1
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Bogani A, Tentori K, Timberlake B, Pighin S. Counterfactual curiosity in real decisions: The roles of outcome valence and aging. Psychon Bull Rev 2024:10.3758/s13423-024-02569-2. [PMID: 39455491 DOI: 10.3758/s13423-024-02569-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 08/09/2024] [Indexed: 10/28/2024]
Abstract
Non-instrumental counterfactual curiosity (i.e., the search for information about forgone options that is not useful for improving future outcomes) has especially been observed after outcomes perceived as negative and, consequently, attributed to forms of regret management. In three online experiments (N = 620), we extended the study of counterfactual curiosity about economically incentivized decisions in younger and older adults. Participants played independent rounds of a card-drawing game by choosing one of two decks to turn over the top, covered card, which could increase, decrease, or have no effect on an initial endowment. Following that, they could examine the top card of the other deck to see if and how the outcome could have differed. Experiment 1 featured identical decks, making the choice between them random. In Experiment 2, participants made a deliberate choice between a riskier and a safer deck, each varying in the extremity of potential wins and losses. In Experiment 3, the decks were identical to those in Experiment 2, but access to counterfactual information was contingent upon participants forfeiting part of their endowment. Results showed a relevant portion of both younger and older adults displayed curiosity for non-instrumental counterfactual information, especially when it was free and likely to reveal that the forgone option would have been better than the chosen one. Older adults exhibited a higher level of curiosity than younger counterparts only when choices were deliberate and counterfactual information was free. These findings are discussed in relation to current perspectives on the regret-management function of counterfactual curiosity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alessandro Bogani
- Center for Mind/Brain Sciences (CIMeC), University of Trento, Corso Bettini, N. 31, 38068, Rovereto, TN, Italy.
| | - Katya Tentori
- Center for Mind/Brain Sciences (CIMeC), University of Trento, Corso Bettini, N. 31, 38068, Rovereto, TN, Italy
| | - Benjamin Timberlake
- Center for Mind/Brain Sciences (CIMeC), University of Trento, Corso Bettini, N. 31, 38068, Rovereto, TN, Italy
| | - Stefania Pighin
- Center for Mind/Brain Sciences (CIMeC), University of Trento, Corso Bettini, N. 31, 38068, Rovereto, TN, Italy
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2
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Bussell JJ, Badman RP, Márton CD, Bromberg-Martin ES, Abbott L, Rajan K, Axel R. Representations of the intrinsic value of information in mouse orbitofrontal cortex. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2023.10.13.562291. [PMID: 39416043 PMCID: PMC11482914 DOI: 10.1101/2023.10.13.562291] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2024]
Abstract
Animals are motivated to seek information that does not influence reward outcomes, suggesting that information has intrinsic value. We have developed an odor-based information seeking task that reveals that mice choose to receive information even though it does not alter the reward outcome. Moreover, mice are willing to pay for information by sacrificing water reward, suggesting that information is of intrinsic value to a mouse. We used a microendoscope to reveal neural activity in orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) while mice learned the information seeking task. We observed the emergence of distinct populations of neurons responsive to odors predictive of information and odors predictive of water reward. A latent variable model recapitulated these different representations in the low-dimensional dynamics of OFC neuronal population activity. These data suggest that mice have evolved separate pathways to represent the intrinsic value of information and the extrinsic value of water reward. Thus, the desire to acquire knowledge is observed in mice, and the value of this information is represented in the OFC. The mouse now provides a facile experimental system to study the representation of the value of information, a higher cognitive variable.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer J. Bussell
- Department of Neuroscience, Columbia University; New York, NY, 10027, USA
- Zuckerman Mind Brain and Behavior Institute, Columbia University; New York, NY, 10027, USA
| | - Ryan P. Badman
- Department of Neurobiology, Harvard Medical School; Boston, MA, 02115, USA
- Kempner Institute, Harvard University; Cambridge, MA, 02138, USA
| | | | | | - L.F. Abbott
- Department of Neuroscience, Columbia University; New York, NY, 10027, USA
- Zuckerman Mind Brain and Behavior Institute, Columbia University; New York, NY, 10027, USA
| | - Kanaka Rajan
- Department of Neurobiology, Harvard Medical School; Boston, MA, 02115, USA
- Kempner Institute, Harvard University; Cambridge, MA, 02138, USA
| | - Richard Axel
- Department of Neuroscience, Columbia University; New York, NY, 10027, USA
- Zuckerman Mind Brain and Behavior Institute, Columbia University; New York, NY, 10027, USA
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute; Chevy Chase, MD, 20815, USA
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3
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Ajuwon V, Monteiro T, Schnell AK, Clayton NS. To know or not to know? Curiosity and the value of prospective information in animals. Learn Behav 2024:10.3758/s13420-024-00647-y. [PMID: 39414697 DOI: 10.3758/s13420-024-00647-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 09/10/2024] [Indexed: 10/18/2024]
Abstract
Humans and other animals often seek instrumental information to strategically improve their decisions in the present. Our curiosity also leads us to acquire non-instrumental information that is not immediately useful but can be encoded in memory and stored for use in the future by means of episodic recall. Despite its adaptive benefits and central role in human cognition, questions remain about the cognitive mechanisms and evolutionary origins that underpin curiosity. Here, we comparatively review recent empirical studies that some authors have suggested reflects curiosity in nonhuman animals. We focus on findings from laboratory tasks in which individuals can choose to gain advanced information about uncertain future outcomes, even though the information cannot be used to increase future rewards and is often costly. We explore the prevalence of preferences in these tasks across animals, discuss the theoretical advances that they have promoted, and outline some limitations in contemporary research. We also discuss several features of human curiosity that can guide future empirical research aimed at characterising and understanding curiosity in animals. Though the prevalence of curiosity in animals is actively debated, we surmise that investigating behavioural candidates for curiosity-motivated behaviour in a broader range of species and contexts, should help promote theoretical advances in our understanding of cognitive principles and evolutionary pressures that support curiosity-driven behaviour.
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Affiliation(s)
- Victor Ajuwon
- Department of Psychology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK.
| | - Tiago Monteiro
- William James Centre for Research, University of Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal
- Domestication Lab, Konrad Lorenz Institute of Ethology, Department of Interdisciplinary Life Sciences, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | | | - Nicola S Clayton
- Department of Psychology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
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4
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Speer SPH, Mwilambwe-Tshilobo L, Tsoi L, Burns SM, Falk EB, Tamir DI. Hyperscanning shows friends explore and strangers converge in conversation. Nat Commun 2024; 15:7781. [PMID: 39237568 PMCID: PMC11377434 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-024-51990-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2023] [Accepted: 08/22/2024] [Indexed: 09/07/2024] Open
Abstract
During conversation, people often endeavor to convey information in an understandable way (finding common ground) while also sharing novel or surprising information (exploring new ground). Here, we test how friends and strangers balance these two strategies to connect with each other. Using fMRI hyperscanning, we measure a preference for common ground as convergence over time and exploring new ground as divergence over time by tracking dyads' neural and linguistic trajectories over the course of semi-structured intimacy-building conversations. In our study, 60 dyads (30 friend dyads) engaged in a real-time conversation with discrete prompts and demarcated turns. Our analyses reveal that friends diverge neurally and linguistically: their neural patterns become more dissimilar over time and they explore more diverse topics. In contrast, strangers converge: neural patterns and language become more similar over time. The more a conversation between strangers resembles the exploratory conversations of friends, the more they enjoy it. Our results highlight exploring new ground as a strategy for a successful conversation.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Laetitia Mwilambwe-Tshilobo
- Department of Psychology, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, USA
- Annenberg School for Communication, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Lily Tsoi
- Department of Psychology, Caldwell University, Caldwell, NJ, USA
| | - Shannon M Burns
- Department of Psychological Science, Pomona College, Claremont, CA, USA
- Department of Neuroscience, Pomona College, Claremont, CA, USA
| | - Emily B Falk
- Annenberg School for Communication, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
- Department of Psychology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
- Wharton Marketing Department, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
- Operations, Information, and Decisions Department, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Diana I Tamir
- Princeton Neuroscience Institute, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, USA
- Department of Psychology, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, USA
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5
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Bennett D, Albertella L, Forbes L, Hayes T, Verdejo-Garcia A, Walasek L, Ludvig EA. People Place Larger Bets When Risky Choices Provide a Postbet Option to Cash Out. Psychol Sci 2024:9567976241266516. [PMID: 39186065 DOI: 10.1177/09567976241266516] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/27/2024] Open
Abstract
After a risky choice, decision makers must frequently wait out a delay period before the outcome of their choice becomes known. In contemporary sports-betting apps, decision makers can "cash out" of their bet during this delay period by accepting a discounted immediate payout. An important open question is how availability of a postchoice cash-out option alters choice. We investigated this question using a novel gambling task that incorporated a cash-out option during the delay between bet and outcome. Across two experiments (N = 240 adults, recruited via Prolific), cash-out availability increased participants' bet amounts by up to 35%. Participants who were more likely to cash out when odds deteriorated were less likely to cash out when odds improved. Furthermore, the effect of cash-out availability on bet amounts was positively correlated with individual differences in cash-out propensity for bets with deteriorating odds only. These results suggest that cash-out availability may promote larger bets by allowing bettors to avoid losing their entire stake.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Laura Forbes
- School of Psychological Sciences, Monash University
| | - Ty Hayes
- Warwick Business School, University of Warwick
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6
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Embrey JR, Li AX, Liew SX, Newell BR. The effect of noninstrumental information on reward learning. Mem Cognit 2024; 52:1210-1227. [PMID: 38393534 PMCID: PMC11315740 DOI: 10.3758/s13421-024-01537-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 02/08/2024] [Indexed: 02/25/2024]
Abstract
Investigations of information-seeking often highlight people's tendency to forgo financial reward in return for advance information about future outcomes. Most of these experiments use tasks in which reward contingencies are described to participants. The use of such descriptions leaves open the question of whether the opportunity to obtain such noninstrumental information influences people's ability to learn and represent the underlying reward structure of an experimental environment. In two experiments, participants completed a two-armed bandit task with monetary incentives where reward contingencies were learned via trial-by-trial experience. We find, akin to description-based tasks, that participants are willing to forgo financial reward to receive information about a delayed, unchangeable outcome. Crucially, however, there is little evidence this willingness to pay for information is driven by an inaccurate representation of the reward structure: participants' representations approximated the underlying reward structure regardless of the presence of advance noninstrumental information. The results extend previous conclusions regarding the intrinsic value of information to an experience-based domain and highlight challenges of probing participants' memories for experienced rewards.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jake R Embrey
- School of Psychology, UNSW Sydney, Kensington, Australia.
