of the special issue on “Sports science: evolutionary perspectives and biological mechanisms” was to build a bridge to help the development of a coherent and unifying approach to the study of sport science within an evolutionary framework. By focusing specifically on the biological and psychological dynamics of sport performance and competition, we asked if sports can be used to study the evolution of human behavior, biology and psychology. Likewise, we asked whether this evolutionary approach could improve our understandings of the physical and psychological limits of human athletic performance and health.
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Abstract
In recent years, there has been a significant expansion in female participation in endurance (road and trail) running. The often reported sex differences in maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max) are not the only differences between sexes during prolonged running. The aim of this narrative review was thus to discuss sex differences in running biomechanics, economy (both in fatigue and non-fatigue conditions), substrate utilization, muscle tissue characteristics (including ultrastructural muscle damage), neuromuscular fatigue, thermoregulation and pacing strategies. Although males and females do not differ in terms of running economy or endurance (i.e. percentage VO2max sustained), sex-specificities exist in running biomechanics (e.g. females have greater non-sagittal hip and knee joint motion compared to males) that can be partly explained by anatomical (e.g. wider pelvis, larger femur-tibia angle, shorter lower limb length relative to total height in females) differences. Compared to males, females also show greater proportional area of type I fibres, are more able to use fatty acids and preserve carbohydrates during prolonged exercise, demonstrate a more even pacing strategy and less fatigue following endurance running exercise. These differences confer an advantage to females in ultra-endurance performance, but other factors (e.g. lower O2 carrying capacity, greater body fat percentage) counterbalance these potential advantages, making females outperforming males a rare exception. The present literature review also highlights the lack of sex comparison in studies investigating running biomechanics in fatigue conditions and during the recovery process.
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Hallam LC, Amorim FT. Expanding the Gap: An Updated Look Into Sex Differences in Running Performance. Front Physiol 2022; 12:804149. [PMID: 35058806 PMCID: PMC8764368 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2021.804149] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2021] [Accepted: 11/29/2021] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Males consistently outperform females in athletic endeavors, including running events of standard Olympic distances (100 m to Marathon). The magnitude of this percentage sex difference, i.e., the sex gap, has evolved over time. Two clear trends in sex gap evolution are evident; a narrowing of the gap during the 20th century, followed by a period of stability thereafter. However, an updated perspective on the average sex gap from top 20 athlete performances over the past two decades reveals nuanced trends over time, indicating the sex gap is not fixed. Additionally, the sex gap varies with performance level; the difference in absolute running performance between males and females is lowest for world record/world lead performances and increases in lower-ranked elite athletes. This observation of an increased sex gap with world rank is evident in events 400 m and longer and indicates a lower depth in female competitive standards. Explanations for the sex difference in absolute performance and competition depth include physical (physiological, anatomical, neuromuscular, biomechanical), sociocultural, psychological, and sport-specific factors. It is apparent that females are the disadvantaged sex in sport; therefore, measures should be taken to reduce this discrepancy and enable both sexes to reach their biological performance potential. There is scope to narrow the sex performance gap by addressing inequalities between the sexes in opportunities, provisions, incentives, attitudes/perceptions, research, and media representation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lydia C Hallam
- Exercise Physiology Laboratory, Department of Health, Exercise, and Sport Science, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM, United States
| | - Fabiano T Amorim
- Exercise Physiology Laboratory, Department of Health, Exercise, and Sport Science, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM, United States
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Benefits on Hematological and Biochemical Parameters of a High-Intensity Interval Training Program for a Half-Marathon in Recreational Middle-Aged Women Runners. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2022; 19:ijerph19010498. [PMID: 35010758 PMCID: PMC8744745 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph19010498] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2021] [Revised: 12/15/2021] [Accepted: 12/30/2021] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
(1) Background: half-marathon races are popular among recreational runners, with increases in participation among middle-aged and women. We aimed to determine the effects of two half-marathon training programs on hematological and biochemical markers in middle-aged female recreational runners; (2) Methods: ten women (40 ± 7 years) followed moderate intensity continuous training (MICT), based on running volume below 80% V˙O2max, and another ten women followed high intensity interval training (HIIT) at 80%–100% V˙O2max, with less volume, and combined with eccentric loading exercise. Hematology, plasma osmolality, and plasma markers of metabolic status, muscle damage, inflammatory, and oxidative stress were measured before (S1) and after (S2) training and 24 h after the half-marathon (S3); (3) Results: both training programs had similar moderate effects at S2. However, the acute response at S3 induced different alterations. There was a greater decrease in cholesterol and triglyceride levels in MICT and reductions in markers of damage and inflammation in HIIT. Greater variability in some plasma markers at S3 in MICT suggests that there is inter-individual variability in the response to training; (4) Conclusions: HIIT led to better adaptation to the competition maybe because of the repeated exposure to higher oxygen consumption and eccentric loading exercise.
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Abstract
The study was aimed at comparing pacing adopted by males and females in a 107-km mountain ultramarathon and assessing whether pacing-related variables were associated with intracompetition body weight changes and performance. Forty-seven athletes (29 males; 18 females) were submitted to a cardiopulmonary exercise test before the race. Athletes were also weighted before the start of the race, at three midpoints (33 km, 66 km and 84 km) and after the race. Pacing was analyzed using absolute and relative speeds and accelerometry-derived sedentary time spent during the race. Results showed that females spent less sedentary time (4.72 ± 2.91 vs. 2.62 ± 2.14%; p = 0.035; d = 0.83) and displayed a smaller body weight loss (3.01 ± 1.96 vs. 4.37 ± 1.77%; p = 0.048; d = 0.77) than males. No significant sex differences were revealed for speed variability, absolute and relative speed. In addition, finishing time was correlated with: speed variability (r = 0.45; p = 0.010), index of pacing (r = -0.63; p < 0.001) and sedentary time (r = 0.64; p < 0.001). Meanwhile, intracompetition body weight changes were related with both the absolute and relative speed in the first and the last race section. These results suggest that females, as compared with males, take advantage of shorter time breaks at aid stations. Moreover, performing a more even pacing pattern may be positively associated with performance in mountain ultramarathons. Finally, intracompetition body weight changes in those races should be considered in conjunction with running speed fluctuations.
