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Sasidharan S, Standley CJ. One Health, One Future: A Unified Approach to a Balanced Ecosystem. Trop Med Infect Dis 2024; 9:164. [PMID: 39058206 PMCID: PMC11281553 DOI: 10.3390/tropicalmed9070164] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2024] [Accepted: 07/16/2024] [Indexed: 07/28/2024] Open
Abstract
In the past few decades, disease spillovers between humans and wildlife have increased in both frequency and severity [...].
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Affiliation(s)
- Santanu Sasidharan
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z1, Canada
- Michael Smith Laboratories, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Claire J. Standley
- Center for Global Health Science and Security, Georgetown University, Washington, DC 20057, USA
- Heidelberg Institute of Global Health, University of Heidelberg, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
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2
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Fernández-Vélez I, Bidegain G, Ben-Horin T. Predicting the Growth of Vibrio parahaemolyticus in Oysters under Varying Ambient Temperature. Microorganisms 2023; 11:1169. [PMID: 37317143 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms11051169] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2023] [Revised: 04/23/2023] [Accepted: 04/27/2023] [Indexed: 06/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Temperature is a critical factor that influences the proliferation of pathogens in hosts. One example of this is the human pathogen Vibrio parahaemolyticus (V. parahaemolyticus) in oysters. Here, a continuous time model was developed for predicting the growth of Vibrio parahaemolyticus in oysters under varying ambient temperature. The model was fit and evaluated against data from previous experiments. Once evaluated, the V. parahaemolyticus dynamics in oysters were estimated at different post-harvest varying temperature scenarios affected by water and air temperature and different ice treatment timing. The model performed adequately under varying temperature, reflecting that (i) increasing temperature, particularly in hot summers, favors a rapid V. parahaemolyticus growth in oysters, resulting in a very high risk of gastroenteritis in humans after consumption of a serving of raw oysters, (ii) pathogen inactivation due to day/night oscillations and, more evidently, due to ice treatments, and (iii) ice treatment is much more effective, limiting the risk of illness when applied immediately onboard compared to dockside. The model resulted in being a promising tool for improving the understanding of the V. parahaemolyticus-oyster system and supporting studies on the public health impact of pathogenic V. parahaemolyticus associated with raw oyster consumption. Although robust validation of the model predictions is needed, the initial results and evaluation showed the potential of the model to be easily modified to match similar systems where the temperature is a critical factor shaping the proliferation of pathogens in hosts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Iker Fernández-Vélez
- Department of Preventive Medicine and Public Health, University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Barrio Sarriena s/n, 48490 Leioa, Spain
| | - Gorka Bidegain
- Department of Applied Mathematics, Engineering School of Bilbao, University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Plaza Ingeniero Torres Quevedo 1, 48013 Bilbao, Spain
- Research Centre for Experimental Marine Biology & Biotechnology, Plentzia Marine Station, University of the Basque Country (PiE-UPV/EHU), Areatza Pasealekua, 48620 Plentzia, Spain
| | - Tal Ben-Horin
- College of Veterinary Medicine, North Carolina State University, 303 College Circle, Morehead City, NC 28557, USA
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3
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Semenza JC. Invited Perspective: Vibriosis-The Price Tag of a Warmer World. ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH PERSPECTIVES 2022; 130:81305. [PMID: 35983961 PMCID: PMC9389639 DOI: 10.1289/ehp11070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2022] [Revised: 07/09/2022] [Accepted: 07/13/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Jan C. Semenza
- Heidelberg Institute of Global Health, University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
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4
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Pathogenic Vibrio Species Are Associated with Distinct Environmental Niches and Planktonic Taxa in Southern California (USA) Aquatic Microbiomes. mSystems 2021; 6:e0057121. [PMID: 34227831 PMCID: PMC8407410 DOI: 10.1128/msystems.00571-21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Interactions between vibrio bacteria and the planktonic community impact marine ecology and human health. Many coastal Vibrio spp. can infect humans, representing a growing threat linked to increasing seawater temperatures. Interactions with eukaryotic organisms may provide attachment substrate and critical nutrients that facilitate the persistence, diversification, and spread of pathogenic Vibrio spp. However, vibrio interactions with planktonic organisms in an environmental context are poorly understood. We quantified the pathogenic Vibrio species V. cholerae, V. parahaemolyticus, and V. vulnificus monthly for 1 year at five sites and observed high abundances, particularly during summer months, with species-specific temperature and salinity distributions. Using metabarcoding, we established a detailed profile of both prokaryotic and eukaryotic coastal microbial communities. We found that pathogenic Vibrio species were frequently associated with distinct eukaryotic amplicon sequence variants (ASVs), including diatoms and copepods. Shared environmental conditions, such as high temperatures and low salinities, were associated with both high concentrations of pathogenic vibrios and potential environmental reservoirs, which may influence vibrio infection risks linked to climate change and should be incorporated into predictive ecological models and experimental laboratory systems. IMPORTANCE Many species of coastal vibrio bacteria can infect humans, representing a growing health threat linked to increasing seawater temperatures. However, their interactions with surrounding microbes in the environment, especially eukaryotic organisms that may provide nutrients and attachment substrate, are poorly understood. We quantified three pathogenic Vibrio species monthly for a duration of 1 year, finding that all three species were abundant and exhibited species-specific temperature and salinity distributions. Using metabarcoding, we investigated associations between these pathogenic species and prokaryotic and eukaryotic microbes, revealing genus and amplicon sequence variant (ASV)-specific relationships with potential functional implications. For example, pathogenic species were frequently associated with chitin-producing eukaryotes, such as diatoms in the genus Thalassiosira and copepods. These associations between high concentrations of pathogenic vibrios and potential environmental reservoirs should be considered when predicting infection risk and developing ecologically relevant model systems.