| | - Amy X Li
- School of Psychology, UNSW Sydney, Kensington, Australia
- Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Shi Xian Liew
- School of Psychology, UNSW Sydney, Kensington, Australia
- School of Psychological Sciences, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Ben R Newell
- School of Psychology, UNSW Sydney, Kensington, Australia
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7
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Wittek N, Sayin BS, Okur N, Wittek K, Gül N, Oeksuez F, Güntürkün O, Anselme P. Hungry pigeons prefer sooner rare food over later likely food or faster information. Front Psychol 2024; 15:1426434. [PMID: 38979068 PMCID: PMC11229172 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1426434] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2024] [Accepted: 06/13/2024] [Indexed: 07/10/2024] Open
Abstract
Introduction Making decisions and investing effort to obtain rewards may depend on various factors, such as the delay to reward, the probability of its occurrence, and the information that can be collected about it. As predicted by various theories, pigeons and other animals indeed mind these factors when deciding. Methods We now implemented a task in which pigeons were allowed to choose among three options and to peck at the chosen key to improve the conditions of reward delivery. Pecking more at a first color reduced the 12-s delay before food was delivered with a 33.3% chance, pecking more at a second color increased the initial 33.3% chance of food delivery but did not reduce the 12-s delay, and pecking more at a third color reduced the delay before information was provided whether the trial will be rewarded with a 33.3% chance after 12 s. Results Pigeons' preference (delay vs. probability, delay vs. information, and probability vs. information), as well as their pecking effort for the chosen option, were analyzed. Our results indicate that hungry pigeons preferred to peck for delay reduction but did not work more for that option than for probability increase, which was the most profitable alternative and did not induce more pecking effort. In this task, information was the least preferred and induced the lowest level of effort. Refed pigeons showed no preference for any option but did not drastically reduce the average amounts of effort invested. Discussion These results are discussed in the context of species-specific ecological conditions that could constrain current foraging theories.
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8
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Kim S, Sakaki M, Murayama K. Metacognition of curiosity: People underestimate the seductive lure of non-instrumental information. Psychon Bull Rev 2024; 31:1-12. [PMID: 37932580 PMCID: PMC11192831 DOI: 10.3758/s13423-023-02404-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 10/06/2023] [Indexed: 11/08/2023]
Abstract
Curiosity - the desire to seek information - is fundamental for learning and performance. Studies on curiosity have shown that people are intrinsically motivated to seek information even if it does not bring an immediate tangible benefit (i.e., non-instrumental information), but little is known as to whether people have the metacognitive capability to accurately monitor their motivation for seeking information. We examined whether people can accurately predict their own non-instrumental information-seeking behavior. Across six experiments (Experiments 1A-1E and 2, total N = 579), participants predicted that they would engage in information-seeking behavior less frequently than they actually did, suggesting that people tend to underestimate the motivational lure of curiosity. Overall, there was no consistent statistical evidence that this underestimation was altered by contextual factors (e.g., the cost to seek information). These results were consistent with the theoretical account that it is difficult for people to make sense of the internally rewarding value of information in advance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sunae Kim
- Department of Psychology, Health, & Professional Development, Faculty of Health and Life Sciences, Oxford Brookes University, Gipsy Lane, Oxford, OX3 0BP, UK.
| | - Michiko Sakaki
- Hector Research Institute of Education Sciences and Psychology, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
- Research Institute, Kochi University of Technology, Kochi, Japan
- School of Psychology and Clinical Language Sciences, University of Reading, Reading, UK
| | - Kou Murayama
- Hector Research Institute of Education Sciences and Psychology, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
- Research Institute, Kochi University of Technology, Kochi, Japan
- School of Psychology and Clinical Language Sciences, University of Reading, Reading, UK
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9
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McDevitt MA, Pisklak JM, Dunn RM, Spetch ML. Temporal context effects on suboptimal choice. Psychon Bull Rev 2024:10.3758/s13423-024-02519-y. [PMID: 38760618 DOI: 10.3758/s13423-024-02519-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 04/22/2024] [Indexed: 05/19/2024]
Abstract
Choice can be driven both by rewards and stimuli that signal those rewards. Under certain conditions, pigeons will prefer options that lead to less probable reward when the reward is signaled. A recently quantified model, the Signal for Good News (SiGN) model, assumes that in the context of uncertainty, signals for a reduced delay to reward reinforce choice. The SiGN model provides an excellent fit to previous results from pigeons and the current studies are the first to test a priori quantitative predictions. Pigeons chose between a suboptimal alternative that led to signaled 20% food and an optimal alternative that led to 50% food. The duration of the choice period was manipulated across conditions in two experiments. Pigeons strongly preferred the suboptimal alternative at the shorter durations and strongly preferred the optimal alternative at the longer durations. The results from both experiments fit well with predictions from the SiGN model and show that altering the duration of the choice period has a dramatic effect in that it changes which of the two options pigeons prefer. More generally, these results suggest that the relative value of options is not fixed, but instead depends on the temporal context.
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10
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Poli F, O'Reilly JX, Mars RB, Hunnius S. Curiosity and the dynamics of optimal exploration. Trends Cogn Sci 2024; 28:441-453. [PMID: 38413257 DOI: 10.1016/j.tics.2024.02.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2023] [Revised: 02/01/2024] [Accepted: 02/01/2024] [Indexed: 02/29/2024]
Abstract
What drives our curiosity remains an elusive and hotly debated issue, with multiple hypotheses proposed but a cohesive account yet to be established. This review discusses traditional and emergent theories that frame curiosity as a desire to know and a drive to learn, respectively. We adopt a model-based approach that maps the temporal dynamics of various factors underlying curiosity-based exploration, such as uncertainty, information gain, and learning progress. In so doing, we identify the limitations of past theories and posit an integrated account that harnesses their strengths in describing curiosity as a tool for optimal environmental exploration. In our unified account, curiosity serves as a 'common currency' for exploration, which must be balanced with other drives such as safety and hunger to achieve efficient action.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francesco Poli
- Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition, and Behaviour, Radboud University, Nijmegen, The Netherlands.
| | - Jill X O'Reilly
- Wellcome Centre for Integrative Neuroimaging, Centre for Functional MRI of the Brain (FMRIB), Nuffield Department of Clinical Neurosciences, John Radcliffe Hospital, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Rogier B Mars
- Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition, and Behaviour, Radboud University, Nijmegen, The Netherlands; Wellcome Centre for Integrative Neuroimaging, Centre for Functional MRI of the Brain (FMRIB), Nuffield Department of Clinical Neurosciences, John Radcliffe Hospital, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Sabine Hunnius
- Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition, and Behaviour, Radboud University, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
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11
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Poli F, Ghilardi T, Beijers R, de Weerth C, Hinne M, Mars RB, Hunnius S. Individual differences in processing speed and curiosity explain infant habituation and dishabituation performance. Dev Sci 2024; 27:e13460. [PMID: 38155558 DOI: 10.1111/desc.13460] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2023] [Revised: 08/05/2023] [Accepted: 11/09/2023] [Indexed: 12/30/2023]
Abstract
Habituation and dishabituation are the most prevalent measures of infant cognitive functioning, and they have reliably been shown to predict later cognitive outcomes. Yet, the exact mechanisms underlying infant habituation and dishabituation are still unclear. To investigate them, we tested 106 8-month-old infants on a classic habituation task and a novel visual learning task. We used a hierarchical Bayesian model to identify individual differences in sustained attention, learning performance, processing speed and curiosity from the visual learning task. These factors were then related to habituation and dishabituation. We found that habituation time was related to individual differences in processing speed, while dishabituation was related to curiosity, but only for infants who did not habituate. These results offer novel insights in the mechanisms underlying habituation and serve as proof of concept for hierarchical models as an effective tool to measure individual differences in infant cognitive functioning. RESEARCH HIGHLIGHTS: We used a hierarchical Bayesian model to measure individual differences in infants' processing speed, learning performance, sustained attention, and curiosity. Faster processing speed was related to shorter habituation time. High curiosity was related to stronger dishabituation responses, but only for infants who did not habituate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francesco Poli
- Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud University, Nijmegen, Netherlands
| | - Tommaso Ghilardi
- Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud University, Nijmegen, Netherlands
- Centre for Brain and Cognitive Development, School of Psychological Sciences, Birkbeck, University of London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Roseriet Beijers
- Behavioral Science Institute, Radboud University, Nijmegen, Netherlands
- Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Department of Cognitive Neuroscience, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, Netherlands
| | - Carolina de Weerth
- Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Department of Cognitive Neuroscience, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, Netherlands
| | - Max Hinne
- Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud University, Nijmegen, Netherlands
| | - Rogier B Mars
- Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud University, Nijmegen, Netherlands
- Wellcome Centre for Integrative Neuroimaging, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Sabine Hunnius
- Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud University, Nijmegen, Netherlands
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12
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Devine S, da Silva Castanheira K, Fleming SM, Otto AR. Distinguishing between intrinsic and instrumental sources of the value of choice. Cognition 2024; 245:105742. [PMID: 38350251 DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2024.105742] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2023] [Revised: 01/23/2024] [Accepted: 02/09/2024] [Indexed: 02/15/2024]
Abstract
Considerable evidence suggests that people value the freedom to choose. However, it is unclear whether this preference for choice stems purely from choice's intrinsic value, or whether people prefer to choose because it tends to provide instrumental information about desirable outcomes. To address this question, participants completed a novel choice task in which they could freely choose to exert choice or not, manipulating the level of instrumental contingency between participants' choices and eventual outcomes, which we operationalized using the information-theoretic concept of mutual information. Across two experiments (N = 100 each), we demonstrate a marked preference for choice, but importantly found that participants' preference for free choice is weakened when actions are decoupled from outcomes. Taken together, our results demonstrate that a significant factor in people's preference for choice is an assumption about the instrumental value of choice, suggesting against a purely intrinsic value of choice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sean Devine
- Department of Psychology, McGill University, Montreal, Canada.
