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Frye RE, Rincon N, McCarty PJ, Brister D, Scheck AC, Rossignol DA. Biomarkers of mitochondrial dysfunction in autism spectrum disorder: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Neurobiol Dis 2024; 197:106520. [PMID: 38703861 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2024.106520] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2024] [Revised: 04/27/2024] [Accepted: 04/29/2024] [Indexed: 05/06/2024] Open
Abstract
Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder affecting 1 in 36 children and is associated with physiological abnormalities, most notably mitochondrial dysfunction, at least in a subset of individuals. This systematic review and meta-analysis discovered 204 relevant articles which evaluated biomarkers of mitochondrial dysfunction in ASD individuals. Significant elevations (all p < 0.01) in the prevalence of lactate (17%), pyruvate (41%), alanine (15%) and creatine kinase (9%) were found in ASD. Individuals with ASD had significant differences (all p < 0.01) with moderate to large effect sizes (Cohen's d' ≥ 0.6) compared to controls in mean pyruvate, lactate-to-pyruvate ratio, ATP, and creatine kinase. Some studies found abnormal TCA cycle metabolites associated with ASD. Thirteen controlled studies reported mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) deletions or variations in the ASD group in blood, peripheral blood mononuclear cells, lymphocytes, leucocytes, granulocytes, and brain. Meta-analyses discovered significant differences (p < 0.01) in copy number of mtDNA overall and in ND1, ND4 and CytB genes. Four studies linked specific mtDNA haplogroups to ASD. A series of studies found a subgroup of ASD with elevated mitochondrial respiration which was associated with increased sensitivity of the mitochondria to physiological stressors and neurodevelopmental regression. Lactate, pyruvate, lactate-to-pyruvate ratio, carnitine, and acyl-carnitines were associated with clinical features such as delays in language, social interaction, cognition, motor skills, and with repetitive behaviors and gastrointestinal symptoms, although not all studies found an association. Lactate, carnitine, acyl-carnitines, ATP, CoQ10, as well as mtDNA variants, heteroplasmy, haplogroups and copy number were associated with ASD severity. Variability was found across biomarker studies primarily due to differences in collection and processing techniques as well as the intrinsic heterogeneity of the ASD population. Several studies reported alterations in mitochondrial metabolism in mothers of children with ASD and in neonates who develop ASD. Treatments targeting mitochondria, particularly carnitine and ubiquinol, appear beneficial in ASD. The link between mitochondrial dysfunction in ASD and common physiological abnormalities in individuals with ASD including gastrointestinal disorders, oxidative stress, and immune dysfunction is outlined. Several subtypes of mitochondrial dysfunction in ASD are discussed, including one related to neurodevelopmental regression, another related to alterations in microbiome metabolites, and another related to elevations in acyl-carnitines. Mechanisms linking abnormal mitochondrial function with alterations in prenatal brain development and postnatal brain function are outlined. Given the multisystem complexity of some individuals with ASD, this review presents evidence for the mitochondria being central to ASD by contributing to abnormalities in brain development, cognition, and comorbidities such as immune and gastrointestinal dysfunction as well as neurodevelopmental regression. A diagnostic approach to identify mitochondrial dysfunction in ASD is outlined. From this evidence, it is clear that many individuals with ASD have alterations in mitochondrial function which may need to be addressed in order to achieve optimal clinical outcomes. The fact that alterations in mitochondrial metabolism may be found during pregnancy and early in the life of individuals who eventually develop ASD provides promise for early life predictive biomarkers of ASD. Further studies may improve the understanding of the role of the mitochondria in ASD by better defining subgroups and understanding the molecular mechanisms driving some of the unique changes found in mitochondrial function in those with ASD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard E Frye
- Autism Discovery and Treatment Foundation, Phoenix, AZ, USA; Southwest Autism Research and Resource Center, Phoenix, AZ, USA; Rossignol Medical Center, Phoenix, AZ, USA.
| | | | - Patrick J McCarty
- Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans, LA 70113, United States of America.