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Dynamics of Vibrio cholerae in a Typical Tropical Lake and Estuarine System: Potential of Remote Sensing for Risk Mapping. REMOTE SENSING 2021. [DOI: 10.3390/rs13051034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
Vibrio cholerae, the bacterium responsible for the disease cholera, is a naturally-occurring bacterium, commonly found in many natural tropical water bodies. In the context of the U.N. Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) targets on health (Goal 3), water quality (Goal 6), life under water (Goal 14), and clean water and sanitation (Goal 6), which aim to “ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all”, we investigated the environmental reservoirs of V. cholerae in Vembanad Lake, the largest lake in Kerala (India), where cholera is endemic. The response of environmental reservoirs of V. cholerae to variability in essential climate variables may play a pivotal role in determining the quality of natural water resources, and whether they might be safe for human consumption or not. The hydrodynamics of Vembanad Lake, and the man-made barrier that divides the lake, resulted in spatial and temporal variability in salinity (1–32 psu) and temperature (23 to 36 °C). The higher ends of this salinity and temperature ranges fall outside the preferred growth conditions for V. cholerae reported in the literature. The bacteria were associated with filtered water as well as with phyto- and zooplankton in the lake. Their association with benthic organisms and sediments was poor to nil. The prevalence of high laminarinase and chitinase enzyme expression (more than 50 µgmL−1 min−1) among V. cholerae could underlie their high association with phyto- and zooplankton. Furthermore, the diversity in the phytoplankton community in the lake, with dominance of genera such as Skeletonema sp., Microcystis sp., Aulacoseira sp., and Anabaena sp., which changed with location and season, and associated changes in the zooplankton community, could also have affected the dynamics of the bacteria in the lake. The probability of presence or absence of V. cholerae could be expressed as a function of chlorophyll concentration in the water, which suggests that risk maps for the entire lake can be generated using satellite-derived chlorophyll data. In situ observations and satellite-based extrapolations suggest that the risks from environmental V. cholerae in the lake can be quite high (with probability in the range of 0.5 to 1) everywhere in the lake, but higher values are encountered more frequently in the southern part of the lake. Remote sensing has an important role to play in meeting SDG goals related to health, water quality and life under water, as demonstrated in this example related to cholera.
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A Predictive Human Health Risk Assessment of Non-Choleraic Vibrio spp. during Hurricane-Driven Flooding Events in Coastal South Carolina, USA. ATMOSPHERE 2021. [DOI: 10.3390/atmos12020269] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Densely populated, low-lying coastal areas are most at-risk for negative impacts from increasing intensity of storm-induced flooding. Due to the effects of global warming and subsequent climate change, coastal temperatures and the magnitude of storm-induced flooding are projected to increase, creating a hospitable environment for the aquatic Vibrio spp. bacteria. A relative risk model analysis was used to determine which census block groups in coastal South Carolina have the highest risk of Vibrio spp. exposure using storm surge flooding as a proxy. Coastal block groups with dense vulnerable sub-populations exposed to storm surge have the highest relative risk, while inland block groups away from riverine-mediated storm surge have the lowest relative risk. As Vibriosis infections may be extremely severe or even deadly, the best methods of infection control will be regular standardized coastal and estuarine water monitoring for Vibrio spp. to enable more informed and timely public health advisories and help prevent future exposure.
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7
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Namadi P, Deng Z. Modeling and Forecasting Vibrio Parahaemolyticus Concentrations in Oysters. WATER RESEARCH 2021; 189:116638. [PMID: 33221584 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2020.116638] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2020] [Revised: 10/29/2020] [Accepted: 11/12/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Vibrio parahaemolyticus (V.p) is an epidemiologically significant pathogen that thrives in coastal waters where oysters are harvested, posing high risks to human health and shellfish industry and requiring effective forecasting models for emergency preparedness and interventions. This study sought to develop forecasting models with differing lead times, which are able to predict the level of V.p in oysters in advance to mitigate the health risk to the general public and the economic loss to the shellfish industry. The Random Forest method along with 227 sampling datasets from two different geographic locations were utilized to: (1) Identify the most critical environmental predictors controlling the level of V.p in oysters, (2) Select the most important time lags for the environmental predictors as model input variables, and (3) Develop four forecasting models (RF-1Day, RF-2Day, RF-3Day, and RF-4Day) with the lead time of one to four days. The uncertainty involved in model predictions was quantified using the bootstrapping method. Results showed that V.p abundance in oysters is controlled by antecedent environmental conditions 1-11 days before. The antecedent environmental conditions can be described using time-lagged Sea Surface Temperature (SST) and salinity. The V.p abundance can well be forecasted 1 - 4 days in advance using the four models. The performance of the models decreases with increasing lead time. The RF-3Day and RF-4Day models can be employed primarily for emergency preparedness due to their relatively long lead time while the RF-1Day and RF-2Day models can be used primarily for management interventions due to their relatively high predictive performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peyman Namadi
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana, USA
| | - Zhiqiang Deng
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana, USA.