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Casado A, González-Mohíno F, González-Ravé JM, Boullosa D. Pacing Profiles of Middle-Distance Running World Records in Men and Women. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2021; 18:ijerph182312589. [PMID: 34886317 PMCID: PMC8656710 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph182312589] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2021] [Revised: 11/22/2021] [Accepted: 11/27/2021] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
The aims of the current study were to compare the pacing patterns of all-time 800 m, 1500 m and mile running world records (WRs) and to determine whether differences exist between sexes, and if 800 m and 1500 m WRs were broken during championship or meet races. Overall and lap times for men and women’s 800 m, 1500 m, and mile WRs from World Athletics were collected when available and subsequently compared. A fast initial 200 m segment and a decrease in speed throughout was found during 800 m WRs. Accordingly, the first 200 m and 400 m were faster than the last 200 m and 400 m, respectively (p < 0.001, 0.77 ≤ ES ≤ 1.86). The first 400 m and 409 m for 1500 m and mile WRs, respectively, were faster than the second lap (p < 0.001, 0.74 ≤ ES ≤ 1.46). The third 400 m lap was slower than the last 300 m lap and 400 m lap for 1500 m and mile WRs, respectively (p < 0.001, 0.48 ≤ ES ≤ 1.09). No relevant sex-based differences in pacing strategy were found in any event. However, the first 409 m lap was faster than the last 400 m lap for men but not for women during mile WRs. Women achieved a greater % of WRs than men during championships (80% vs. 45.83% in the 800 m, and 63.63% vs. 31.58% in the 1500 m, respectively). In conclusion, positive, reverse J-shaped and U-shaped pacing profiles were used to break 800 m, men’s mile and 1500 m, and women’s mile WRs, respectively. WRs are more prone to be broken during championships by women than men.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arturo Casado
- Center for Sport Studies, Rey Juan Carlos University, 28933 Madrid, Spain;
| | - Fernando González-Mohíno
- Sport Training Laboratory, Faculty of Sport Sciences, University of Castilla la Mancha, 45004 Toledo, Spain;
- Facultad de Ciencias de la Vida y de la Naturaleza, Universidad Nebrija, 28240 Madrid, Spain
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +34-690216354
| | - José María González-Ravé
- Sport Training Laboratory, Faculty of Sport Sciences, University of Castilla la Mancha, 45004 Toledo, Spain;
| | - Daniel Boullosa
- Integrated Institute of Health, Federal University of Mato Grosso do Sul, Campo Grande 79070-900, Brazil;
- College of Healthcare Sciences, James Cook University, Townsville 4811, Australia
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Albertin G, Astolfi L, Falda M, Zuccon D, Ravara B, Kern H, Ferrante G, De Caro R, Guidolin D. "Venice marathon": participation of female Master Athletes shows a constant increase from 2003 to 2019. Eur J Transl Myol 2021; 31. [PMID: 34761670 PMCID: PMC8758960 DOI: 10.4081/ejtm.2021.10266] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2021] [Accepted: 11/04/2021] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
The marathon is the most classic Olympic running event. In several cities worldwide it has become very popular with participation increasing during the last 20 years, particularly by Master Athletes. There are evidences that long-distance running could provide considerable health benefits for older runners, specifically risk reduction of cardiovascular diseases, cancer, diabetes, depression, and falls. Several studies have focused on the distribution of participants and their performance on famous marathons such as those of Berlin, Boston and New York. In this preliminary study we have analyzed data from several editions of the Venice marathon, a famous Italian race that attracts people from every corner of the world. The Venice marathon is listed in Abbott World Marathon Majors Wanda Age Group World Ranking and is Bronze Label certificated by IAAF, and Gold Label by FIDAL. The marathon starts outside Venice near Stra, then runs along the Brenta Riviera to Venice where the runners cross the canals over floating bridges set up for the race. For this study we analyzed data of the Venice marathon describing gender distribution in 17 editions (2003-2019), but groups of age-categories and their nationality only in 13 editions from 2007 to 2019. The analysis shows a steady increase in female participation, from 2003 to 2019.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giovanna Albertin
- Department of Neuroscience (DNS), Section of Human Anatomy, University of Padova, Italy; CIR-Myo - Interdepartmental Research Center of Myology, University of Padova.
| | - Laura Astolfi
- Department of Neuroscience (DNS), Section of Human Anatomy, University of Padova.
| | - Marco Falda
- Department of Neuroscience (DNS), Section of Human Anatomy, University of Padova.
| | - Davide Zuccon
- Department of Biomedical Sciences (DBS), Bachelor's degree in physical education, University of Padova.
| | - Barbara Ravara
- Department of Neuroscience (DNS), Section of Human Anatomy, University of Padova, Italy; CIR-Myo - Interdepartmental Research Center of Myology, University of Padova.
| | - Helmut Kern
- Physiko- und Rheumatherapie, St. Pölten, Austria; Ludwig Boltzmann Institute of Rehabilitation Research, St Pölten, Austria; Institute of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Prim. Dr. H Kern GmbH, Amstetten.
| | | | - Raffaele De Caro
- Department of Neuroscience (DNS), Section of Human Anatomy, University of Padova, Italy; CIR-Myo - Interdepartmental Research Center of Myology, University of Padova.
| | - Diego Guidolin
- Department of Neuroscience (DNS), Section of Human Anatomy, University of Padova.