| | | | - Stephen M Fleming
- Department of Experimental Psychology, University College London, London, UK; Wellcome Centre for Human Neuroimaging, University College London, London, UK; Max Planck UCL Centre for Computational Psychiatry and Ageing Research, University College London, London, UK
| | - A Ross Otto
- Department of Psychology, McGill University, Montreal, Canada
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13
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Bénon J, Lee D, Hopper W, Verdeil M, Pessiglione M, Vinckier F, Bouret S, Rouault M, Lebouc R, Pezzulo G, Schreiweis C, Burguière E, Daunizeau J. The online metacognitive control of decisions. COMMUNICATIONS PSYCHOLOGY 2024; 2:23. [PMID: 39242926 PMCID: PMC11332065 DOI: 10.1038/s44271-024-00071-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2023] [Accepted: 02/28/2024] [Indexed: 09/09/2024]
Abstract
Difficult decisions typically involve mental effort, which scales with the deployment of cognitive (e.g., mnesic, attentional) resources engaged in processing decision-relevant information. But how does the brain regulate mental effort? A possibility is that the brain optimizes a resource allocation problem, whereby the amount of invested resources balances its expected cost (i.e. effort) and benefit. Our working assumption is that subjective decision confidence serves as the benefit term of the resource allocation problem, hence the "metacognitive" nature of decision control. Here, we present a computational model for the online metacognitive control of decisions or oMCD. Formally, oMCD is a Markov Decision Process that optimally solves the ensuing resource allocation problem under agnostic assumptions about the inner workings of the underlying decision system. We demonstrate how this makes oMCD a quasi-optimal control policy for a broad class of decision processes, including -but not limited to- progressive attribute integration. We disclose oMCD's main properties (in terms of choice, confidence and response time), and show that they reproduce most established empirical results in the field of value-based decision making. Finally, we discuss the possible connections between oMCD and most prominent neurocognitive theories about decision control and mental effort regulation.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Douglas Lee
- School of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
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14
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Macías A, Machado A, Vasconcelos M. On the value of advanced information about delayed rewards. Anim Cogn 2024; 27:10. [PMID: 38429396 PMCID: PMC10907439 DOI: 10.1007/s10071-024-01856-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2023] [Revised: 07/21/2023] [Accepted: 10/18/2023] [Indexed: 03/03/2024]
Abstract
In a variety of laboratory preparations, several animal species prefer signaled over unsignaled outcomes. Here we examine whether pigeons prefer options that signal the delay to reward over options that do not and how this preference changes with the ratio of the delays. We offered pigeons repeated choices between two alternatives leading to a short or a long delay to reward. For one alternative (informative), the short and long delays were reliably signaled by different stimuli (e.g., SS for short delays, SL for long delays). For the other (non-informative), the delays were not reliably signaled by the stimuli presented (S1 and S2). Across conditions, we varied the durations of the short and long delays, hence their ratio, while keeping the average delay to reward constant. Pigeons preferred the informative over the non-informative option and this preference became stronger as the ratio of the long to the short delay increased. A modified version of the Δ-Σ hypothesis (González et al., J Exp Anal Behav 113(3):591-608. https://doi.org/10.1002/jeab.595 , 2020a) incorporating a contrast-like process between the immediacies to reward signaled by each stimulus accounted well for our findings. Functionally, we argue that a preference for signaled delays hinges on the potential instrumental advantage typically conveyed by information.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alejandro Macías
- William James Center for Research, University of Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal.
- Animal Learning and Behavior Lab, School of Psychology, University of Minho, Campus de Gualtar, 4710-057, Braga, Portugal.
| | - Armando Machado
- William James Center for Research, University of Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal
| | - Marco Vasconcelos
- William James Center for Research, University of Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal
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15
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Monosov IE. Curiosity: primate neural circuits for novelty and information seeking. Nat Rev Neurosci 2024; 25:195-208. [PMID: 38263217 DOI: 10.1038/s41583-023-00784-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/13/2023] [Indexed: 01/25/2024]
Abstract
For many years, neuroscientists have investigated the behavioural, computational and neurobiological mechanisms that support value-based decisions, revealing how humans and animals make choices to obtain rewards. However, many decisions are influenced by factors other than the value of physical rewards or second-order reinforcers (such as money). For instance, animals (including humans) frequently explore novel objects that have no intrinsic value solely because they are novel and they exhibit the desire to gain information to reduce their uncertainties about the future, even if this information cannot lead to reward or assist them in accomplishing upcoming tasks. In this Review, I discuss how circuits in the primate brain responsible for detecting, predicting and assessing novelty and uncertainty regulate behaviour and give rise to these behavioural components of curiosity. I also briefly discuss how curiosity-related behaviours arise during postnatal development and point out some important reasons for the persistence of curiosity across generations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ilya E Monosov
- Department of Neuroscience, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA.
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Washington University, St. Louis, MO, USA.
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Washington University, St. Louis, MO, USA.
- Department of Neurosurgery, Washington University, St. Louis, MO, USA.
- Pain Center, Washington University, St. Louis, MO, USA.
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16
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Bromberg-Martin ES, Feng YY, Ogasawara T, White JK, Zhang K, Monosov IE. A neural mechanism for conserved value computations integrating information and rewards. Nat Neurosci 2024; 27:159-175. [PMID: 38177339 PMCID: PMC10774124 DOI: 10.1038/s41593-023-01511-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2022] [Accepted: 10/30/2023] [Indexed: 01/06/2024]
Abstract
Behavioral and economic theory dictate that we decide between options based on their values. However, humans and animals eagerly seek information about uncertain future rewards, even when this does not provide any objective value. This implies that decisions are made by endowing information with subjective value and integrating it with the value of extrinsic rewards, but the mechanism is unknown. Here, we show that human and monkey value judgements obey strikingly conserved computational principles during multi-attribute decisions trading off information and extrinsic reward. We then identify a neural substrate in a highly conserved ancient structure, the lateral habenula (LHb). LHb neurons signal subjective value, integrating information's value with extrinsic rewards, and the LHb predicts and causally influences ongoing decisions. Neurons in key input areas to the LHb largely signal components of these computations, not integrated value signals. Thus, our data uncover neural mechanisms of conserved computations underlying decisions to seek information about the future.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Yang-Yang Feng
- Department of Neuroscience, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Washington University, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Takaya Ogasawara
- Department of Neuroscience, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - J Kael White
- Department of Neuroscience, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Kaining Zhang
- Department of Neuroscience, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Washington University, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Ilya E Monosov
- Department of Neuroscience, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA.
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Washington University, St. Louis, MO, USA.
- Department of Neurosurgery, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA.
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Washington University, St. Louis, MO, USA.
- Pain Center, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA.
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17
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Clark J, Vincent A, Wang X, McGowan AL, Lydon-Staley DM. Smokers' Curiosity Facilitates Recall of Tobacco-Related Health Information. HEALTH COMMUNICATION 2023; 38:3357-3365. [PMID: 36453248 DOI: 10.1080/10410236.2022.2149098] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Curiosity promotes learning. Two open questions concern the extent to which tobacco smokers exhibit curiosity about smoking-related health information and whether this curiosity can facilitate recall of this information. Participants (n = 324 smokers; n = 280 nonsmokers) performed a Trivia Guessing Task wherein participants guessed the answers to general trivia and smoking-related trivia questions and provided ratings of their curiosity prior to viewing the answers to the questions. A subset of participants (n = 121 smokers; n = 97 nonsmokers) completed a surprise Trivia Memory Task one-week later and answered the previously-viewed questions. Results indicate that smokers are no less curious about smoking-related trivia than they are about general trivia and that curiosity about the answer to smoking-related trivia is associated with more accurate recall of smoking-related trivia answers one week later. Findings suggest that engendering states of curiosity for smoking-related information may facilitate retention of that information in smokers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jaydin Clark
- Annenberg School for Communication, University of Pennsylvania
| | - Asia Vincent
- Annenberg School for Communication, University of Pennsylvania
| | - Xinyi Wang
- Annenberg School for Communication, University of Pennsylvania
| | | | - David M Lydon-Staley
- Annenberg School for Communication, University of Pennsylvania
- Department of Bioengineering, School of Engineering and Applied Science, University of Pennsylvania
- Leonard Davis Institute of Health Economics, University of Pennsylvania
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18
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Bode S, Jiwa M, Chum C, Frost L, Heekeren HR, Wingenfeld K, Deuter CE. Non-instrumental information seeking is resistant to acute stress. Sci Rep 2023; 13:19505. [PMID: 37945712 PMCID: PMC10636112 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-46766-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2023] [Accepted: 11/04/2023] [Indexed: 11/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Previous research has shown that people intrinsically value non-instrumental information, which cannot be used to change the outcome of events, but only provides an early resolution of uncertainty. This is true even for information about rather inconsequential events, such as the outcomes of small lotteries. Here we investigated whether participants' willingness to pay for non-instrumental information about the outcome of simple coin-flip lotteries with guaranteed winnings was modulated by acute stress. Stress was induced using the Socially Evaluated Cold Pressor Test (SECPT), and information-seeking choices were compared to a warm water control group. Our results neither support the hypothesis that stress decreases information-seeking by directing cognitive resources away from the relevance of the lotteries, nor the opposite hypothesis that stress increases information-seeking by driving anxiety levels up. Instead, we found that despite successful stress induction, as evidenced by increased saliva cortisol levels in the SECPT group, information valuation was remarkably stable. This finding is in line with recent findings that experimentally increased state anxiety did not modulate non-instrumental information seeking. Together, these results suggest that the aversiveness of "not knowing" is a stable cognitive state and not easily modulated by situational context, such as acute stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefan Bode
- Melbourne School of Psychological Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, 3010, Australia.
| | - Matthew Jiwa
- Melbourne School of Psychological Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, 3010, Australia
| | - Chelsea Chum
- Melbourne School of Psychological Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, 3010, Australia
| | - Leilani Frost
- Melbourne School of Psychological Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, 3010, Australia
| | - Hauke R Heekeren
- Department of Education and Psychology, Freie Universität Berlin, 14195, Berlin, Germany
- Universität Hamburg, 20148, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Katja Wingenfeld
- Department of Psychiatry and Neurosciences, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, 12203, Berlin, Germany
- DZPG (German Center for Mental Health), 12203, Berlin, Germany
| | - Christian E Deuter
- Department of Psychiatry and Neurosciences, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, 12203, Berlin, Germany.