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Batumbo Boloweti D, Giraudoux P, Deniel C, Garnier E, Mauny F, Kasereka CM, Kizungu R, Muyembe JJ, Bompangue D, Bornette G. Volcanic activity controls cholera outbreaks in the East African Rift. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2020; 14:e0008406. [PMID: 32776919 PMCID: PMC7441828 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0008406] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2019] [Revised: 08/20/2020] [Accepted: 05/21/2020] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
We hypothesized that Cholera (Vibrio cholerae) that appeared along Lake Kivu in the African Rift in the seventies, might be controlled by volcano-tectonic activity, which, by increasing surface water and groundwater salinity and temperature, may partly rule the water characteristics of Lake Kivu and promote V. cholerae proliferation. Volcanic activity (assessed weekly by the SO2 flux of Nyiragongo volcano plume over the 2007-2012 period) is highly positively correlated with the water conductivity, salinity and temperature of the Kivu lake. Over the 2007-2012 period, these three parameters were highly positively correlated with the temporal dynamics of cholera cases in the Katana health zone that border the lake. Meteorological variables (air temperature and rainfall), and the other water characteristics (namely pH and dissolved oxygen concentration in lake water) were unrelated to cholera dynamics over the same period. Over the 2016-2018 period, we sampled weekly lake water salinity and conductivity, and twice a month vibrio occurrence in lake water and fish. The abundance of V. cholerae in the lake was positively correlated with lake salinity, temperature, and the number of cholera cases in the population of the Katana health zone. V. cholerae abundance in fishes was positively correlated with V. cholerae abundance in lake water, suggesting that their consumption directly contaminate humans. The activity of the volcano, by controlling the physico-chemical characteristics of Lake Kivu, is therefore a major determinant of the presence of the bacillus in the lake. SO2 fluxes in the volcano plume can be used as a tool to predict epidemic risks.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Patrick Giraudoux
- UMR CNRS 6249 Chrono-Environnement, University of Bourgogne Franche
Comté, Besançon, France
| | - Catherine Deniel
- UMR CNRS 6524 Laboratoire Magmas et Volcans, University of Blaise
Pascal-CNRS-IRD, Clermont Ferrand, France
| | - Emmanuel Garnier
- UMR CNRS 6249 Chrono-Environnement, University of Bourgogne Franche
Comté, Besançon, France
| | - Frederic Mauny
- UMR CNRS 6249 Chrono-Environnement, University of Bourgogne Franche
Comté, Besançon, France
| | | | - Roger Kizungu
- Faculty of Agronomy, University of Kinshasa, Kinshasa, Democratic
Republic of Congo
| | - Jean Jacques Muyembe
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Kinshasa,
Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of Congo
| | - Didier Bompangue
- UMR CNRS 6249 Chrono-Environnement, University of Bourgogne Franche
Comté, Besançon, France
| | - Gudrun Bornette
- UMR CNRS 6249 Chrono-Environnement, University of Bourgogne Franche
Comté, Besançon, France
- * E-mail:
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Epidemiology, pathogenetic mechanism, clinical characteristics, and treatment of Vibrio vulnificus infection: a case report and literature review. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 2019; 38:1999-2004. [PMID: 31325061 DOI: 10.1007/s10096-019-03629-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2019] [Accepted: 07/02/2019] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Vibrio vulnificus is a Gram-negative bacterium that belongs to the Vibrionaceae family. It represents a deadly opportunistic human pathogen which grows in water with the proper temperature and salinity, and is mostly acquired from seafood eating or direct contact. In susceptible individuals, a traumatic infection could be fatal, causing severe wound infection and even septic shock, and may require amputation. Global warming plays an important role in the geographical area expanding of Vibrio disease. The pathogenesis of Vibrio vulnificus-associated sepsis is very complex, including iron intake, cell injury, and adhesion-related protein and virulence regulation. Vibrio vulnificus infection mainly manifests clinical subtypes such as primary sepsis, traumatic infection, and gastroenteritis, with rapid symptom progression and signs of multiple organ dysfunction syndrome (MODS). It is important to assess these pathogenetic mechanisms in order to select more appropriate measures to prevent and treat Vibrio vulnificus infections, including antibiotic usage and surgical intervention. In this work, we report a typical case of successful treatment of necrotizing fasciitis caused by Vibrio vulnificus, and review the epidemiology, pathogenetic mechanism, clinical characteristics, and treatment of Vibrio vulnificus infection.