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Hirsch A, Bieleke M, Bertschinger R, Schüler J, Wolff W. Struggles and strategies in anaerobic and aerobic cycling tests: A mixed-method approach with a focus on tailored self-regulation strategies. PLoS One 2021; 16:e0259088. [PMID: 34705866 PMCID: PMC8550367 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0259088] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2021] [Accepted: 10/13/2021] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Endurance sports pose a plethora of mental demands that exercisers have to deal with. Unfortunately, investigations of exercise-specific demands and strategies to deal with them are insufficiently researched, leading to a gap in knowledge about athletic requirements and strategies used to deal with them. Here, we investigated which obstacles exercisers experience during an anaerobic (Wingate test) and an aerobic cycling test (incremental exercise test), as well as the strategies they considered helpful for dealing with these obstacles (qualitative analysis). In addition, we examined whether thinking of these obstacles and strategies in terms of if-then plans (or implementation intentions; i.e., "If I encounter obstacle O, then I will apply strategy S!") improves performance over merely setting performance goals (i.e., goal intentions; quantitative analysis). N = 59 participants (age: M = 23.9 ± 6.5 years) performed both tests twice in a 2-within (Experimental session: 1 vs. 2) × 2-between (Condition: goal vs. implementation intention) design. Exercisers' obstacles and strategies were assessed using structured interviews in Session 1 and subjected to thematic analysis. In both tests, feelings of exertion were the most frequently stated obstacle. Motivation to do well, self-encouragement, and focus on the body and on cycling were frequently stated strategies in both tests. There were also test-specific obstacles, such as boredom reported in the aerobic test. For session 2, the obstacles and strategies elicited in Session 1 were used to specify if-then plans. Bayesian mixed-factor ANOVA suggests, however, that if-then plans did not help exercisers to improve their performance. These findings shed novel light into the mental processes accompanying endurance exercise and the limits they pose on performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Hirsch
- Department of Sport Science, Sport Psychology, University of Konstanz, Konstanz, Germany
| | - Maik Bieleke
- Department of Sport Science, Sport Psychology, University of Konstanz, Konstanz, Germany
| | - Raphael Bertschinger
- Department of Sport Science, Sport Psychology, University of Konstanz, Konstanz, Germany
| | - Julia Schüler
- Department of Sport Science, Sport Psychology, University of Konstanz, Konstanz, Germany
| | - Wanja Wolff
- Department of Sport Science, Sport Psychology, University of Konstanz, Konstanz, Germany
- Educational Psychology, Institute of Educational Science, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
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Smyth B, Lawlor A. Longer Disciplined Tapers Improve Marathon Performance for Recreational Runners. Front Sports Act Living 2021; 3:735220. [PMID: 34651125 PMCID: PMC8506252 DOI: 10.3389/fspor.2021.735220] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2021] [Accepted: 09/01/2021] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
For marathoners the taper refers to a period of reduced training load in the weeks before race-day. It helps runners to recover from the stresses of weeks of high-volume, high-intensity training to enhance race-day performance. The aim of this study was to analyse the taper strategies of recreational runners to determine whether particular forms of taper were more or less favorable to race-day performance. Methods: We analyzed the training activities of more than 158,000 recreational marathon runners to define tapers based on a decrease in training volume (weekly distance). We identified different types of taper based on a combination of duration (1–4 weeks of decreasing training) and discipline (strict tapers progressively decrease training in the weeks before the marathon, relaxed tapers do not) and we grouped runners based on their taper type to determine the popularity of different types of taper and their associated performance characteristics. Results: Kruskal-Wallis tests (H(7)≥ 521.11, p < 0.001), followed by posthoc Dunns tests with a Bonferroni correction, confirmed that strict tapers were associated with better marathon performance than relaxed tapers (p < 0.001) and that longer tapers of up to 3 weeks were associated with better performance than shorter tapers (p < 0.001). Results indicated that strict 3-week tapers were associated with superior marathon finish-time benefits (a median finish-time saving of 5 min 32.4 s or 2.6%) compared with a minimal taper (p < 0.001). We further found that female runners were associated with greater finish-time benefits than men, for a given taper type ( ≤ 3-weeks in duration), based on Mann Whitney U tests of significance with p < 0.001. Conclusion: The findings of this study for recreational runners are consistent with related studies on highly-trained athletes, where disciplined tapers were associated with comparable performance benefits. The findings also highlight how most recreational runners (64%) adopt less disciplined (2-week and 3-week) tapers and suggest that shifting to a more disciplined taper strategy could improve performance relative to the benefits of a less disciplined taper.
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Affiliation(s)
- Barry Smyth
- Insight SFI Research Centre for Data Analytics, University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Aonghus Lawlor
- Insight SFI Research Centre for Data Analytics, University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
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Smyth B. How recreational marathon runners hit the wall: A large-scale data analysis of late-race pacing collapse in the marathon. PLoS One 2021; 16:e0251513. [PMID: 34010308 PMCID: PMC8133477 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0251513] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2020] [Accepted: 04/28/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION In the marathon, how runners pace and fuel their race can have a major impact on race outcome. The phenomenon known as hitting the wall (HTW) refers to the iconic hazard of the marathon distance, in which runners experience a significant slowing of pace late in the race, typically after the 20-mile mark, and usually because of a depletion of the body's energy stores. AIM This work investigates the occurrence of significant late-race slowing among recreational marathoners, as a proxy for runners hitting the wall, to better understand the likelihood and nature of such slowdowns, and their effect on race performance. METHODS Using pacing data from more than 4 million race records, we develop a pacing-based definition of hitting the wall, by identifying runners who experience a sustained period of slowing during the latter stages of the marathon. We calculate the cost of these slowdowns relative to estimates of the recent personal-best times of runners and compare slowdowns according to runner sex, age, and ability. RESULTS We find male runners more likely to slow significantly (hit the wall) than female runners; 28% of male runners hit the wall compared with 17% of female runners, χ2(1, N = 1, 928, 813) = 27, 693.35, p < 0.01, OR = 1.43. Such slowdowns are more frequent in the 3 years immediately before and after a recent personal-best (PB) time; for example, 36% of all runners hit the wall in the 3 years before a recent PB compared with just 23% in earlier years, χ2(1, N = 509, 444) = 8, 120.74, p < 0.01, OR = 1.31. When runners hit the wall, males slow more than females: a relative slowdown of 0.40 vs. 0.37 is noted, for male and female runners, when comparing their pace when they hit the wall to their earlier race (5km-20km) pace, with t(475, 199) = 60.19, p < 0.01, d = 0.15. And male runners slow over longer distances than female runners: 10.7km vs. 9.6km, respectively, t(475, 199) = 68.44, p < 0.01, d = 0.17. Although, notably the effect size of these differences is small. We also find the finish-time costs of hitting the wall (lost minutes) to increase with ability; r2(7) = 0.91, p < 0.01 r2(7) = 0.81, p < 0.01 for male and female runners, respectively. CONCLUSIONS While the findings from this study are consistent with qualitative results from earlier single-race or smaller-scale studies, the new insights into the risk and nature of slowdowns, based on the runner sex, age, and ability, have the potential to help runners and coaches to better understand and calibrate the risk/reward trade-offs that exist as they plan for future races.