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19
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Hsiung A, Poh JH, Huettel SA, Adcock RA. Curiosity evolves as information unfolds. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2023; 120:e2301974120. [PMID: 37844235 PMCID: PMC10614840 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2301974120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2023] [Accepted: 09/08/2023] [Indexed: 10/18/2023] Open
Abstract
When people feel curious, they often seek information to resolve their curiosity. Reaching resolution, however, does not always occur in a single step but instead may follow the accumulation of information over time. Here, we investigated changes in curiosity over a dynamic information-gathering process and how these changes related to affective and cognitive states as well as behavior. Human participants performed an Evolving Line Drawing Task, during which they reported guesses about the drawings' identities and made choices about whether to keep watching. In Study 1, the timing of choices was predetermined and externally imposed, while in Study 2, participants had agency in the timing of guesses and choices. Using this dynamic paradigm, we found that even within a single information-gathering episode, curiosity evolved in concert with other emotional states and with confidence. In both studies, we showed that the relationship between curiosity and confidence depended on stimulus entropy (unique guesses across participants) and on guess accuracy. We demonstrated that curiosity is multifaceted and can be experienced as either positive or negative depending on the state of information gathering. Critically, even when given the choice to alleviate uncertainty immediately (i.e., view a spoiler), higher curiosity promoted continuing to engage in the information-gathering process. Collectively, we show that curiosity changes over information accumulation to drive engagement with external stimuli, rather than to shortcut the path to resolution, highlighting the value inherent in the process of discovery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abigail Hsiung
- Center for Cognitive Neuroscience, Duke University, Durham, NC27708
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, Duke University, Durham, NC27708
| | - Jia-Hou Poh
- Center for Cognitive Neuroscience, Duke University, Durham, NC27708
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Duke University, Durham, NC27708
| | - Scott A. Huettel
- Center for Cognitive Neuroscience, Duke University, Durham, NC27708
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, Duke University, Durham, NC27708
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Duke University, Durham, NC27708
- Department of Neurobiology, Duke University, Durham, NC27708
| | - R. Alison Adcock
- Center for Cognitive Neuroscience, Duke University, Durham, NC27708
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, Duke University, Durham, NC27708
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Duke University, Durham, NC27708
- Department of Neurobiology, Duke University, Durham, NC27708
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20
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Gold BP, Pearce MT, McIntosh AR, Chang C, Dagher A, Zatorre RJ. Auditory and reward structures reflect the pleasure of musical expectancies during naturalistic listening. Front Neurosci 2023; 17:1209398. [PMID: 37928727 PMCID: PMC10625409 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2023.1209398] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2023] [Accepted: 10/05/2023] [Indexed: 11/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Enjoying music consistently engages key structures of the neural auditory and reward systems such as the right superior temporal gyrus (R STG) and ventral striatum (VS). Expectations seem to play a central role in this effect, as preferences reliably vary according to listeners' uncertainty about the musical future and surprise about the musical past. Accordingly, VS activity reflects the pleasure of musical surprise, and exhibits stronger correlations with R STG activity as pleasure grows. Yet the reward value of musical surprise - and thus the reason for these surprises engaging the reward system - remains an open question. Recent models of predictive neural processing and learning suggest that forming, testing, and updating hypotheses about one's environment may be intrinsically rewarding, and that the constantly evolving structure of musical patterns could provide ample opportunity for this procedure. Consistent with these accounts, our group previously found that listeners tend to prefer melodic excerpts taken from real music when it either validates their uncertain melodic predictions (i.e., is high in uncertainty and low in surprise) or when it challenges their highly confident ones (i.e., is low in uncertainty and high in surprise). An independent research group (Cheung et al., 2019) replicated these results with musical chord sequences, and identified their fMRI correlates in the STG, amygdala, and hippocampus but not the VS, raising new questions about the neural mechanisms of musical pleasure that the present study seeks to address. Here, we assessed concurrent liking ratings and hemodynamic fMRI signals as 24 participants listened to 50 naturalistic, real-world musical excerpts that varied across wide spectra of computationally modeled uncertainty and surprise. As in previous studies, liking ratings exhibited an interaction between uncertainty and surprise, with the strongest preferences for high uncertainty/low surprise and low uncertainty/high surprise. FMRI results also replicated previous findings, with music liking effects in the R STG and VS. Furthermore, we identify interactions between uncertainty and surprise on the one hand, and liking and surprise on the other, in VS activity. Altogether, these results provide important support for the hypothesized role of the VS in deriving pleasure from learning about musical structure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin P. Gold
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, United States
- Vanderbilt University Institute of Imaging Science, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, United States
- Montreal Neurological Institute, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada
- International Laboratory for Brain, Music and Sound Research (BRAMS), Montreal, QC, Canada
- Centre for Research on Brain, Language and Music (CRBLM), Montreal, QC, Canada
- Centre for Interdisciplinary Research in Music, Media, and Technology (CIRMMT), Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Marcus T. Pearce
- Cognitive Science Research Group, School of Electronic Engineering & Computer Science, Queen Mary University of London, London, United Kingdom
- Department of Clinical Medicine, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Anthony R. McIntosh
- Baycrest Centre, Rotman Research Institute, Toronto, ON, Canada
- Department of Psychology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Catie Chang
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, United States
- Vanderbilt University Institute of Imaging Science, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, United States
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, United States
- Department of Computer Science, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, United States
| | - Alain Dagher
- Montreal Neurological Institute, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Robert J. Zatorre
- Montreal Neurological Institute, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada
- International Laboratory for Brain, Music and Sound Research (BRAMS), Montreal, QC, Canada
- Centre for Research on Brain, Language and Music (CRBLM), Montreal, QC, Canada
- Centre for Interdisciplinary Research in Music, Media, and Technology (CIRMMT), Montreal, QC, Canada
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21
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MacGillavry T, Spezie G, Fusani L. When less is more: coy display behaviours and the temporal dynamics of animal courtship. Proc Biol Sci 2023; 290:20231684. [PMID: 37788700 PMCID: PMC10547558 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2023.1684] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2023] [Accepted: 09/06/2023] [Indexed: 10/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Sexual selection research has been dominated by the notion that mate choice selects for the most vigorous displays that best reflect the quality of the courter. However, courtship displays are often temporally structured, containing different elements with varying degrees of intensity and conspicuousness. For example, highly intense movements are often coupled with more subtle components such as static postures or hiding displays. Here, we refer to such subtle display traits as 'coy', as they involve the withholding of information about maximal display capabilities. We examine the role of intensity variation within temporally dynamic displays, and discuss three hypotheses for the evolution of coy courtship behaviours. We first review the threat reduction hypothesis, which points to sexual coercion and sexual autonomy as important facets of sexual selection. We then suggest that variation in display magnitude exploits pre-existing perceptual biases for temporal contrast. Lastly, we propose that information withholding may leverage receivers' predispositions for filling gaps in information-the 'curiosity bias'. Overall, our goal is to draw attention to temporal variation in display magnitude, and to advocate possible scenarios for the evolution of courtship traits that regularly occur below performance maxima. Throughout, we highlight novel directions for empirical and theoretical investigations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas MacGillavry
- Konrad Lorenz Institute of Ethology, University of Veterinary Medicine, Vienna, Austria
| | - Giovanni Spezie
- Konrad Lorenz Institute of Ethology, University of Veterinary Medicine, Vienna, Austria
| | - Leonida Fusani
- Konrad Lorenz Institute of Ethology, University of Veterinary Medicine, Vienna, Austria
- Department of Behavioural and Cognitive Biology, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
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22
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Liew SX, Embrey JR, Newell BR. The non-unitary nature of information preference. Psychon Bull Rev 2023; 30:1966-1974. [PMID: 37076755 PMCID: PMC10716071 DOI: 10.3758/s13423-022-02243-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/23/2022] [Indexed: 04/21/2023]
Abstract
Factors affecting information-seeking behaviour can be task-endogenous (e.g., probability of winning a gamble), or task-exogenous (e.g., personality trait measures). Various task-endogenous factors affecting non-instrumental information-seeking behaviour have been identified, but it is unclear how task-exogenous factors affect such behaviour, and if they interact with task-endogenous factors. In an online information seeking experiment (N = 279), we focus on the role that outcome probability, as a task-endogenous factor, has on information preferences. We find reliable preference for advance information on highly probable gains and low preference for highly probable losses. Comparisons with individual trait measures of information preference (e.g., intolerance of uncertainty scale, obsessive-compulsive inventory, information preferences scale) reveal minimal association between these task-exogenous factors with choice task performance. We also find minimal interaction between outcome probability and individual trait measures. Despite the choice task and trait measures purportedly tapping the same (or similar) construct, the absence of clear relationships ultimately suggests a multi-dimensional nature of information preference.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Ben R Newell
- School of Psychology, UNSW, Sydney, NSW, Australia
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23
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Matthews JR, Cooper PS, Bode S, Chong TTJ. The availability of non-instrumental information increases risky decision-making. Psychon Bull Rev 2023; 30:1975-1987. [PMID: 37038030 PMCID: PMC10716073 DOI: 10.3758/s13423-023-02279-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/20/2023] [Indexed: 04/12/2023]
Abstract
Contemporary models of decision-making under risk focus on estimating the final value of each alternative course of action. According to such frameworks, information that has no capacity to alter a future payoff (i.e., is "non-instrumental") should have little effect on one's preference for risk. Importantly, however, recent work has shown that information, despite being non-instrumental, may nevertheless exert a striking influence on behavior. Here, we tested whether the opportunity to passively observe the sequence of events following a decision could modulate risky behavior, even if that information could not possibly influence the final result. Across three experiments, 71 individuals chose to accept or reject gambles on a five-window slot machine. If a gamble was accepted, each window was sequentially revealed prior to the outcome being declared. Critically, we informed participants about which windows would subsequently provide veridical information about the gamble outcome, should that gamble be accepted. Our analyses revealed three key findings. First, the opportunity to observe the consequences of one's choice significantly increased the likelihood of gambling, despite that information being entirely non-instrumental. Second, this effect generalized across different stakes. Finally, choices were driven predominantly by the likelihood that information could result in an earlier resolution of uncertainty. These findings demonstrate the importance of anticipatory information to decision-making under risk. More broadly, we provide strong evidence for the utility of non-instrumental information, by demonstrating its capacity to modulate primary economic decisions that should be driven by more motivationally salient variables associated with risk and reward.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julian R Matthews
- Turner Institute for Brain and Mental Health, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, 3800, Australia.