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Froelich B, Gonzalez R, Blackwood D, Lauer K, Noble R. Decadal monitoring reveals an increase in Vibrio spp. concentrations in the Neuse River Estuary, North Carolina, USA. PLoS One 2019; 14:e0215254. [PMID: 31013284 PMCID: PMC6478372 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0215254] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2019] [Accepted: 03/28/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
A decade long study was conducted to investigate the ecological, biological, and temporal conditions that affect concentrations of Vibrio spp. bacteria in a well-studied lagoonal estuary. Water samples collected from the Neuse River Estuary in eastern North Carolina from 2004-2014 (with additional follow-up samples from Fall of 2018) were analyzed to determine Vibrio spp. concentrations, as well as the concentrations of inorganic and organic nutrients, fecal indicator bacteria, phytoplankton biomass, and a wide range of other physio-chemical estuarine parameters. A significant increase in Vibrio spp. was observed to occur in the estuary over the examined period. Strikingly, over this long duration study period, this statistically significant increase in total culturable Vibrio spp. concentrations does not appear to be correlated with changes in salinity, temperature, or dissolved oxygen, the three most commonly cited influential factors that predict estuarine Vibrio spp. abundance. Furthermore, shorter term (~3 years) data on specific Vibrio species (V. vulnificus and V. parahaemolyticus)show that while Vibrio spp. are increasing overall as a genus, the numbers of some key potentially pathogenic species are decreasing as a part of the total population, further supporting the concept that quantification of the entire genus is not a worthwhile use of resources toward predicting levels of specific potentially pathogenic species of public health concern. The significant increase in this concentration of Vibrio spp. in the studied estuary appears to be related to nitrogen and carbon in the system, indicating a continued need for further research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brett Froelich
- The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Institute of Marine Sciences; Morehead City, NC, United States of America
| | - Raul Gonzalez
- The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Institute of Marine Sciences; Morehead City, NC, United States of America
| | - Denene Blackwood
- The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Institute of Marine Sciences; Morehead City, NC, United States of America
| | - Kellen Lauer
- The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Institute of Marine Sciences; Morehead City, NC, United States of America
| | - Rachel Noble
- The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Institute of Marine Sciences; Morehead City, NC, United States of America
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Wu J, Yunus M, Ali M, Escamilla V, Emch M. Influences of heatwave, rainfall, and tree cover on cholera in Bangladesh. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2018; 120:304-311. [PMID: 30107291 PMCID: PMC6690386 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2018.08.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2018] [Revised: 08/02/2018] [Accepted: 08/02/2018] [Indexed: 05/02/2023]
Abstract
Cholera is a severe diarrheal disease and remains a global threat to public health. Climate change and variability have the potential to increase the distribution and magnitude of cholera outbreaks. However, the effect of heatwave on the occurrence of cholera at individual level is still unclear. It is also unknown whether the local vegetation could potentially mitigate the effects of extreme heat on cholera outbreaks. In this study, we designed a case-crossover study to examine the association between the risk of cholera and heatwaves as well as the modification effects of rainfall and tree cover. The study was conducted in Matlab, a cholera endemic area of rural Bangladesh, where cholera case data were collected between January 1983 and April 2009. The association between the risk of cholera and heatwaves was examined using conditional logistic regression models. The results showed that there was a higher risk of cholera two days after heatwaves (OR = 1.53, 95% CI: 1.07-2.19) during wet days (rainfall > 0 mm). For households with less medium-dense tree cover, the heatwave after a 2-day lag was positively associated (OR = 1.80, 95% CI: 1.01-3.22) with the risk of cholera during wet days. However, for households with more medium-dense tree cover, the association between the risk of cholera and heatwave in 2-day lag was not significant. These findings suggest that heatwaves might promote the occurrence of cholera, while this relationship was modified by rainfall and tree cover. Further investigations are needed to explore major mechanisms underlying the association between heatwaves and cholera as well as the beneficial effects of tree cover.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jianyong Wu
- Department of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Gillings School of Global Public Health, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA.
| | - Mohammad Yunus
- International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Bangladesh
| | - Mohammad Ali
- Department of International Health, Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Johns Hopkins University, MD 21205, USA
| | - Veronica Escamilla
- Carolina Population Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
| | - Michael Emch
- Department of Geography, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
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Destoumieux-Garzón D, Mavingui P, Boetsch G, Boissier J, Darriet F, Duboz P, Fritsch C, Giraudoux P, Le Roux F, Morand S, Paillard C, Pontier D, Sueur C, Voituron Y. The One Health Concept: 10 Years Old and a Long Road Ahead. Front Vet Sci 2018; 5:14. [PMID: 29484301 PMCID: PMC5816263 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2018.00014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 281] [Impact Index Per Article: 46.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2017] [Accepted: 01/22/2018] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Over the past decade, a significant increase in the circulation of infectious agents was observed. With the spread and emergence of epizootics, zoonoses, and epidemics, the risks of pandemics became more and more critical. Human and animal health has also been threatened by antimicrobial resistance, environmental pollution, and the development of multifactorial and chronic diseases. This highlighted the increasing globalization of health risks and the importance of the human-animal-ecosystem interface in the evolution and emergence of pathogens. A better knowledge of causes and consequences of certain human activities, lifestyles, and behaviors in ecosystems is crucial for a rigorous interpretation of disease dynamics and to drive public policies. As a global good, health security must be understood on a global scale and from a global and crosscutting perspective, integrating human health, animal health, plant health, ecosystems health, and biodiversity. In this study, we discuss how crucial it is to consider ecological, evolutionary, and environmental sciences in understanding the emergence and re-emergence of infectious diseases and in facing the challenges of antimicrobial resistance. We also discuss the application of the "One Health" concept to non-communicable chronic diseases linked to exposure to multiple stresses, including toxic stress, and new lifestyles. Finally, we draw up a list of barriers that need removing and the ambitions that we must nurture for the effective application of the "One Health" concept. We conclude that the success of this One Health concept now requires breaking down the interdisciplinary barriers that still separate human and veterinary medicine from ecological, evolutionary, and environmental sciences. The development of integrative approaches should be promoted by linking the study of factors underlying stress responses to their consequences on ecosystem functioning and evolution. This knowledge is required for the development of novel control strategies inspired by environmental mechanisms leading to desired equilibrium and dynamics in healthy ecosystems and must provide in the near future a framework for more integrated operational initiatives.