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Affiliation(s)
- Barry Smyth
- Insight SFI Research Centre for Data Analytics, School of Computer Science, University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
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Cuk I, Nikolaidis PT, Villiger E, Knechtle B. Pacing in Long-Distance Running: Sex and Age Differences in 10-km Race and Marathon. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2021; 57:medicina57040389. [PMID: 33920504 PMCID: PMC8073231 DOI: 10.3390/medicina57040389] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2021] [Revised: 04/03/2021] [Accepted: 04/15/2021] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
Background and objective: The recent availability of data from mass-participation running events has allowed researchers to examine pacing from the perspective of non-elite distance runners. Based on an extensive analysis of the literature, we concluded that no study utilizing mass-participation events data has ever directly compared pacing in the 10-km race, with other long-distance races. Therefore, the main aim of this study was to assess and compare pacing between 10-km runners and marathoners, in regards to their sex and age. Materials and methods: For the purpose of this study, official results from the Oslo marathon (n = 8828) and 10-km race (n = 16,315) held from 2015 to 2018 were included. Results: Both 10-km runners and marathoners showed positive pacing strategies. Moreover, two-way analysis of variance showed that women were less likely to slow in the marathon than men (9.85% in comparison to 12.70%) however, not in the 10-km race (3.99% in comparison to 3.38%). Finally, pace changing is more prominent in youngest and oldest marathoners comparing to the other age groups (12.55% in comparison to 10.96%). Conclusions: Based on these findings, practitioners should adopt different training programmes for marathoners in comparison to shorter long-distance runners.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ivan Cuk
- Faculty of Physical Education and Sports Management, Singidunum University, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia;
| | - Pantelis T. Nikolaidis
- Exercise Physiology Laboratory, 18450 Nikaia, Greece;
- School of Health and Caring Sciences, University of West Attica, 10679 Athens, Greece
| | - Elias Villiger
- Institute of Primary Care, University of Zurich, 8006 Zurich, Switzerland;
| | - Beat Knechtle
- Institute of Primary Care, University of Zurich, 8006 Zurich, Switzerland;
- Medbase St. Gallen Am Vadianplatz, 9000 St. Gallen, Switzerland
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +41-(0)-71-226-93-00
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Amirkhanyan H, Krawczyk MW, Wilamowski M. Gender inequality and national gender gaps in overconfidence. PLoS One 2021; 16:e0249459. [PMID: 33857186 PMCID: PMC8049476 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0249459] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2020] [Accepted: 02/12/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Using a large dataset of marathon runners, we estimate country- and gender-specific proxies for overconfidence. Subsequently, we correlate them with a number of indices, including various measures of gender equality. We find that in less gender-equal countries both males and females tend to be more self-confident than in more equal countries. While a substantial gender gap in overconfidence is observed, it only correlates with some sub-indices of gender equality. We conclude that there is likely a weak relationship between OC gender gap and gender inequality.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hayk Amirkhanyan
- Faculty of Economic Sciences, University of Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland
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Macdermid PW, Kuroda Y, Grainger A. The interaction of competition and terrain on pacing during cross-county running races in junior athletes. Res Sports Med 2021; 30:491-501. [PMID: 33784894 DOI: 10.1080/15438627.2021.1906675] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
The aim of this study was to assess pacing during cross-country racing in relation to race length, surface-terrain and racing dynamics. Athletes (n = 148) competed for school teams (U15, U17, U20) over 2.9, 4.2, 6.3 km, respectively. The course lap (2.067 m) was timed using UHF-RFID and divided into six sections based on surface-terrain and length (549, 619, 207, 338, 150, 156m). Overall pace differed between races (4.56 ± 0.30, 4.42 ± 0.38, 4.40 ± 0.31 m∙s-1, p=0.042) but not for the top-20 of each race (p=0.174). Moreover, within lap pacing followed a repeated reverse-"J"-parabolic strategy for all races. Race length (no. of laps) and category affected pacing with regards to finish position banding (1st-10th, 11th-20th) where effect size differences showed large to extremely large (1.21 - >4.00) difference between top-10 and other bands. Exceptions to this included the finish sprint where it was typically trivial-moderate (<0.2-1.2) and in key areas where social facilitation occurred. Athlete/coaches need to be aware of between and within lap variations in pace/effort, the effects of race dynamics, and spectator influences, while all athletes need to be educated as part of their training to run their own optimal strategy for best performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul W Macdermid
- Massey University, College of Health, School of Sport, Exercise and Nutrition, Palmerston North, New Zealand
| | - Yusuke Kuroda
- Faculty of Health and Sport Sciences, University of Tsukuba, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Andrew Grainger
- Massey University, College of Health, School of Sport, Exercise and Nutrition, Palmerston North, New Zealand
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40