- RIKEN Center for Brain Science, Wakō-shi, Saitama, 351-0198, Japan.
| | - Patrick S Cooper
- Turner Institute for Brain and Mental Health, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, 3800, Australia
- Melbourne School of Psychological Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, 3010, Australia
| | - Stefan Bode
- Melbourne School of Psychological Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, 3010, Australia
| | - Trevor T-J Chong
- Turner Institute for Brain and Mental Health, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, 3800, Australia.
- Department of Neurology, Alfred Health, Melbourne, Victoria, 3004, Australia.
- Department of Clinical Neurosciences, St Vincent's Hospital, Fitzroy, Victoria, 3065, Australia.
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24
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Lyew T, Ikhlas A, Sayed F, Vincent A, Lydon-Staley D. Curiosity, Surprise, and the Recall of Tobacco-Related Health Information in Adolescents. JOURNAL OF HEALTH COMMUNICATION 2023; 28:446-457. [PMID: 37318238 PMCID: PMC10330854 DOI: 10.1080/10810730.2023.2224254] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
A key goal of health communications designed to prevent smoking initiation during adolescence is for the tobacco-related information to be retained in memory beyond immediate message exposure. Here, we test the role for epistemic emotions, specifically curiosity and surprise, in facilitating memory for tobacco-related health information. Participants (n = 294 never-smoking adolescents, ages 14-16 years) performed a trivia guessing task wherein they guessed the answers to general trivia and smoking-related trivia questions. A subset of participants (n = 154) completed a surprise trivia memory task one week later and answered the previously viewed questions. Results indicate that curiosity about the answers to smoking-related trivia is associated with more accurate recall of smoking-related trivia answers one week later. Surprise also facilitated memory for smoking-related trivia, but the association was limited to cases where confidence in prior knowledge was low. Indeed, when participants had high confidence in their prior knowledge, surprise about the answer to trivia questions was associated with worse recall. Findings suggest that engendering states of curiosity for smoking-related information may facilitate retention of that information in never-smoking adolescents and highlight the need to examine both surprise and confidence in health communications to avoid low message recall.
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Affiliation(s)
- T. Lyew
- Annenberg School for Communication, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA
| | - A. Ikhlas
- Annenberg School for Communication, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA
| | - F. Sayed
- Annenberg School for Communication, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA
| | - A. Vincent
- Annenberg School for Communication, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA
| | - D.M Lydon-Staley
- Annenberg School for Communication, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA
- Department of Bioengineering, School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA
- Leonard Davis Institute of Health Economics, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA
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25
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Speer SPH, Keysers C, Barrios JC, Teurlings CJS, Smidts A, Boksem MAS, Wager TD, Gazzola V. A multivariate brain signature for reward. Neuroimage 2023; 271:119990. [PMID: 36878456 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2023.119990] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2022] [Revised: 02/20/2023] [Accepted: 02/25/2023] [Indexed: 03/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The processing of reinforcers and punishers is crucial to adapt to an ever changing environment and its dysregulation is prevalent in mental health and substance use disorders. While many human brain measures related to reward have been based on activity in individual brain regions, recent studies indicate that many affective and motivational processes are encoded in distributed systems that span multiple regions. Consequently, decoding these processes using individual regions yields small effect sizes and limited reliability, whereas predictive models based on distributed patterns yield larger effect sizes and excellent reliability. To create such a predictive model for the processes of rewards and losses, termed the Brain Reward Signature (BRS), we trained a model to predict the signed magnitude of monetary rewards on the Monetary Incentive Delay task (MID; N = 39) and achieved a highly significant decoding performance (92% for decoding rewards versus losses). We subsequently demonstrate the generalizability of our signature on another version of the MID in a different sample (92% decoding accuracy; N = 12) and on a gambling task from a large sample (73% decoding accuracy, N = 1084). We further provided preliminary data to characterize the specificity of the signature by illustrating that the signature map generates estimates that significantly differ between rewarding and negative feedback (92% decoding accuracy) but do not differ for conditions that differ in disgust rather than reward in a novel Disgust-Delay Task (N = 39). Finally, we show that passively viewing positive and negatively valenced facial expressions loads positively on our signature, in line with previous studies on morbid curiosity. We thus created a BRS that can accurately predict brain responses to rewards and losses in active decision making tasks, and that possibly relates to information seeking in passive observational tasks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sebastian P H Speer
- Social Brain Lab, Netherlands Institute for Neuroscience, Amsterdam, The Netherlands; Princeton Neuroscience Institute, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ 08544, USA
| | - Christian Keysers
- Social Brain Lab, Netherlands Institute for Neuroscience, Amsterdam, The Netherlands; Brain and Cognition, Department of Psychology, University of Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | | | - Cas J S Teurlings
- Social Brain Lab, Netherlands Institute for Neuroscience, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Ale Smidts
- Rotterdam School of Management, Erasmus University, 3062 PA Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Maarten A S Boksem
- Rotterdam School of Management, Erasmus University, 3062 PA Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Tor D Wager
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Dartmouth College, Hanover, NH 03755, USA
| | - Valeria Gazzola
- Social Brain Lab, Netherlands Institute for Neuroscience, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
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26
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Rens N, Lancia GL, Eluchans M, Schwartenbeck P, Cunnington R, Pezzulo G. Evidence for entropy maximisation in human free choice behaviour. Cognition 2023; 232:105328. [PMID: 36463639 DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2022.105328] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2021] [Revised: 11/10/2022] [Accepted: 11/12/2022] [Indexed: 12/05/2022]
Abstract
The freedom to choose between options is strongly linked to notions of free will. Accordingly, several studies have shown that individuals demonstrate a preference for choice, or the availability of multiple options, over and above utilitarian value. Yet we lack a decision-making framework that integrates preference for choice with traditional utility maximisation in free choice behaviour. Here we test the predictions of an inference-based model of decision-making in which an agent actively seeks states yielding entropy (availability of options) in addition to utility (economic reward). We designed a study in which participants freely navigated a virtual environment consisting of two consecutive choices leading to reward locations in separate rooms. Critically, the choice of one room always led to two final doors while, in the second room, only one door was permissible to choose. This design allowed us to separately determine the influence of utility and entropy on participants' choice behaviour and their self-evaluation of free will. We found that choice behaviour was better predicted by an inference-based model than by expected utility alone, and that both the availability of options and the value of the context positively influenced participants' perceived freedom of choice. Moreover, this consideration of options was apparent in the ongoing motion dynamics as individuals navigated the environment. In a second study, in which participants selected between rooms that gave access to three or four doors, we observed a similar pattern of results, with participants preferring the room that gave access to more options and feeling freer in it. These results suggest that free choice behaviour is well explained by an inference-based framework in which both utility and entropy are optimised and supports the idea that the feeling of having free will is tightly related to options availability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natalie Rens
- Queensland Brain Institute, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, Queensland 4072, Australia
| | - Gian Luca Lancia
- Institute of Cognitive Sciences and Technologies, National Research Council, Via S. Martino della Battaglia, 44, 00185 Rome, Italy; University of Rome "La Sapienza", Rome, Italy
| | - Mattia Eluchans
- Institute of Cognitive Sciences and Technologies, National Research Council, Via S. Martino della Battaglia, 44, 00185 Rome, Italy; University of Rome "La Sapienza", Rome, Italy
| | - Philipp Schwartenbeck
- Wellcome Centre for Human Neuroimaging, University College London, London, United Kingdom; Oxford Centre for Functional MRI of the Brain, Nuffield Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom; University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany; Max Planck Institute for Biological Cybernetics, Tübingen, Baden-Württemberg, Germany
| | - Ross Cunnington
- School of Psychology, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, Queensland 4072, Australia
| | - Giovanni Pezzulo
- Institute of Cognitive Sciences and Technologies, National Research Council, Via S. Martino della Battaglia, 44, 00185 Rome, Italy.