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Affiliation(s)
- Delphine Destoumieux-Garzón
- CNRS, Interactions Hôtes-Pathogènes-Environnements (IHPE), UMR5244, Université de Perpignan Via Domitia, Université de Montpellier, Ifremer, Montpellier, France
| | - Patrick Mavingui
- Université de La Reunion, UMR PIMIT (Processus Infectieux en Milieu Insulaire Tropical), INSERM 1187, CNRS 9192, IRD 249, Sainte-Clotilde, La Réunion, France
- UMR Ecologie Microbienne, CNRS, INRA, VetAgro Sup, Claude Bernard University Lyon 1, Université de Lyon, Villeurbanne, France
| | - Gilles Boetsch
- UMI 3189 “Environnement, Santé, Sociétés”, Faculty of Medicine, Cheikh Anta Diop University, Dakar-Fann, Senegal
- Téssékéré International Human-Environment Observatory Labex DRIIM, CNRS and Cheikh Anta Diop University, Dakar, Senegal
| | - Jérôme Boissier
- Université de Perpignan Via Domitia, Interactions Hôtes-Pathogènes-Environnements (IHPE), UMR5244, CNRS, Ifremer, Université de Montpellier, Perpignan, France
| | - Frédéric Darriet
- Institut de Recherche pour le Développement, Maladies Infectieuses et Vecteurs, Ecologie, Génétique, Evolution et Contrôle (MIVEGEC), IRD, CNRS, Université de Montpellier, Montpellier, France
| | - Priscilla Duboz
- UMI 3189 “Environnement, Santé, Sociétés”, Faculty of Medicine, Cheikh Anta Diop University, Dakar-Fann, Senegal
- Téssékéré International Human-Environment Observatory Labex DRIIM, CNRS and Cheikh Anta Diop University, Dakar, Senegal
| | - Clémentine Fritsch
- Laboratoire Chrono-Environnement, UMR 6249 CNRS/Université Bourgogne Franche-Comté Usc, INRA, Besançon, France
| | - Patrick Giraudoux
- Laboratoire Chrono-Environnement, UMR 6249 CNRS/Université Bourgogne Franche-Comté Usc, INRA, Besançon, France
- Institut Universitaire de France, Paris, France
| | - Frédérique Le Roux
- Ifremer, Unité Physiologie Fonctionnelle des Organismes Marins, Plouzané, France
| | - Serge Morand
- Institut des Sciences de l’Évolution (ISEM), UMR 5554, CNRS, Université de Montpellier, CIRAD, IRD, EPHE, Montpellier, France
- UPR ASTRE, CIRAD, Montpellier, France
| | - Christine Paillard
- Laboratoire des Sciences de l’Environnement Marin (LEMAR), Institut Universitaire Européen de la Mer, Université de Bretagne Occidentale, UMR 6539, CNRS, UBO, IRD, Ifremer, Plouzané, France
| | - Dominique Pontier
- Laboratoire de Biométrie et Biologie Evolutive UMR5558, CNRS, Université de Lyon, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, Villeurbanne, France
- LabEx Ecofect, Eco-Evolutionary Dynamics of Infectious Diseases, University of Lyon, Lyon, France
| | - Cédric Sueur
- Université de Strasbourg, CNRS, IPHC, UMR 7178, Strasbourg, France
| | - Yann Voituron
- Laboratoire d’Ecologie des Hydrosystèmes Naturels et Anthropisés, UMR 5023, CNRS, Université Claude Bernard Lyon1, Université de Lyon, Villeurbanne, France
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13
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Abstract
Cholera is an acute secretory diarrhoeal infection caused by the bacterium Vibrio cholerae. It is likely to have originated in the Indian sub-continent; however, it spread to cause six worldwide pandemics between 1817-1923. The ongoing seventh worldwide pandemic of cholera began in 1961. The intensity, duration and severity of cholera epidemics have been increasing, signaling the need for more effective control and prevention measures. The response to the cholera pandemics of the 19th century led to the development of safe and effective sanitation and water systems which have effectively removed the risk of cholera in many settings. However, such systems are not in place to protect billions of people worldwide. Although some progress has been made in expanding access to water in recent years, achieving optimal infrastructure will, in the most optimistic scenario, take decades. Climate change, extreme weather events and rapid urbanisation suggests that alternatives to the current paradigm of providing large centralised water and sanitation systems should be considered, including smaller decentralised systems. The aim of this review paper is to provide an overview of current knowledge regarding management of cholera with a focus on prevention measures including vaccination and water and sanitation interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hannah G Davies
- Paediatric Emergency Department, St Thomas's Hospital, London, SEI 7EH, UK.
| | - Conor Bowman
- Infectious Diseases Unit, The Royal Free Hospital, London, NW3 2QG, UK.
| | - Stephen P Luby
- Infectious Diseases and Geographic Medicine, Stanford University, California, CA 94305, USA.