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Longman DP, Murray A, Roberts R, Oakley S, Wells JCK, Stock JT. Energetics as a driver of human morphological thermal adaptation; evidence from female ultra-endurance athletes. EVOLUTIONARY HUMAN SCIENCES 2021; 3:e22. [PMID: 37588555 PMCID: PMC10427328 DOI: 10.1017/ehs.2021.17] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Functional benefits of the morphologies described by Bergmann's and Allen's rules in human males have recently been reported. However, the functional implications of ecogeographical patterning in females remain poorly understood. Here, we report the findings of preliminary work analysing the association between body shape and performance in female ultramarathon runners (n = 36) competing in hot and cold environments. The body shapes differed between finishers of hot and cold races, and also between hot race finishers and non-finishers. Variability in race performance across different settings supports the notion that human phenotype is adapted to different thermal environments as ecogeographical patterns have reported previously. This report provides support for the recent hypothesis that the heightened thermal strain associated with prolonged physical activity in hot/cold environments may have driven the emergence of thermally adaptive phenotypes in our evolutionary past. These results also tentatively suggest that the relationship between morphology and performance may be stronger in female vs. male athletes. This potential sex difference is discussed with reference to the evolved unique energetic context of human female reproduction. Further work, with a larger sample size, is required to investigate the observed potential sex differences in the strength of the relationship between phenotype and performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel P. Longman
- School of Sport, Health and Exercise Sciences, Loughborough University, LoughboroughLE11 3TU, UK
| | - Alison Murray
- Department of Anthropology, University of Victoria, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Rebecca Roberts
- Department of Archaeology, University of Cambridge, CambridgeCB2 3QG, UK
| | - Saskia Oakley
- Department of Archaeology, University of Cambridge, CambridgeCB2 3QG, UK
| | - Jonathan C. K. Wells
- Childhood Nutrition Research Centre, Population, Policy and Practice Research and Teaching Programme, UCL Great Ormond Street Institute of Child Health, LondonWC1N 1EH, UK
| | - Jay T. Stock
- Department of Archaeology, University of Cambridge, CambridgeCB2 3QG, UK
- Department of Anthropology, Western University, Ontario, Canada
- Department of Archaeology, Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History, Kahlaische Strasse 10, D-07745Jena, Germany
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Macchi R, Vercruyssen F, Hays A, Aubert G, Exubis G, Chavet P, Goubert E, Souron R, Kunimasa Y, Nicol C. Sex Influence on the Functional Recovery Pattern After a Graded Running Race: Original Analysis to Identify the Recovery Profiles. Front Physiol 2021; 12:649396. [PMID: 33815153 PMCID: PMC8012843 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2021.649396] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2021] [Accepted: 02/23/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
This study investigated the sex influence on the acute and delayed fatigue effects of a 20 km graded running race. Eighteen recreational runners, 10 women and 8 men, completed the race. The testing protocol included five sessions: a week before the race (PRE), 35 ± 15 min after (POST), 2 h, 2 and 4 days (2D and 4D) later. Each session included uni- and bilateral maximal isometric voluntary contractions of the knee extensors (MVC), a squat jump (SJ), and a drop jump (DJ). Acute and delayed muscle soreness (DOMS) were evaluated for the quadriceps, hamstring and triceps surae muscle groups. The 2D and 4D sessions included also a horizontal force-velocity test (HF-V) performed under five resistive conditions. For each test, a set of key variables was computed to characterize the lower limb functional recovery. Mixed ANOVA analyses revealed significant (sex × time) interactions, with larger acute drops for men in MVCs and earlier recovery for women in the bilateral MVC (p < 0.001) and DJ (p < 0.05) tests. Only women reported DOMS for the hamstrings at 2D (p < 0.001) and showed small improvements in pure concentric SJ (p < 0.05) and HF-V (p < 0.01) tests at 4D. As expected, DOMS disappeared prior to the complete functional recovery. These results confirmed the combined influence of testing task and sex on the functional recovery pattern while supporting a lesser and faster recovery in women. The originality of this study lies in the complexity and sex-dependence of the functional recovery pattern revealed by a multiple factorial analysis which was used to identify the most discriminating tests and variables in the recovery pattern. The obtained clusters highlighted some recovery profiles associated with greater risks of injury when starting to run again. However, the lack of sex × time interaction for normalized values emphasizes the major influence of men’s initially higher functional values compared to women.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robin Macchi
- Institute of Movement Sciences (ISM), National Center of Scientific Research (CNRS) & Aix Marseille Univ, Marseille, France
| | - Fabrice Vercruyssen
- Impact of Physical Activity on Health (IAPS), University of Toulon, Toulon, France
| | - Arnaud Hays
- Institute of Movement Sciences (ISM), National Center of Scientific Research (CNRS) & Aix Marseille Univ, Marseille, France
| | - Gaetan Aubert
- Institut Carnot STAR, Aix Marseille Univ, Marseille, France
| | - Gaetan Exubis
- Institut Carnot STAR, Aix Marseille Univ, Marseille, France
| | - Pascale Chavet
- Institute of Movement Sciences (ISM), National Center of Scientific Research (CNRS) & Aix Marseille Univ, Marseille, France
| | - Emmanuelle Goubert
- Institute of Movement Sciences (ISM), National Center of Scientific Research (CNRS) & Aix Marseille Univ, Marseille, France
| | - Robin Souron
- Impact of Physical Activity on Health (IAPS), University of Toulon, Toulon, France
| | - Yoko Kunimasa
- Osaka University of Health and Sport Sciences, Osaka, Japan
| | - Caroline Nicol
- Institute of Movement Sciences (ISM), National Center of Scientific Research (CNRS) & Aix Marseille Univ, Marseille, France
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O'Connor PJ. Pain During a Marathon Run: Prevalence and Correlates in a Cross-Sectional Study of 1,251 Recreational Runners in 251 Marathons. Front Sports Act Living 2021; 3:630584. [PMID: 33644755 PMCID: PMC7902858 DOI: 10.3389/fspor.2021.630584] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2020] [Accepted: 01/11/2021] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