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27
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Gottlieb J. Emerging Principles of Attention and Information Demand. CURRENT DIRECTIONS IN PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE 2023. [DOI: 10.1177/09637214221142778] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/25/2023]
Abstract
I review recent literature on information demand and its implications for attention control. I argue that this literature motivates a view of attention as a mechanism that reduces uncertainty by selectively sampling sensory stimuli on the basis of expected information gain (EIG). I discuss emerging evidence on how individuals estimate the two quantities that determine EIG, prior uncertainty and stimulus diagnosticity (predictive accuracy). I also discuss the neural mechanisms that compute EIG and integrate it with rewards in frontoparietal, executive, and neuromodulatory circuits. I end by considering the implications of this framework for a broader understanding of the factors that assign relevance to sensory stimuli and the role of attention in decision making and other cognitive functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacqueline Gottlieb
- Department of Neuroscience, Columbia University
- Kavli Institute for Brain Science, Columbia University
- Mortimer B. Zuckerman Mind Brain Behavior Institute, Columbia University
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28
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Fornaro S, Vallesi A. Functional connectivity abnormalities of brain networks in obsessive–compulsive disorder: a systematic review. CURRENT PSYCHOLOGY 2023. [DOI: 10.1007/s12144-023-04312-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/19/2023]
Abstract
Abstract
Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) is characterized by cognitive abnormalities encompassing several executive processes. Neuroimaging studies highlight functional abnormalities of executive fronto-parietal network (FPN) and default-mode network (DMN) in OCD patients, as well as of the prefrontal cortex (PFC) more specifically. We aim at assessing the presence of functional connectivity (FC) abnormalities of intrinsic brain networks and PFC in OCD, possibly underlying specific computational impairments and clinical manifestations. A systematic review of resting-state fMRI studies investigating FC was conducted in unmedicated OCD patients by querying three scientific databases (PubMed, Scopus, PsycInfo) up to July 2022 (search terms: “obsessive–compulsive disorder” AND “resting state” AND “fMRI” AND “function* *connect*” AND “task-positive” OR “executive” OR “central executive” OR “executive control” OR “executive-control” OR “cognitive control” OR “attenti*” OR “dorsal attention” OR “ventral attention” OR “frontoparietal” OR “fronto-parietal” OR “default mode” AND “network*” OR “system*”). Collectively, 20 studies were included. A predominantly reduced FC of DMN – often related to increased symptom severity – emerged. Additionally, intra-network FC of FPN was predominantly increased and often positively related to clinical scores. Concerning PFC, a predominant hyper-connectivity of right-sided prefrontal links emerged. Finally, FC of lateral prefrontal areas correlated with specific symptom dimensions. Several sources of heterogeneity in methodology might have affected results in unpredictable ways and were discussed. Such findings might represent endophenotypes of OCD manifestations, possibly reflecting computational impairments and difficulties in engaging in self-referential processes or in disengaging from cognitive control and monitoring processes.
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29
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Chen X, Liu J, Luo YJ, Feng C. Brain Systems Underlying Fundamental Motivations of Human Social Conformity. Neurosci Bull 2023; 39:328-342. [PMID: 36287291 PMCID: PMC9905476 DOI: 10.1007/s12264-022-00960-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2022] [Accepted: 07/11/2022] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
From birth to adulthood, we often align our behaviors, attitudes, and opinions with a majority, a phenomenon known as social conformity. A seminal framework has proposed that conformity behaviors are mainly driven by three fundamental motives: a desire to gain more information to be accurate, to obtain social approval from others, and to maintain a favorable self-concept. Despite extensive interest in neuroimaging investigation of social conformity, the relationship between brain systems and these fundamental motivations has yet to be established. Here, we reviewed brain imaging findings of social conformity with a componential framework, aiming to reveal the neuropsychological substrates underlying different conformity motivations. First, information-seeking engages the evaluation of social information, information integration, and modification of task-related activity, corresponding to brain networks implicated in reward, cognitive control, and tasks at hand. Second, social acceptance involves the anticipation of social acceptance or rejection and mental state attribution, mediated by networks of reward, punishment, and mentalizing. Third, self-enhancement entails the excessive representation of positive self-related information and suppression of negative self-related information, ingroup favoritism and/or outgroup derogation, and elaborated mentalizing processes to the ingroup, supported by brain systems of reward, punishment, and mentalizing. Therefore, recent brain imaging studies have provided important insights into the fundamental motivations of social conformity in terms of component processes and brain mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xinling Chen
- Key Laboratory of Brain, Cognition and Education Sciences (South China Normal University), Ministry of Education, Guangzhou, 510631, China
- School of Psychology, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, 510631, China
- Center for Studies of Psychological Application, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, 510631, China
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Mental Health and Cognitive Science, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, 510631, China
| | - Jiaxi Liu
- Key Laboratory of Brain, Cognition and Education Sciences (South China Normal University), Ministry of Education, Guangzhou, 510631, China
- School of Psychology, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, 510631, China
- Center for Studies of Psychological Application, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, 510631, China
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Mental Health and Cognitive Science, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, 510631, China
| | - Yue-Jia Luo
- Department of Applied Psychology, University of Health and Rehabilitation Sciences, Qingdao, 266113, China.
- The State Key Lab of Cognitive and Learning, Faculty of Psychology, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, 100875, China.
- The Research Center of Brain Science and Visual Cognition, Kunming University of Science and Technology, Kunming, 650506, China.
- College of Teacher Education, Qilu Normal University, Jinan, 250200, China.
| | - Chunliang Feng
- Key Laboratory of Brain, Cognition and Education Sciences (South China Normal University), Ministry of Education, Guangzhou, 510631, China.
- School of Psychology, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, 510631, China.
- Center for Studies of Psychological Application, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, 510631, China.
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Mental Health and Cognitive Science, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, 510631, China.
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30
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Ajuwon V, Ojeda A, Murphy RA, Monteiro T, Kacelnik A. Paradoxical choice and the reinforcing value of information. Anim Cogn 2023; 26:623-637. [PMID: 36306041 PMCID: PMC9950180 DOI: 10.1007/s10071-022-01698-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2022] [Revised: 09/07/2022] [Accepted: 10/01/2022] [Indexed: 11/01/2022]
Abstract
Signals that reduce uncertainty can be valuable because well-informed decision-makers can better align their preferences to opportunities. However, some birds and mammals display an appetite for informative signals that cannot be used to increase returns. We explore the role that reward-predictive stimuli have in fostering such preferences, aiming at distinguishing between two putative underlying mechanisms. The 'information hypothesis' proposes that reducing uncertainty is reinforcing per se, somewhat consistently with the concept of curiosity: a motivation to know in the absence of tractable extrinsic benefits. In contrast, the 'conditioned reinforcement hypothesis', an associative account, proposes asymmetries in secondarily acquired reinforcement: post-choice stimuli announcing forthcoming rewards (S+) reinforce responses more than stimuli signalling no rewards (S-) inhibit responses. In three treatments, rats faced two equally profitable options delivering food probabilistically after a fixed delay. In the informative option (Info), food or no food was signalled immediately after choice, whereas in the non-informative option (NoInfo) outcomes were uncertain until the delay lapsed. Subjects preferred Info when (1) both outcomes were explicitly signalled by salient auditory cues, (2) only forthcoming food delivery was explicitly signalled, and (3) only the absence of forthcoming reward was explicitly signalled. Acquisition was slower in (3), when food was not explicitly signalled, showing that signals for positive outcomes have a greater influence on the development of preference than signals for negative ones. Our results are consistent with an elaborated conditioned reinforcement account, and with the conjecture that both uncertainty reduction and conditioned reinforcement jointly act to generate preference.
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Affiliation(s)
- Victor Ajuwon
- Department of Biology, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK.
| | - Andrés Ojeda
- grid.4991.50000 0004 1936 8948Department of Biology, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Robin A. Murphy
- grid.4991.50000 0004 1936 8948Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Tiago Monteiro
- grid.4991.50000 0004 1936 8948Department of Biology, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK ,grid.6583.80000 0000 9686 6466Domestication Lab, Department of Interdisciplinary Life Sciences, Konrad Lorenz Institute of Ethology, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Alex Kacelnik
- Department of Biology, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK.