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Semenza JC, Trinanes J, Lohr W, Sudre B, Löfdahl M, Martinez-Urtaza J, Nichols GL, Rocklöv J. Environmental Suitability of Vibrio Infections in a Warming Climate: An Early Warning System. ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH PERSPECTIVES 2017; 125:107004. [PMID: 29017986 PMCID: PMC5933323 DOI: 10.1289/ehp2198] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2017] [Revised: 08/12/2017] [Accepted: 08/14/2017] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Some Vibrio spp. are pathogenic and ubiquitous in marine waters with low to moderate salinity and thrive with elevated sea surface temperature (SST). OBJECTIVES Our objective was to monitor and project the suitability of marine conditions for Vibrio infections under climate change scenarios. METHODS The European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (ECDC) developed a platform (the ECDC Vibrio Map Viewer) to monitor the environmental suitability of coastal waters for Vibrio spp. using remotely sensed SST and salinity. A case-crossover study of Swedish cases was conducted to ascertain the relationship between SST and Vibrio infection through a conditional logistic regression. Climate change projections for Vibrio infections were developed for Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP) 4.5 and RCP 8.5. RESULTS The ECDC Vibrio Map Viewer detected environmentally suitable areas for Vibrio spp. in the Baltic Sea in July 2014 that were accompanied by a spike in cases and one death in Sweden. The estimated exposure-response relationship for Vibrio infections at a threshold of 16°C revealed a relative risk (RR)=1.14 (95% CI: 1.02, 1.27; p=0.024) for a lag of 2 wk; the estimated risk increased successively beyond this SST threshold. Climate change projections for SST under the RCP 4.5 and RCP 8.5 scenarios indicate a marked upward trend during the summer months and an increase in the relative risk of these infections in the coming decades. CONCLUSIONS This platform can serve as an early warning system as the risk of further Vibrio infections increases in the 21st century due to climate change. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP2198.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jan C Semenza
- Scientific Assessment Section, European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control , Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Joaquin Trinanes
- Instituto de Investigaciones Tecnoloxicas, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela , Santiago, Spain
- Physical Oceanography Division, Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration , Miami, Florida, USA
- Cooperative Institute for Marine and Atmospheric Studies, Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Sciences, University of Miami , Miami, Florida, USA
| | - Wolfgang Lohr
- Umeå Centre for Global Health Research, Umeå University , Umeå, Sweden
- Department of Public Health and Clinical Medicine, Epidemiology and Global Health, Umeå University , Umeå, Sweden
| | - Bertrand Sudre
- Epidemic Intelligence and Response, European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control , Stockholm, Sweden
| | | | - Jaime Martinez-Urtaza
- The Milner Centre for Evolution, Department of Biology and Biochemistry, University of Bath , Bath, UK
- The Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (CEFAS), Weymouth, UK
| | - Gordon L Nichols
- Public Health England , London, UK
- University of Exeter , Exeter, UK
- University of East Anglia , Norwich, UK
| | - Joacim Rocklöv
- Umeå Centre for Global Health Research, Umeå University , Umeå, Sweden
- Department of Public Health and Clinical Medicine, Epidemiology and Global Health, Umeå University , Umeå, Sweden
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15
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Ebi KL, Ogden NH, Semenza JC, Woodward A. Detecting and Attributing Health Burdens to Climate Change. ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH PERSPECTIVES 2017; 125:085004. [PMID: 28796635 PMCID: PMC5783629 DOI: 10.1289/ehp1509] [Citation(s) in RCA: 100] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2016] [Revised: 03/31/2017] [Accepted: 04/17/2017] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Detection and attribution of health impacts caused by climate change uses formal methods to determine a) whether the occurrence of adverse health outcomes has changed, and b) the extent to which that change could be attributed to climate change. There have been limited efforts to undertake detection and attribution analyses in health. OBJECTIVE Our goal was to show a range of approaches for conducting detection and attribution analyses. RESULTS Case studies for heatwaves, Lyme disease in Canada, and Vibrio emergence in northern Europe highlight evidence that climate change is adversely affecting human health. Changes in rates and geographic distribution of adverse health outcomes were detected, and, in each instance, a proportion of the observed changes could, in our judgment, be attributed to changes in weather patterns associated with climate change. CONCLUSIONS The results of detection and attribution studies can inform evidence-based risk management to reduce current, and plan for future, changes in health risks associated with climate change. Gaining a better understanding of the size, timing, and distribution of the climate change burden of disease and injury requires reliable long-term data sets, more knowledge about the factors that confound and modify the effects of climate on health, and refinement of analytic techniques for detection and attribution. At the same time, significant advances are possible in the absence of complete data and statistical certainty: there is a place for well-informed judgments, based on understanding of underlying processes and matching of patterns of health, climate, and other determinants of human well-being. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP1509.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristie L Ebi