This cross-sectional study aimed to obtain fundamental knowledge about pain during a marathon run. During the first seven months of 2007, announcements on websites of interest to marathon runners were used to recruit participants. A total of 1,251 runners (550 female runners) completed a 41-question online survey about the location and intensity of their primary pain during their last marathon and potentially related variables [perception of effort during the marathon, number of prior marathons run, typical pain intensity during training runs, percentage of training days with run-induced pain, highest intensity pain ever experienced]. Pain location was selected from a list of 27 specified body sites covering the entire body. Kilometer at which pain first occurred indexed pain threshold. Pain intensity at the primary location of pain was measured with a standardized, well-validated 0–10 pain intensity scale. Pearson correlations and multiple regression quantified the associations between average pain intensity and other variables. Sex-related differences in pain were tested using independent t-tests. Effort ratings (6–20) were added as a covariate in an ANCOVA to test if perceived effort accounted for possible sex-related differences in pain. Based on the available research, it was hypothesized that: (i) most runners would report moderate intensity pain, (ii) pain would be associated with both exercise intensity during the marathon and pain during training, and (iii) after adjusting for expected sex-related differences in perceived effort, females would experience pain earlier and rate the pain intensity as higher. All but two runners (99.8%) reported pain during a marathon, and most frequently in the anterior/medial thigh (17.1%), hamstring (10%), and calf (9.3%) locations. Pain threshold occurred at 25.3 ± 9.8 km (15.7 ± 6.1 miles) and the overall pain intensity of the run was 5.26 ± 2.45. No sex-related pain differences were found. Overall pain intensity during a marathon was significantly associated with: pain intensity during training runs (r = 0.39), percentage of training days with run-induced pain (r = 0.23), highest intensity pain ever experienced (r = 0.23), number of prior marathons (r = −0.18), and intensity of effort (r = 0.11) (all P < 0.001). Most runners experience moderate to very strong intensity pain during a marathon; the pain was independent of biological sex, and the pain is weakly associated with marathon race experience, pain during training, race effort, and the highest intensity of pain ever experienced.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrick J O'Connor
- Department of Kinesiology, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, United States
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Veiga S, Del Cerro JS, Rodriguez L, Trinidad A, González-Ravé JM. How Mixed Relay Teams in Swimming Should Be Organized for International Championship Success. Front Psychol 2021; 12:573285. [PMID: 33716847 PMCID: PMC7943605 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.573285] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2020] [Accepted: 02/01/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The primary goal of the present research was to determine the order of swimmers on a mixed relay team that would ensure the best performance in the Fédération Internationale de Natation (FINA) World Championships held in Kazan (Russia, 2015), Budapest (Hungary, 2017), and Gwangju (South Korea, 2019). The data were obtained from database websites for the 4 × 100 m freestyle and 4 × 100 m medley official results,1 including 660 records from 188 entries of finals and 472 preliminary events. The results showed that the fastest swimmers (according to their best season times) were located primarily in the first or second positions of the freestyle relay. The most successful gender strategy for the 4 × 100 m freestyle (57 out of 82 observations) and for the 4 × 100 m medley (29 out of 83) relays was the order male-male-female-female, although no statistical differences were found (p = 0.79) for the medley relays. In the 4 × 100 m freestyle, the second (p = 0.002; β = 1.62) and third (p =0.003; β = 1.41) relay legs had a statistical effect on the total relay time, whereas in the 4 × 100 m medley, all four relay legs had a statistical effect (p < 0.001) on the final performance, the weight of the four strokes being different in heats with respect to the final round. Also, a later position of the first female swimmer or the consecutive position of two female swimmers in the team order significantly affected the relay performance in specific events. Mixed relay events appeared to present specific strategies in comparison to traditional male- or female-only relay lineups.
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Affiliation(s)
- Santiago Veiga
- Health and Human Performance Department, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Madrid, Spain.,Royal Spanish Swimming Federation, Madrid, Spain
| | | | | | - Alfonso Trinidad
- Faculty of Education and Humanities, Universidad Francisco de Vitoria, Madrid, Spain
| | - José María González-Ravé
- Sports Training Laboratory, Faculty of Sports Sciences, University of Castilla La Mancha, Toledo, Spain
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Do Sex Differences in Physiology Confer a Female Advantage in Ultra-Endurance Sport? Sports Med 2021; 51:895-915. [PMID: 33502701 DOI: 10.1007/s40279-020-01417-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/20/2020] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Ultra-endurance has been defined as any exercise bout that exceeds 6 h. A number of exceptional, record-breaking performances by female athletes in ultra-endurance sport have roused speculation that they might be predisposed to success in such events. Indeed, while the male-to-female performance gap in traditional endurance sport (e.g., marathon) remains at ~ 10%, the disparity in ultra-endurance competition has been reported as low as 4% despite the markedly lower number of female participants. Moreover, females generally outperform males in extreme-distance swimming. The issue is complex, however, with many sports-specific considerations and caveats. This review summarizes the sex-based differences in physiological functions and draws attention to those which likely determine success in extreme exercise endeavors. The aim is to provide a balanced discussion of the female versus male predisposition to ultra-endurance sport. Herein, we discuss sex-based differences in muscle morphology and fatigability, respiratory-neuromechanical function, substrate utilization, oxygen utilization, gastrointestinal structure and function, and hormonal control. The literature indicates that while females exhibit numerous phenotypes that would be expected to confer an advantage in ultra-endurance competition (e.g., greater fatigue resistance, greater substrate efficiency, and lower energetic demands), they also exhibit several characteristics that unequivocally impinge on performance (e.g., lower O2-carrying capacity, increased prevalence of GI distress, and sex-hormone effects on cellular function/injury risk). Crucially, the advantageous traits may only manifest as ergogenic in the extreme endurance events which, paradoxically, are those that females less often contest. The title question should be revisited in the coming years, when/if the number of female participants increases.