| | | | - Adrienne C Scheck
- Autism Discovery and Treatment Foundation, Phoenix, AZ, USA; Department of Child Health, University of Arizona College of Medicine - Phoenix, Phoenix, AZ 85004, United States of America.
| | - Daniel A Rossignol
- Autism Discovery and Treatment Foundation, Phoenix, AZ, USA; Rossignol Medical Center, Aliso Viejo, CA, USA
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Chowdhury TA, Luy DA, Scapellato G, Farache D, Lee ASY, Quinn CC. Autism candidate gene rbm-26 ( RBM26/27) regulates MALS-1 to protect against mitochondrial dysfunction and axon degeneration during neurodevelopment. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2023.10.12.562060. [PMID: 37873356 PMCID: PMC10592788 DOI: 10.1101/2023.10.12.562060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2023]
Abstract
Mitochondrial dysfunction is thought to be a key component of neurodevelopmental disorders such as autism, intellectual disability, and ADHD. However, little is known about the molecular mechanisms that protect against mitochondrial dysfunction during neurodevelopment. Here, we address this question through the investigation of rbm-26, the C. elegans ortholog of the RBM27 autism candidate gene, which encodes an RNA-binding protein whose role in neurons is unknown. We report that RBM-26 (RBM26/27) protects against axonal defects by negatively regulating expression of the MALS-1 (MALSU1) mitoribosomal assembly factor. Autism-associated missense variants in RBM-26 cause a sharp decrease in RBM-26 protein expression along with defects in in axon tiling and axon degeneration that occurs during larval development. Using a biochemical screen, we identified the mRNA for the MALS-1 mitoribosomal assembly factor as a binding partner for RBM-26. Loss of RBM-26 function causes a dramatic overexpression of mals-1 mRNA and MALS-1 protein. Moreover, genetic analysis indicates that this overexpression of MALS-1 is responsible for the mitochondrial and axon degeneration defects in rbm-26 mutants. These observations reveal a mechanism that regulates expression of a mitoribosomal assembly factor to protect against axon degeneration during neurodevelopment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tamjid A Chowdhury
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, Milwaukee, WI, USA
| | - David A Luy
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, Milwaukee, WI, USA
| | - Garrett Scapellato
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, Milwaukee, WI, USA
| | - Dorian Farache
- Department of Cell Biology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
- Department of Cancer Immunology and Virology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Amy SY Lee
- Department of Cell Biology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
- Department of Cancer Immunology and Virology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Christopher C Quinn
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, Milwaukee, WI, USA
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3
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Lanfranchi M, Yandiev S, Meyer-Dilhet G, Ellouze S, Kerkhofs M, Dos Reis R, Garcia A, Blondet C, Amar A, Kneppers A, Polvèche H, Plassard D, Foretz M, Viollet B, Sakamoto K, Mounier R, Bourgeois CF, Raineteau O, Goillot E, Courchet J. The AMPK-related kinase NUAK1 controls cortical axons branching by locally modulating mitochondrial metabolic functions. Nat Commun 2024; 15:2487. [PMID: 38514619 PMCID: PMC10958033 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-024-46146-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2023] [Accepted: 02/15/2024] [Indexed: 03/23/2024] Open
Abstract
The cellular mechanisms underlying axonal morphogenesis are essential to the formation of functional neuronal networks. We previously identified the autism-linked kinase NUAK1 as a central regulator of axon branching through the control of mitochondria trafficking. However, (1) the relationship between mitochondrial position, function and axon branching and (2) the downstream effectors whereby NUAK1 regulates axon branching remain unknown. Here, we report that mitochondria recruitment to synaptic boutons supports collateral branches stabilization rather than formation in mouse cortical neurons. NUAK1 deficiency significantly impairs mitochondrial metabolism and axonal ATP concentration, and upregulation of mitochondrial function is sufficient to rescue axonal branching in NUAK1 null neurons in vitro and in vivo. Finally, we found that NUAK1 regulates axon branching through the mitochondria-targeted microprotein BRAWNIN. Our results demonstrate that NUAK1 exerts a dual function during axon branching through its ability to control mitochondrial distribution and metabolic activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marine Lanfranchi