- Department of Global Health, University of Washington , Seattle, Washington, USA
| | - Nicholas H Ogden
- Public Health Risk Sciences Division, National Microbiology Laboratory, Public Health Agency of Canada , Saint-Hyacinthe, Quebec, Canada
| | - Jan C Semenza
- Stockholm Environmental Institute , Stockholm, Sweden
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16
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Phippen BL, Oliver JD. Impact of hypoxia on gene expression patterns by the human pathogen, Vibrio vulnificus, and bacterial community composition in a North Carolina estuary. GEOHEALTH 2017; 1:37-50. [PMID: 32158978 PMCID: PMC7007117 DOI: 10.1002/2016gh000024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2016] [Revised: 02/06/2017] [Accepted: 02/27/2017] [Indexed: 05/11/2023]
Abstract
Estuarine environments are continuously being shaped by both natural and anthropogenic sources which directly/indirectly influence the organisms that inhabit these important niches on both individual and community levels. Human infections caused by pathogenic Vibrio species are continuing to rise, and factors associated with global climate change have been suggested to be impacting their abundance and geographical range. Along with temperature, hypoxia has also increased dramatically in the last 40 years, which has led to persistent dead zones worldwide in areas where these infections are increasing. Thus, utilizing membrane diffusion chambers, we investigated the impact of in situ hypoxia on the gene expression of one such bacterium, Vibrio vulnificus, which is an inhabitant of these vulnerable areas worldwide. By coupling these data with multiple abiotic factors, we were able to demonstrate that genes involved in numerous functions, including those involved in virulence, environmental persistence, and stressosome production, were negatively correlated with dissolved oxygen. Furthermore, comparing 16S ribosomal RNA, we found similar overall community compositions during both hypoxia and normoxia. However, unweighted beta diversity analyses revealed that although certain classes of bacteria dominate in both low- and high-oxygen environments, there is the potential for quantitative shifts in lower abundant species, which may be important for effective risk assessment in areas that are becoming increasingly more hypoxic. This study emphasizes the importance of investigating hypoxia as a trigger for gene expression changes by marine Vibrio species and highlights the need for more in depth community analyses during estuarine hypoxia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Britney L. Phippen
- Department of Biological SciencesUniversity of North Carolina at CharlotteCharlotteNorth CarolinaUSA
| | - James D. Oliver
- Department of Biological SciencesUniversity of North Carolina at CharlotteCharlotteNorth CarolinaUSA
- Duke University Marine LaboratoryDuke UniversityBeaufortNorth CarolinaUSA
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17
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Kopprio GA, Streitenberger ME, Okuno K, Baldini M, Biancalana F, Fricke A, Martínez A, Neogi SB, Koch BP, Yamasaki S, Lara RJ. Biogeochemical and hydrological drivers of the dynamics of Vibrio species in two Patagonian estuaries. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2017; 579:646-656. [PMID: 27871750 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.11.045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2016] [Revised: 11/06/2016] [Accepted: 11/07/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
The ecology of the most relevant Vibrio species for human health and their relation to water quality and biogeochemistry were studied in two estuaries in Argentinian Patagonia. Vibrio cholerae and Vibrio parahaemolyticus were reported in >29% of cases at the Río Colorado and Río Negro estuaries. Neither the pandemic serogroups of Vibrio cholerae O1, Vibrio cholerae O139 nor the cholera toxin gene were detected in this study. However, several strains of V. cholerae (not O1 or O139) are able to cause human disease or acquire pathogenic genes by horizontal transfer. Vibrio vulnificus was detected only in three instances in the microplankton fraction of the Río Negro estuary. The higher salinity in the Río Colorado estuary and in marine stations at both estuaries favours an abundance of culturable Vibrio. The extreme peaks for ammonium, heterotrophic bacteria and faecal coliforms in the Río Negro estuary supported a marked impact on sewage discharge. Generally, the more pathogenic strains of Vibrio have a faecal origin. Salinity, pH, ammonium, chlorophyll a, silicate and carbon/nitrogen ratio of suspended organic particulates were the primary factors explaining the distribution of culturable bacteria after distance-based linear models. Several effects of dissolved organic carbon on bacterial distribution are inferred. Global change is expected to increase the trophic state and the salinisation of Patagonian estuaries. Consequently, the distribution and abundance of Vibrio species is projected to increase under future changing baselines. Adaptation strategies should contribute to sustaining good water quality to buffer climate- and anthropogenic- driven impacts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Germán A Kopprio
- Instituto Argentino de Oceanografía, Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas and Universidad Nacional del Sur, Florida 4750, B8000FWB Bahía Blanca, Argentina; Leibniz Center for Tropical Marine Ecology, Fahrenheitstr. 6, 28359 Bremen, Germany.