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31
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Romero Verdugo P, van Lieshout LLF, de Lange FP, Cools R. Choice Boosts Curiosity. Psychol Sci 2023; 34:99-110. [PMID: 36287129 DOI: 10.1177/09567976221082637] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
In our connected era, we spend significant time and effort satisfying our curiosity. Often, we choose which information we seek, but sometimes the selection is made for us. We hypothesized that humans exhibit enhanced curiosity in the context of choice. We designed a task in which healthy participants saw two lotteries on each trial. On some trials, participants chose which lottery to play. On other trials, the lottery was selected for them. Participants then indicated their curiosity about the outcome of the to-be-played lottery via self-report ratings (Experiment 1, N = 34) or willingness-to-wait decisions (Experiment 2, N = 34). We found that participants exhibited higher curiosity ratings and greater willingness to wait for the outcome of lotteries they had chosen than for lotteries that had been selected for them (controlling for initial preference). This demonstrates that choice boosts curiosity, which may have implications for boosting learning, memory, and motivation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patricia Romero Verdugo
- Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud University.,Department of Psychiatry, Radboud University Medical Centre
| | - Lieke L F van Lieshout
- Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud University.,Department of Psychiatry, Radboud University Medical Centre
| | - Floris P de Lange
- Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud University
| | - Roshan Cools
- Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud University.,Department of Psychiatry, Radboud University Medical Centre
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32
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Yazdanpanah A, Vahabie AH, Nili Ahmadabadi M. Do you share your personally useless information if others may benefit from it? PLoS One 2022; 17:e0276062. [PMID: 36251685 PMCID: PMC9576053 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0276062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2021] [Accepted: 09/28/2022] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Information is personally useless if its beholder cannot individually benefit from it further unless she shares it with those who can exploit that information to increase their mutual outcome. We study sharing such information anonymously in a non-strategic and non-competitive setting, where selfish and cooperative motives align. Although sharing information was cost-free and resulted in expected mutual payoff, almost all subjects showed some levels of hesitancy toward sharing information, and it was more severe in the introverts. According to our mechanistic model, this irrationality could arise because of the excessive subjective value of personally useless information and low other-regarding motives, that necessitated over-attainable personal benefit to drive sharing. Interestingly, other-regarding element correlated with the subjects' belief about how others are cooperative in general. In addition, sensitivity to the value of information correlated with their extraversion level. The results open a new window towards understanding inefficient motives that deprive people of collective benefit.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aryan Yazdanpanah
- Cognitive Systems Laboratory, Control and Intelligent Processing Center of Excellence (CIPCE), School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, College of Engineering, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran
| | - Abdol-Hossein Vahabie
- Cognitive Systems Laboratory, Control and Intelligent Processing Center of Excellence (CIPCE), School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, College of Engineering, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran
- Department of Psychology, Faculty of Psychology and Education, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran
- School of Cognitive Sciences, Institute for Research in Fundamental Sciences, Tehran, Iran
- * E-mail: (MNA); (AHV)
| | - Majid Nili Ahmadabadi
- Cognitive Systems Laboratory, Control and Intelligent Processing Center of Excellence (CIPCE), School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, College of Engineering, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran
- * E-mail: (MNA); (AHV)
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33
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Devine S, Otto AR. Information about task progress modulates cognitive demand avoidance. Cognition 2022; 225:105107. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2022.105107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2021] [Revised: 03/18/2022] [Accepted: 03/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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34
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Overmatching under food uncertainty in foraging pigeons. Behav Processes 2022; 201:104728. [DOI: 10.1016/j.beproc.2022.104728] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2022] [Revised: 07/07/2022] [Accepted: 08/01/2022] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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35
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The role of risk, regret, and rejoice in non‐instrumental information seeking. JOURNAL OF BEHAVIORAL DECISION MAKING 2022. [DOI: 10.1002/bdm.2294] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
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36
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Hilchey MD, Rondina R, Soman D. Information‐seeking when information doesn't matter. JOURNAL OF BEHAVIORAL DECISION MAKING 2022. [DOI: 10.1002/bdm.2280] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Matthew D. Hilchey
- Rotman School of Management University of Toronto 105 St George St Toronto Ontario M5S 3E6 Canada
| | - Renante Rondina
- Rotman School of Management University of Toronto 105 St George St Toronto Ontario M5S 3E6 Canada
| | - Dilip Soman
- Rotman School of Management University of Toronto 105 St George St Toronto Ontario M5S 3E6 Canada
- Canada Research Chair in Behavioural Science and Economics, Rotman School of Management University of Toronto 105 St George St Toronto Ontario M5S 3E6 Canada
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37
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Chen X, Li S, Zhang Y, Zhai Y, Zhang Z, Feng C. Different drives of herding: An exploratory study of motivations underlying social conformity. Psych J 2022; 11:247-258. [PMID: 35080146 DOI: 10.1002/pchj.515] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2020] [Revised: 11/26/2021] [Accepted: 11/29/2021] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
We often align our behaviors, attitudes, and opinions in line with a majority of others, a phenomenon known as "social conformity." A seminal framework has proposed that conformity behaviors are mainly driven by three fundamental motives: a desire to gain more information to be accurate, to obtain social approval from others, and to maintain a favorable self-concept. However, previous studies usually have interpreted conformity behaviors as driven by one motive or another, largely ignoring the fact that human behaviors could be concurrently induced by multiple and even conflicting motivations. Adopting a typical conformity paradigm widely used in previous studies, we explored distinct and concurrent motives underlying the same conformity behavior, combining personality and individual differences with more nuanced analyses of observed conformity behaviors. Our findings provide novel evidence to show that three motivations exist within a single conformity behavior, suggesting that multiple motivations drive the conformity concurrently. These findings provide a potential solution for the extensive debate about what drives human social conformity and help to better understand the conformity behavior in daily life.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xinling Chen
- Key Laboratory of Brain, Cognition and Education Sciences, South China Normal University, Ministry of Education, Guangzhou, China.,School of Psychology, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, China.,Center for Studies of Psychological Application, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, China.,Guangdong Key Laboratory of Mental Health and Cognitive Science, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Suiqing Li
- Key Laboratory of Brain, Cognition and Education Sciences, South China Normal University, Ministry of Education, Guangzhou, China.,School of Psychology, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, China.,Center for Studies of Psychological Application, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, China.,Guangdong Key Laboratory of Mental Health and Cognitive Science, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Yijie Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Brain, Cognition and Education Sciences, South China Normal University, Ministry of Education, Guangzhou, China.,School of Psychology, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, China.,Center for Studies of Psychological Application, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, China.,Guangdong Key Laboratory of Mental Health and Cognitive Science, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Yuzhu Zhai
- Key Laboratory of Brain, Cognition and Education Sciences, South China Normal University, Ministry of Education, Guangzhou, China.,School of Psychology, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, China.,Center for Studies of Psychological Application, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, China.,Guangdong Key Laboratory of Mental Health and Cognitive Science, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Zhixin Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Brain, Cognition and Education Sciences, South China Normal University, Ministry of Education, Guangzhou, China.,School of Psychology, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, China.,Center for Studies of Psychological Application, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, China.,Guangdong Key Laboratory of Mental Health and Cognitive Science, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Chunliang Feng
- Key Laboratory of Brain, Cognition and Education Sciences, South China Normal University, Ministry of Education, Guangzhou, China.,School of Psychology, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, China.,Center for Studies of Psychological Application, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, China.,Guangdong Key Laboratory of Mental Health and Cognitive Science, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, China
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38
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Goh AXA, Bennett D, Bode S, Chong TTJ. Neurocomputational mechanisms underlying the subjective value of information. Commun Biol 2021; 4:1346. [PMID: 34903804 PMCID: PMC8669024 DOI: 10.1038/s42003-021-02850-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2021] [Accepted: 11/04/2021] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Humans have a striking desire to actively seek new information, even when it is devoid of any instrumental utility. However, the mechanisms that drive individuals' subjective preference for information remain unclear. Here, we used fMRI to examine the processing of subjective information value, by having participants decide how much effort they were willing to trade-off for non-instrumental information. We showed that choices were best described by a model that accounted for: (1) the variability in individuals' estimates of uncertainty, (2) their desire to reduce that uncertainty, and (3) their subjective preference for positively valenced information. Model-based analyses revealed the anterior cingulate as a key node that encodes the subjective value of information across multiple stages of decision-making - including when information was prospectively valued, and when the outcome was definitively delivered. These findings emphasise the multidimensionality of information value, and reveal the neurocomputational mechanisms underlying the variability in individuals' desire to physically pursue informative outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ariel X-A Goh
- Turner Institute for Brain and Mental Health, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC, 3800, Australia
- School of Psychological Sciences, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC, 3800, Australia
| | - Daniel Bennett
- Department of Psychiatry, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC, 3800, Australia
- Princeton Neuroscience Institute, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, 08540, USA
| | - Stefan Bode
- Melbourne School of Psychological Sciences, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, 3010, Australia
| | - Trevor T-J Chong
- Turner Institute for Brain and Mental Health, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC, 3800, Australia.
- School of Psychological Sciences, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC, 3800, Australia.
- Department of Neurology, Alfred Health, Melbourne, VIC, 3004, Australia.
- Department of Clinical Neurosciences, St Vincent's Hospital, Melbourne, VIC, 3065, Australia.
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39
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Moran R, Dayan P, Dolan RJ. Efficiency and prioritization of inference-based credit assignment. Curr Biol 2021; 31:2747-2756.e6. [PMID: 33887181 PMCID: PMC8279739 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2021.03.091] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2020] [Revised: 02/11/2021] [Accepted: 03/29/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Organisms adapt to their environments by learning to approach states that predict rewards and avoid states associated with punishments. Knowledge about the affective value of states often relies on credit assignment (CA), whereby state values are updated on the basis of reward feedback. Remarkably, humans assign credit to states that are not observed but are instead inferred based on a cognitive map that represents structural knowledge of an environment. A pertinent example is authors attempting to infer the identity of anonymous reviewers to assign them credit or blame and, on this basis, inform future referee recommendations. Although inference is cognitively costly, it is unknown how it influences CA or how it is apportioned between hidden and observable states (for example, both anonymous and revealed reviewers). We addressed these questions in a task that provided choices between lotteries where each led to a unique pair of occasionally rewarding outcome states. On some trials, both states were observable (rendering inference nugatory), whereas on others, the identity of one of the states was concealed. Importantly, by exploiting knowledge of choice-state associations, subjects could infer the identity of this hidden state. We show that having to perform inference reduces state-value updates. Strikingly, and in violation of normative theories, this reduction in CA was selective for the observed outcome alone. These findings have implications for the operation of putative cognitive maps.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rani Moran
- Max Planck UCL Centre for Computational Psychiatry and Ageing Research, University College London, 10-12 Russell Square, London WC1B 5EH, UK; Wellcome Centre for Human Neuroimaging, University College London, London WC1N 3BG, UK.
| | - Peter Dayan
- Max Planck Institute for Biological Cybernetics, Max Planck-Ring 8, 72076 Tübingen, Germany; University of Tübingen, 72074 Tübingen, Germany
| | - Raymond J Dolan
- Max Planck UCL Centre for Computational Psychiatry and Ageing Research, University College London, 10-12 Russell Square, London WC1B 5EH, UK; Wellcome Centre for Human Neuroimaging, University College London, London WC1N 3BG, UK
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40
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Does openness/intellect predict sensitivity to the reward value of information? COGNITIVE AFFECTIVE & BEHAVIORAL NEUROSCIENCE 2021; 21:993-1009. [PMID: 33973158 DOI: 10.3758/s13415-021-00900-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 04/05/2021] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
A recent theory proposes that the personality trait openness/intellect is underpinned by differential sensitivity to the reward value of information. This theory draws on evidence that midbrain dopamine neurons respond to unpredicted information gain, mirroring their responses to unpredicted primary rewards. Using a choice task modelled on this seminal work (Experiment 1, N = 139, 69% female), we examined the relation between openness/intellect and willingness to pay for non-instrumental information (i.e., information with no secondary utility). We also assessed whether any such relation was moderated by the dopamine D2 receptor antagonist sulpiride (Experiment 2, N = 164, 100% male). Unexpectedly, most measures of openness/intellect were unrelated to costly information preference in both experiments, and some predicted a decreased willingness to incur a cost for information. In Experiment 2, this cost-dependent association between openness/intellect and information valuation appeared in the placebo condition but not under sulpiride. In addition, participants were more willing to pay for moderately costly information under sulpiride compared to placebo, consistent with a dopaminergic basis to information valuation. Potential refinements to the information valuation theory of openness/intellect are discussed in the light of these and other emerging findings.