- Univ Lyon, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, CNRS, Inserm, Physiopathologie et Génétique du Neurone et du Muscle, UMR5261, U1315, Institut NeuroMyoGène, 69008, Lyon, France
| | - Sozerko Yandiev
- Univ Lyon, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, CNRS, Inserm, Physiopathologie et Génétique du Neurone et du Muscle, UMR5261, U1315, Institut NeuroMyoGène, 69008, Lyon, France
| | - Géraldine Meyer-Dilhet
- Univ Lyon, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, CNRS, Inserm, Physiopathologie et Génétique du Neurone et du Muscle, UMR5261, U1315, Institut NeuroMyoGène, 69008, Lyon, France
| | - Salma Ellouze
- Univ Lyon, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, CNRS, Inserm, Physiopathologie et Génétique du Neurone et du Muscle, UMR5261, U1315, Institut NeuroMyoGène, 69008, Lyon, France
- Univ Lyon, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, Inserm, Stem Cell and Brain Research Institute U1208, 69500, Bron, France
| | - Martijn Kerkhofs
- Univ Lyon, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, CNRS, Inserm, Physiopathologie et Génétique du Neurone et du Muscle, UMR5261, U1315, Institut NeuroMyoGène, 69008, Lyon, France
| | - Raphael Dos Reis
- Univ Lyon, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, CNRS, Inserm, Physiopathologie et Génétique du Neurone et du Muscle, UMR5261, U1315, Institut NeuroMyoGène, 69008, Lyon, France
| | - Audrey Garcia
- Univ Lyon, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, CNRS, Inserm, Physiopathologie et Génétique du Neurone et du Muscle, UMR5261, U1315, Institut NeuroMyoGène, 69008, Lyon, France
| | - Camille Blondet
- Univ Lyon, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, CNRS, Inserm, Physiopathologie et Génétique du Neurone et du Muscle, UMR5261, U1315, Institut NeuroMyoGène, 69008, Lyon, France
| | - Alizée Amar
- Univ Lyon, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, CNRS, Inserm, Physiopathologie et Génétique du Neurone et du Muscle, UMR5261, U1315, Institut NeuroMyoGène, 69008, Lyon, France
| | - Anita Kneppers
- Univ Lyon, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, CNRS, Inserm, Physiopathologie et Génétique du Neurone et du Muscle, UMR5261, U1315, Institut NeuroMyoGène, 69008, Lyon, France
| | - Hélène Polvèche
- Laboratoire de Biologie et Modelisation de la Cellule, Ecole Normale Superieure de Lyon, CNRS, UMR 5239, Inserm, U1293, Universite Claude Bernard Lyon 1, 46 allée d'Italie F-69364, Lyon, France
- CECS/AFM, I-STEM, 28 rue Henri Desbruères, F-91100, Corbeil-Essonnes, France
| | - Damien Plassard
- CNRS UMR 7104, INSERM U1258, GenomEast Platform, Institut de Génétique et de Biologie Moléculaire et Cellulaire (IGBMC), Université de Strasbourg, Illkirch, France
| | - Marc Foretz
- Université Paris Cité, CNRS, Inserm, Institut Cochin, Paris, France
| | - Benoit Viollet
- Université Paris Cité, CNRS, Inserm, Institut Cochin, Paris, France
| | - Kei Sakamoto
- Novo Nordisk Foundation Center for Basic Metabolic Research, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, 2200, Denmark
| | - Rémi Mounier
- Univ Lyon, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, CNRS, Inserm, Physiopathologie et Génétique du Neurone et du Muscle, UMR5261, U1315, Institut NeuroMyoGène, 69008, Lyon, France
| | - Cyril F Bourgeois
- Laboratoire de Biologie et Modelisation de la Cellule, Ecole Normale Superieure de Lyon, CNRS, UMR 5239, Inserm, U1293, Universite Claude Bernard Lyon 1, 46 allée d'Italie F-69364, Lyon, France
| | - Olivier Raineteau
- Univ Lyon, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, Inserm, Stem Cell and Brain Research Institute U1208, 69500, Bron, France
| | - Evelyne Goillot
- Univ Lyon, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, CNRS, Inserm, Physiopathologie et Génétique du Neurone et du Muscle, UMR5261, U1315, Institut NeuroMyoGène, 69008, Lyon, France
| | - Julien Courchet
- Univ Lyon, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, CNRS, Inserm, Physiopathologie et Génétique du Neurone et du Muscle, UMR5261, U1315, Institut NeuroMyoGène, 69008, Lyon, France.