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Parton AJ, Waldron M, Clifford T, Jeffries O. Thermo-behavioural responses to orally applied l-menthol exhibit sex-specific differences during exercise in a hot environment. Physiol Behav 2020; 229:113250. [PMID: 33220326 DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2020.113250] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2020] [Revised: 09/29/2020] [Accepted: 11/16/2020] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
AIMS This study investigated the efficacy of l-menthol mouth-rinsing on thermal sensation and perceived effort in females and males, using a fixed-rating of perceived exertion (RPE) exercise protocol in a hot environment. METHODS Twenty-two participants (eleven females, eleven males) completed two trials using a fixed-RPE protocol at an exercise intensity between 'hard' and 'very hard', equating to 16 on the RPE scale at ~35 °C. Participants adjusted power output to maintain RPE-16. In a randomised, double-blind, crossover design, l-menthol or a control mouthwash was administered at an orally neutral temperature (~32 °C) prior to exercise and at 10 min intervals thereafter. Measures of mechanical power output, core temperature, heart rate, perception of thermal sensation and thermal comfort, and whole-body sweat loss are reported. RESULTS Thermal sensation was lowered by l-menthol in both sexes (P < 0.05), however during exercise this was only maintained for 40% of the trial duration in females. Thermal comfort did not differ between conditions (P > 0.05). No differences in exercise duration were observed compared to control, despite a ~4% and ~6% increase in male and females respectively. Power output increased by ~6.5% males (P = 0.039) with no difference in females ~2.2% (P = 0.475), compared to control. Core temperature, heart rate and whole-body sweat loss was not different between condition or sex. CONCLUSIONS l-menthol lowered perceptual measures of thermal sensation in females, but did not attenuate a greater rate of rise in thermal sensitivity when exercising in a hot environment, compared to males. Males appeared to adopt a higher risk strategy by increasing power output following l-menthol administration in contrast to a more conservative pacing strategy in females. Therefore, there appear to be sex-specific differences in l-menthol's non-thermal cooling properties and subsequent effects on thermo-behavioural adjustments in work-load when exercising in a hot environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abbie Jayne Parton
- School of Biomedical, Nutritional and Sport Sciences, Newcastle University, Newcastle Upon Tyne, United Kingdom
| | - Mark Waldron
- College of Engineering, Swansea University, Swansea, United Kingdom; School of Science and Technology, University of New England, Armidale, NSW, Australia
| | - Tom Clifford
- School of Sport, Health and Exercise Sciences, Loughborough University, Loughborough, United Kingdom
| | - Owen Jeffries
- School of Biomedical, Nutritional and Sport Sciences, Newcastle University, Newcastle Upon Tyne, United Kingdom.
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Suter D, Sousa CV, Hill L, Scheer V, Nikolaidis PT, Knechtle B. Even Pacing Is Associated with Faster Finishing Times in Ultramarathon Distance Trail Running-The "Ultra-Trail du Mont Blanc" 2008-2019. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2020; 17:ijerph17197074. [PMID: 32992625 PMCID: PMC7578994 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph17197074] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2020] [Revised: 09/08/2020] [Accepted: 09/24/2020] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
In recent years, there has been an increasing number of investigations analyzing the effects of sex, performance level, and age on pacing in various running disciplines. However, little is known about the impact of those factors on pacing strategies in ultramarathon trail running. This study investigated the effects of age, sex, and performance level on pacing in the UTMB® (Ultra-trail du Mont Blanc) and aimed to verify previous findings obtained in the research on other running disciplines and other ultramarathon races. Data from the UTMB® from 2008 to 2019 for 13,829 race results (12,681 men and 1148 women) were analyzed. A general linear model (two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA)) was applied to identify a sex, age group, and interaction effect in pace average and pace variation. A univariate model (one-way ANOVA) was used to identify a sex effect for age, pace average, and pace variation for the fastest men and women. In our study, pace average and a steadier pace were positively correlated. Even pacing throughout the UTMB® correlated with faster finishing times. The average pace depended significantly on sex and age group. When considering the top five athletes in each age group, sex and age group also had significant effects on pace variation. The fastest women were older than the fastest men, and the fastest men were faster than the fastest women. Women had a higher pace variation than men. In male competitors, younger age may be advantageous for a successful finish of the UTMB®. Faster male runners seemed to be younger in ultramarathon trail running with large changes in altitude when compared to other distances and terrains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Suter
- Institute of Primary Care, University of Zurich, 8091 Zurich, Switzerland;
| | - Caio Victor Sousa
- Bouve College of Health Sciences, Northeastern University, Boston, MA 02115, USA;
| | - Lee Hill
- Division of Gastroenterology & Nutrition, Department of Pediatrics, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON L8N 3Z5, Canada;
| | - Volker Scheer
- Ultra Sports Science Foundation, 109 Boulevard de l’Europe, 69310 Pierre-Bénite, France;
| | - Pantelis Theo Nikolaidis
- School of Health and Caring Sciences, University of West Attica, 12243 Athens, Greece;
- Exercise Physiology Laboratory, 18450 Nikaia, Greece
| | - Beat Knechtle
- Institute of Primary Care, University of Zurich, 8091 Zurich, Switzerland;
- Medbase St. Gallen, Am Vadianplatz, 9001 St. Gallen, Switzerland
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +41-71-226-93-00
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47
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Using Accelerometry for Evaluating Energy Consumption and Running Intensity Distribution Throughout a Marathon According to Sex. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2020; 17:ijerph17176196. [PMID: 32859029 PMCID: PMC7503696 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph17176196] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2020] [Revised: 08/21/2020] [Accepted: 08/25/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The proportion of females participating in long-distance races has been increasing in the last years. Although it is well-known that there are differences in how females and males face a marathon, higher research may be done to fully understand the intrinsic and extrinsic factors affecting sex differences in endurance performance. In this work, we used triaxial accelerometer devices to monitor 74 males and 14 females, aged 30 to 45 years, who finished the Valencia Marathon in 2016. Moreover, marathon split times were provided by organizers. Several physiological traits and training habits were collected from each participant. Then, we evaluated several accelerometry- and pace-estimated parameters (pacing, average change of speed, energy consumption, oxygen uptake, running intensity distribution and running economy) in female and male amateur runners. In general, our results showed that females maintained a more stable pacing and ran at less demanding intensity throughout the marathon, limiting the decay of running pace in the last part of the race. In fact, females ran at 4.5% faster pace than males in the last kilometers. Besides, their running economy was higher than males (consumed nearly 19% less relative energy per distance) in the last section of the marathon. Our results may reflect well-known sex differences in physiology (i.e., muscle strength, fat metabolism, VO2max), and in running strategy approach (i.e., females run at a more conservative intensity level in the first part of the marathon compared to males). The use of accelerometer devices allows coaches and scientific community to constantly monitor a runner throughout the marathon, as well as during training sessions.