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41
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Abstract
We rely on gaze to guide subsequent steps during walking, more so when the terrain ahead is more uncertain. New research shows that the increased visual exploration during walking as the terrain becomes more uncertain reflects our preference for accuracy over effort in step choice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shruthi Sukumar
- Department of Computer Science, University of Colorado Boulder, 1111 Engineering Drive, Boulder, CO 80309, USA.
| | - Alaa A Ahmed
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Colorado Boulder, 1111 Engineering Drive, Boulder, CO 80309, USA
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42
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Jiwa M, Cooper PS, Chong TTJ, Bode S. Choosing increases the value of non-instrumental information. Sci Rep 2021; 11:8780. [PMID: 33888764 PMCID: PMC8062497 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-88031-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2021] [Accepted: 04/07/2021] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Curiosity pervades all aspects of human behaviour and decision-making. Recent research indicates that the value of information is determined by its propensity to reduce uncertainty, and the hedonic value of the outcomes it predicts. Previous findings also indicate a preference for options that are freely chosen, compared to equivalently valued alternatives that are externally assigned. Here, we asked whether the value of information also varies as a function of self- or externally-imposed choices. Participants rated their preference for information that followed either a self-chosen decision, or an externally imposed condition. Our results showed that choosing a lottery significantly increased the subjective value of information about the outcome. Computational modelling indicated that this change in information-seeking behaviour was not due to changes in the subjective probability of winning, but instead reflected an independent effect of choosing on the value of resolving uncertainty. These results demonstrate that agency over a prospect is an important source of information value.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew Jiwa
- School of Psychological Sciences, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, 3010, Australia.
| | - Patrick S Cooper
- School of Psychological Sciences, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, 3010, Australia
- Turner Institute for Brain and Mental Health, Monash University, Melbourne, 3800, Australia
| | - Trevor T-J Chong
- Turner Institute for Brain and Mental Health, Monash University, Melbourne, 3800, Australia
- Alfred Health, Department of Neurology, Melbourne, 3004, Australia
- Department of Clinical Neurosciences, St Vincent's Hospital, Melbourne, 3065, Australia
| | - Stefan Bode
- School of Psychological Sciences, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, 3010, Australia
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43
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Abstract
Curiosity is a desire for information that is not motivated by strategic concerns. Latent learning is not driven by standard reinforcement processes. We propose that curiosity serves the purpose of motivating latent learning. While latent learning is often treated as a passive or incidental process, it normally reflects a strong evolved pressure to actively seek large amounts of information. That information in turn allows curious decision makers to represent the structure of their environment, that is, to form cognitive maps. These cognitive maps then drive adaptive flexible behavior. Based on recent data, we propose that orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) and dorsal anterior cingulate cortex (dACC) play complementary roles in curiosity-driven learning. Specifically, we propose that (1) OFC tracks intrinsic value of information and incorporates new information into a cognitive map; and (2) dACC tracks the environmental demands and information availability to then use the cognitive map from OFC to guide behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maya Zhe Wang
- Department of Neuroscience, Center for Magnetic Resonance Research, and Center for Neuroengineering University of Minnesota, Minneapolis MN 55455
| | - Benjamin Y Hayden
- Department of Neuroscience, Center for Magnetic Resonance Research, and Center for Neuroengineering University of Minnesota, Minneapolis MN 55455
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44
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Domínguez-Zamora FJ, Marigold DS. Motives driving gaze and walking decisions. Curr Biol 2021; 31:1632-1642.e4. [PMID: 33600769 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2021.01.069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2020] [Revised: 10/01/2020] [Accepted: 01/20/2021] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
To navigate complex environments, people must decide how to direct gaze to acquire relevant information and decide where, when, and how to move the body. Recent work supports the idea that gaze may be directed to reduce task-relevant environmental uncertainty and to ensure movement accuracy based on the cost (or effort) to move the body and maintain balance. During walking, these two factors may compete for gaze allocation and explain how we make decisions about where to step. Using a forced-choice walking paradigm, where we manipulated the visual uncertainty (simulating uncertain terrain characteristics) and motor cost associated with specific step-target choices, we examined the motives driving gaze and step decisions. We characterized each individual's distinct gaze behavior based on their sensitivity to changes in visual uncertainty, which predicted step-choice behavior when foot-placement accuracy was important to the task. We show that individuals who tended to look at both target choices as visual uncertainty increased prioritized stepping onto the more certain location after looking at it longer, even at the expense of increased motor cost. In contrast, individuals who tended to look at only one of the target choices as visual uncertainty increased preferred to step on the target that minimized motor cost. Overall, we demonstrate that how a person explores the environment with their eyes dictates where they step. These gaze and step decisions may relate to the value a person assigns to information gain, being certain of their actions, and conserving energy.
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Affiliation(s)
- F Javier Domínguez-Zamora
- Department of Biomedical Physiology and Kinesiology, Simon Fraser University, 8888 University Drive, Burnaby, BC V5A 1S6, Canada
| | - Daniel S Marigold
- Department of Biomedical Physiology and Kinesiology, Simon Fraser University, 8888 University Drive, Burnaby, BC V5A 1S6, Canada.
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Abstract
After you make a decision, it is sometimes possible to seek information about how things would be if you had acted otherwise. We investigated the lure of this counterfactual information, namely, counterfactual curiosity. In a set of five experiments (total N = 150 adults), we used an adapted Balloon Analogue Risk Task with varying costs of information. At a cost, people were willing to seek information about how much they could have won, even though it had little utility and a negative emotional impact (i.e., it led to regret). We explored the downstream effects of seeking information on emotion, behavior adjustment, and ongoing performance, showing that it has little or even negative performance benefit. We also replicated the findings with a large-sample (N = 361 adults) preregistered experiment that excluded possible alternative explanations. This suggests that information about counterfactual alternatives has a strong motivational lure—people simply cannot help seeking it.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lily FitzGibbon
- School of Psychology and Clinical Language Sciences, University of Reading
- Lily FitzGibbon, University of Reading, School of Psychology and Clinical Language Sciences E-mail:
| | - Asuka Komiya
- Graduate School of Humanities and Social Sciences, Hiroshima University
| | - Kou Murayama
- School of Psychology and Clinical Language Sciences, University of Reading
- Research Institute, Kochi University of Technology
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46
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Jach HK, Smillie LD. Testing the Information‐Seeking Theory of Openness/Intellect. EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF PERSONALITY 2020. [DOI: 10.1002/per.2271] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Why are open people open? A recent theory suggests that openness/intellect reflects sensitivity to the reward value of information, but so far, this has undergone few direct tests. To assess preferences for information, we constructed a novel task, adapted from information‐seeking paradigms within decision science, in which participants could choose to see information related to a guessing game they had just completed. Across two studies (one exploratory, n = 151; one confirmatory, n = 301), openness/intellect did not predict information seeking. Our results thus do not support a straightforward version of the theory, whereby open individuals display a general‐purpose sensitivity to any sort of new information. However, trait curiosity (arguably a facet of openness/intellect) predicted information seeking in both studies, and uncertainty intolerance (inversely related to openness/intellect) predicted information seeking in Study 2. Thus, it is possible that the domain‐level null association masks two divergent information‐seeking pathways: one approach motivated (curiosity) and one avoidance motivated (uncertainty intolerance). It remains to be seen whether these conflicting motivations can be isolated and if doing so reveals any association between information‐seeking and the broader openness/intellect domain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hayley K. Jach
- Melbourne School of Psychological Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria Australia
| | - Luke D. Smillie
- Melbourne School of Psychological Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria Australia
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Szollosi A, Newell BR. People as Intuitive Scientists: Reconsidering Statistical Explanations of Decision Making. Trends Cogn Sci 2020; 24:1008-1018. [PMID: 33077380 DOI: 10.1016/j.tics.2020.09.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2020] [Revised: 09/09/2020] [Accepted: 09/10/2020] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
A persistent metaphor in decision-making research casts people as intuitive statisticians. Popular explanations based on this metaphor assume that the way in which people represent the environment is specified and fixed a priori. A major flaw in this account is that it is not clear how people know what aspects of an environment are important, how to interpret those aspects, and how to make decisions based on them. We suggest a theoretical reorientation away from assuming people's representations towards a focus on explaining how people themselves specify what is important to represent. This perspective casts decision makers as intuitive scientists able to flexibly construct, modify, and replace the representations of the decision problems they face.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aba Szollosi
- School of Psychology, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia.
| | - Ben R Newell
- School of Psychology, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
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48
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van Lieshout LLF, de Lange FP, Cools R. Why so curious? Quantifying mechanisms of information seeking. Curr Opin Behav Sci 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cobeha.2020.08.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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49
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FitzGibbon L, Lau JKL, Murayama K. The seductive lure of curiosity: information as a motivationally salient reward. Curr Opin Behav Sci 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cobeha.2020.05.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
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50
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Monosov IE. How Outcome Uncertainty Mediates Attention, Learning, and Decision-Making. Trends Neurosci 2020; 43:795-809. [PMID: 32736849 PMCID: PMC8153236 DOI: 10.1016/j.tins.2020.06.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2020] [Revised: 06/16/2020] [Accepted: 06/24/2020] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Animals and humans evolved sophisticated nervous systems that endowed them with the ability to form internal-models or beliefs and make predictions about the future to survive and flourish in a world in which future outcomes are often uncertain. Crucial to this capacity is the ability to adjust behavioral and learning policies in response to the level of uncertainty. Until recently, the neuronal mechanisms that could underlie such uncertainty-guided control have been largely unknown. In this review, I discuss newly discovered neuronal circuits in primates that represent uncertainty about future rewards and propose how they guide information-seeking, attention, decision-making, and learning to help us survive in an uncertain world. Lastly, I discuss the possible relevance of these findings to learning in artificial systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ilya E Monosov
- Department of Neuroscience and Neurosurgery, Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis, MO, USA; Department of Biomedical Engineering, Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis, MO, USA; Washington University Pain Center, Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis, MO, USA.
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