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4
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Chang X, Qu HQ, Liu Y, Glessner JT, Hakonarson H. Mitochondrial DNA Haplogroup K Is Protective Against Autism Spectrum Disorder Risk in Populations of European Ancestry. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2023:S0890-8567(23)02242-6. [PMID: 38072244 PMCID: PMC11186604 DOI: 10.1016/j.jaac.2023.09.550] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2022] [Revised: 09/23/2023] [Accepted: 12/01/2023] [Indexed: 12/23/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Accumulative evidence indicates a critical role of mitochondrial function in autism spectrum disorders (ASD), implying that ASD risk may be linked to mitochondrial dysfunction due to DNA (mtDNA) variations. Although a few studies have explored the association between mtDNA variations and ASD, the role of mtDNA in ASD is still unclear. Here, we aimed to investigate whether mitochondrial DNA haplogroups are associated with the risk of ASD. METHOD Two European cohorts and an Ashkenazi Jewish (AJ) cohort were analyzed, including 2,062 ASD patients in comparison with 4,632 healthy controls. DNA samples were genotyped using Illumina HumanHap550/610 and Illumina 1M arrays, inclusive of mitochondrial markers. Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) haplogroups were identified from genotyping data using HaploGrep2. A mitochondrial genome imputation pipeline was established to detect mtDNA variants. We conducted a case-control study to investigate potential associations of mtDNA haplogroups and variants with the susceptibility to ASD. RESULTS We observed that the ancient adaptive mtDNA haplogroup K was significantly associated with decreased risk of ASD by the investigation of 2 European cohorts including a total of 2,006 cases and 4,435 controls (odds ratio = 0.64, P=1.79 × 10-5), and we replicated this association in an Ashkenazi Jewish (AJ) cohort including 56 cases and 197 controls (odds ratio = 0.35, P = 9.46 × 10-3). Moreover, we demonstrate that the mtDNA variants rs28358571, rs28358584, and rs28358280 are significantly associated with ASD risk. Further expression quantitative trait loci (eQTLs) analysis indicated that the rs28358584 and rs28358280 genotypes are associated with expression levels of nearby genes in brain tissues, suggesting those mtDNA variants may confer risk for ASD via regulation of expression levels of genes encoded by the mitochondrial genome. CONCLUSION This study helps to shed light on the contribution of mitochondria in ASD and provides new insights into the genetic mechanism underlying ASD, suggesting the potential involvement of mtDNA-encoded proteins in the development of ASD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiao Chang
- Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States; Shandong First Medical University & Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences, Shandong, China.