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48
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Keogh A, Sheridan OO, McCaffrey O, Dunne SÍ, Lally A, Doherty C. The Determinants of Marathon Performance: An Observational Analysis of Anthropometric, Pre-race and In-race Variables. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EXERCISE SCIENCE 2020; 13:1132-1142. [PMID: 32922647 PMCID: PMC7449326] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Researchers investigating the determinants of marathon performance have previously focused on pre-race (e.g. training) or in-race (e.g. pacing) variables, but not both. This cross-sectional study, therefore, sought to elucidate the relationship between training behaviours, in-race pacing and anthropometric variables with eventual marathon finish time. A self-report questionnaire collecting athletes' anthropometrics, training behaviours and recent race times was administered to 260 participants in the 2018 Dublin Marathon. Participants' race numbers were cross referenced with in-race split times and finish times to determine their race performance. The accuracy or pragmatism of participants' target finish time was calculated using a 'predicted' time based on their training and previous race performances and subtracting this value from their eventual finish time. Multiple regression analysis examined the influence of age, body mass index (BMI), marathon experience, training history, target finish time pragmatism and in-race pace variance on marathon performance. The model was statistically significant and predicted marathon finish time F(7,252) = 217.761, p < 0.0005, adj. R2 = 0.858. Marathon experience (p = 0.01, Beta = 0.06), a pragmatic target finish time (p < 0.0005, Beta = -0.36), training history (p < 0.0005, Beta = 0.76) and in-race pace variance (p < 0.0005, Beta = 0.26) made statistically significant contributions to the overall regression model. A marathoners' training history accounts for the greatest variance in their overall performance, followed by the pragmatism of their target finish time and their in-race pace variance. This study provides the first indication of the combined relative importance of anthropometric, training and pacing variables to marathon performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alison Keogh
- School of Public Health, Physiotherapy and Sports Science, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland
- Insight Centre for Data Analytics, O'Brien Science Centre, University College Dublin
| | - Olwyn O'Connor Sheridan
- School of Public Health, Physiotherapy and Sports Science, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland
| | - OisÍn McCaffrey
- School of Public Health, Physiotherapy and Sports Science, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland
| | - SÍofra Dunne
- School of Public Health, Physiotherapy and Sports Science, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland
| | - Alanna Lally
- School of Public Health, Physiotherapy and Sports Science, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland
| | - Cailbhe Doherty
- School of Public Health, Physiotherapy and Sports Science, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland
- Insight Centre for Data Analytics, O'Brien Science Centre, University College Dublin
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49
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Muñoz-Pérez I, Mecías-Calvo M, Crespo-Álvarez J, Sámano-Celorio ML, Agudo-Toyos P, Lago-Fuentes C. Different race pacing strategies among runners covering the 2017 Berlin Marathon under 3 hours and 30 minutes. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0236658. [PMID: 32722683 PMCID: PMC7386619 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0236658] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2020] [Accepted: 07/09/2020] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The purposes of this study were 1) to analyse the different pacing behaviours based on athlete's performance and 2) to determine whether significant differences in each race split and the runner's performance implied different race profiles. A total of 2295 runners, which took part in Berlin's marathon (2017), met the inclusion criteria. 4 different groups were created based on sex and performance. Men: Elite (<02:19:00 h), Top 1 (<02:30:00 h), Top 2 (<02:45:00 h) and Top 3 (<03:00:00 h); women: Elite (02:45:00 h), Top 1 (<03:00:00 h), Top 2 (<03:15:00 h), Top 3 (<03:30:00 h). With the aim of comparing the pacing between sex and performance the average speed was normalized. In men, no statistically significant changes were found between performance group and splits. A large number of significant differences between splits and groups were found amongst women: 5-10 km Top 2 vs Top 3 (P = 0.0178), 10-15 km Top1 vs Top 2 (P = 0.0211), 15-20 km Top1 vs Top 2 (P = 0.0382), 20-21.1 km Elite vs Top 2 (P = 0.0129); Elite vs Top 3 (P = 0.0020); Top1 vs Top 2 (P = 0.0233); Top 1 vs Top 3 (P = 0.0007), 25-30 km Elite vs Top 2 (P = 0.0273); Elite vs Top 3 (P = 0.0156), 30-35 km Elite vs Top 2 (P = 0.0096); Top 1 vs Top 2 (P = 0.0198); Top2 vs Top3 (P = 0.0069). In men there were little significant differences based on athletes' performance which implied a similar pacing behaviour. Women presented numerous differences based on their performance which suggested different pacing behaviours.
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Affiliation(s)
- Iker Muñoz-Pérez
- Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad Europea del Atlántico (UNEATLANTICO), Santander, Spain
- Runnea, Barakaldo, Spain
| | - Marcos Mecías-Calvo
- Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad Europea del Atlántico (UNEATLANTICO), Santander, Spain
- Centro de Investigación y Tecnología Industrial de Cantabria (CITICAN), Santander, Spain
| | - Jorge Crespo-Álvarez
- Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad Europea del Atlántico (UNEATLANTICO), Santander, Spain
- Recursos de Obras, Montajes y Asistencias (ROMA), Santa Cruz de Bezana, Spain
| | | | - Pablo Agudo-Toyos
- Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad Europea del Atlántico (UNEATLANTICO), Santander, Spain
| | - Carlos Lago-Fuentes
- Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad Europea del Atlántico (UNEATLANTICO), Santander, Spain
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50
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Yanovich R, Ketko I, Charkoudian N. Sex Differences in Human Thermoregulation: Relevance for 2020 and Beyond. Physiology (Bethesda) 2020; 35:177-184. [PMID: 32293229 DOI: 10.1152/physiol.00035.2019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The participation of women in physically strenuous athletic and occupational tasks has increased substantially in the past decade. Female sex steroids have influences on thermoregulatory processes that could impact physical performance in the heat. Here, we summarize and evaluate the current literature regarding sex differences in thermoregulation and provide recommendations for heat-illness risk-mitigation strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- R Yanovich
- The Institute of Military Physiology, Israel Defense Forces, Medical Corps, Tel-Hashomer, Israel
- Heller Institute of Medical Research, Sheba Medical Center, Tel-Hashomer, Israel
- Department of Military Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Hebrew University, Jerusalem, Israel
- The Academic College at Wingate, Wingate Institute, Netanya, Israel
| | - I Ketko
- The Institute of Military Physiology, Israel Defense Forces, Medical Corps, Tel-Hashomer, Israel
- Heller Institute of Medical Research, Sheba Medical Center, Tel-Hashomer, Israel
| | - N Charkoudian
- U.S. Army Research Institute of Environmental Medicine, Natick, Massachussetts
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