| | - M Eugenia Streitenberger
- Department of Biology, Biochemistry and Pharmacy, Universidad Nacional del Sur, San Juan 670, 8000 Bahía Blanca, Argentina
| | - Kentaro Okuno
- Department of Veterinary Science, Graduate School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Osaka Prefecture University, 1-58, Rinku orai-kita, Izumisano-shi, Osaka 598-8531, Japan
| | - Mónica Baldini
- Department of Biology, Biochemistry and Pharmacy, Universidad Nacional del Sur, San Juan 670, 8000 Bahía Blanca, Argentina
| | - Florencia Biancalana
- Instituto Argentino de Oceanografía, Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas and Universidad Nacional del Sur, Florida 4750, B8000FWB Bahía Blanca, Argentina
| | - Anna Fricke
- Instituto Argentino de Oceanografía, Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas and Universidad Nacional del Sur, Florida 4750, B8000FWB Bahía Blanca, Argentina; Leibniz Center for Tropical Marine Ecology, Fahrenheitstr. 6, 28359 Bremen, Germany
| | - Ana Martínez
- Department of Chemistry, Universidad Nacional del Sur, Av. Alem 1253, B8000CPB Bahía Blanca, Argentina
| | - Sucharit B Neogi
- Department of Veterinary Science, Graduate School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Osaka Prefecture University, 1-58, Rinku orai-kita, Izumisano-shi, Osaka 598-8531, Japan
| | - Boris P Koch
- Alfred Wegener Institute Helmholtz Center for Polar and Marine Research, Marine Chemistry, Am Handelshafen 12, 27570 Bremerhaven, Germany
| | - Shinji Yamasaki
- Department of Veterinary Science, Graduate School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Osaka Prefecture University, 1-58, Rinku orai-kita, Izumisano-shi, Osaka 598-8531, Japan
| | - Rubén J Lara
- Instituto Argentino de Oceanografía, Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas and Universidad Nacional del Sur, Florida 4750, B8000FWB Bahía Blanca, Argentina
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Schulte P, Bhattacharya A, Butler C, Chun H, Jacklitsch B, Jacobs T, Kiefer M, Lincoln J, Pendergrass S, Shire J, Watson J, Wagner G. Advancing the framework for considering the effects of climate change on worker safety and health. JOURNAL OF OCCUPATIONAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL HYGIENE 2016; 13:847-65. [PMID: 27115294 PMCID: PMC5017900 DOI: 10.1080/15459624.2016.1179388] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
In 2009, a preliminary framework for how climate change could affect worker safety and health was described. That framework was based on a literature search from 1988-2008 that supported seven categories of climate-related occupational hazards: (1) increased ambient temperature; (2) air pollution; (3) ultraviolet radiation exposure; (4) extreme weather; (5) vector-borne diseases and expanded habitats; (6) industrial transitions and emerging industries; and (7) changes in the built environment. This article reviews the published literature from 2008-2014 in each of the seven categories. Additionally, three new topics related to occupational safety and health are considered: mental health effects, economic burden, and potential worker safety and health impacts associated with the nascent field of climate intervention (geoengineering). Beyond updating the literature, this article also identifies key priorities for action to better characterize and understand how occupational safety and health may be associated with climate change events and ensure that worker health and safety issues are anticipated, recognized, evaluated, and mitigated. These key priorities include research, surveillance, risk assessment, risk management, and policy development. Strong evidence indicates that climate change will continue to present occupational safety and health hazards, and this framework may be a useful tool for preventing adverse effects to workers.
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Affiliation(s)
- P.A. Schulte
- National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Education and Infomation Division, Cincinnati, Ohio
- CONTACT P.A. Schulte National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1090 Tusculum Avenue, MS C-14, Cincinnati, OH45226
| | - A. Bhattacharya
- National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Education and Infomation Division, Cincinnati, Ohio
| | - C.R. Butler
- Western States Division, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Denver, Colorado
| | - H.K. Chun
- Georgia Southern University, College of Public Health, Statesboro, Georgia
| | - B. Jacklitsch
- National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Education and Infomation Division, Cincinnati, Ohio
| | - T. Jacobs
- Division of Surveillance, Hazard Evaluations, and Field Studies, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Cincinnati, Ohio
| | - M. Kiefer
- Western States Division, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Denver, Colorado
| | - J. Lincoln
- Western States Division, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Anchorage, Alaska
| | - S. Pendergrass
- National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Education and Infomation Division, Cincinnati, Ohio
| | - J. Shire
- Division of Surveillance, Hazard Evaluations, and Field Studies, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Cincinnati, Ohio
| | - J. Watson
- Western States Division, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Spokane, Washington
| | - G.R. Wagner
- Office of the Director, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; Washington, D.C.
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Raszl S, Froelich B, Vieira C, Blackwood A, Noble R. Vibrio parahaemolyticusandVibrio vulnificusin South America: water, seafood and human infections. J Appl Microbiol 2016; 121:1201-1222. [DOI: 10.1111/jam.13246] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2016] [Revised: 06/27/2016] [Accepted: 07/24/2016] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- S.M. Raszl
- Department of Food Science and Technology; Federal University of Santa Catarina (UFSC); Florianopolis Brazil
| | - B.A. Froelich
- Institute of Marine Sciences; The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill (UNC-CH); Morehead City NC USA
| | - C.R.W. Vieira
- Department of Food Science and Technology; Federal University of Santa Catarina (UFSC); Florianopolis Brazil
| | - A.D. Blackwood
- Institute of Marine Sciences; The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill (UNC-CH); Morehead City NC USA
| | - R.T. Noble
- Institute of Marine Sciences; The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill (UNC-CH); Morehead City NC USA
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Froelich BA, Noble RT. Vibrio bacteria in raw oysters: managing risks to human health. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2016; 371:20150209. [PMID: 26880841 PMCID: PMC4760139 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2015.0209] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/21/2015] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
The human-pathogenic marine bacteria Vibrio vulnificus and V. parahaemolyticus are strongly correlated with water temperature, with concentrations increasing as waters warm seasonally. Both of these bacteria can be concentrated in filter-feeding shellfish, especially oysters. Because oysters are often consumed raw, this exposes people to large doses of potentially harmful bacteria. Various models are used to predict the abundance of these bacteria in oysters, which guide shellfish harvest policy meant to reduce human health risk. Vibrio abundance and behaviour varies from site to site, suggesting that location-specific studies are needed to establish targeted risk reduction strategies. Moreover, virulence potential, rather than simple abundance, should be also be included in future modeling efforts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brett A Froelich
- The Institute of Marine Sciences, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Morehead City, NC 28557, USA
| | - Rachel T Noble
- The Institute of Marine Sciences, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Morehead City, NC 28557, USA
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