| | - Hui-Qi Qu
- Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States
| | - Yichuan Liu
- Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States
| | | | - Hakon Hakonarson
- Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States; The Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Pennsylvania, United States and Faculty of Medicine, University of Iceland, Reykjavik, Iceland
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5
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Smullen M, Olson MN, Murray LF, Suresh M, Yan G, Dawes P, Barton NJ, Mason JN, Zhang Y, Fernandez-Fontaine AA, Church GM, Mastroeni D, Wang Q, Lim ET, Chan Y, Readhead B. Modeling of mitochondrial genetic polymorphisms reveals induction of heteroplasmy by pleiotropic disease locus 10398A>G. Sci Rep 2023; 13:10405. [PMID: 37369829 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-37541-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2023] [Accepted: 06/23/2023] [Indexed: 06/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Mitochondrial (MT) dysfunction has been associated with several neurodegenerative diseases including Alzheimer's disease (AD). While MT-copy number differences have been implicated in AD, the effect of MT heteroplasmy on AD has not been well characterized. Here, we analyzed over 1800 whole genome sequencing data from four AD cohorts in seven different tissue types to determine the extent of MT heteroplasmy present. While MT heteroplasmy was present throughout the entire MT genome for blood samples, we detected MT heteroplasmy only within the MT control region for brain samples. We observed that an MT variant 10398A>G (rs2853826) was significantly associated with overall MT heteroplasmy in brain tissue while also being linked with the largest number of distinct disease phenotypes of all annotated MT variants in MitoMap. Using gene-expression data from our brain samples, our modeling discovered several gene networks involved in mitochondrial respiratory chain and Complex I function associated with 10398A>G. The variant was also found to be an expression quantitative trait loci (eQTL) for the gene MT-ND3. We further characterized the effect of 10398A>G by phenotyping a population of lymphoblastoid cell-lines (LCLs) with and without the variant allele. Examination of RNA sequence data from these LCLs reveal that 10398A>G was an eQTL for MT-ND4. We also observed in LCLs that 10398A>G was significantly associated with overall MT heteroplasmy within the MT control region, confirming the initial findings observed in post-mortem brain tissue. These results provide novel evidence linking MT SNPs with MT heteroplasmy and open novel avenues for the investigation of pathomechanisms that are driven by this pleiotropic disease associated loci.
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Affiliation(s)
- Molly Smullen
- Department of Neurology, University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School, Worcester, MA, 01605, USA
- Program in Bioinformatics and Integrative Biology, University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School, Worcester, MA, 01605, USA
- NeuroNexus Institute, University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School, Worcester, MA, 01605, USA
- Department of Molecular, Cell and Cancer Biology, University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School, Worcester, MA, 01605, USA
| | - Meagan N Olson
- Department of Neurology, University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School, Worcester, MA, 01605, USA
- Program in Bioinformatics and Integrative Biology, University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School, Worcester, MA, 01605, USA
- NeuroNexus Institute, University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School, Worcester, MA, 01605, USA
- Department of Molecular, Cell and Cancer Biology, University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School, Worcester, MA, 01605, USA
| | - Liam F Murray
- Department of Neurology, University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School, Worcester, MA, 01605, USA
- Program in Bioinformatics and Integrative Biology, University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School, Worcester, MA, 01605, USA
- NeuroNexus Institute, University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School, Worcester, MA, 01605, USA
- Department of Molecular, Cell and Cancer Biology, University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School, Worcester, MA, 01605, USA
| | - Madhusoodhanan Suresh
- Department of Neurology, University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School, Worcester, MA, 01605, USA
- Program in Bioinformatics and Integrative Biology, University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School, Worcester, MA, 01605, USA
- NeuroNexus Institute, University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School, Worcester, MA, 01605, USA
- Department of Molecular, Cell and Cancer Biology, University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School, Worcester, MA, 01605, USA
| | - Guang Yan
- Department of Neurology, University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School, Worcester, MA, 01605, USA
- Program in Bioinformatics and Integrative Biology, University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School, Worcester, MA, 01605, USA
- NeuroNexus Institute, University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School, Worcester, MA, 01605, USA
- Department of Molecular, Cell and Cancer Biology, University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School, Worcester, MA, 01605, USA
| | - Pepper Dawes
- Department of Neurology, University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School, Worcester, MA, 01605, USA
- Program in Bioinformatics and Integrative Biology, University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School, Worcester, MA, 01605, USA
- NeuroNexus Institute, University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School, Worcester, MA, 01605, USA
- Department of Molecular, Cell and Cancer Biology, University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School, Worcester, MA, 01605, USA
| | - Nathaniel J Barton
- Department of Neurology, University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School, Worcester, MA, 01605, USA
- Program in Bioinformatics and Integrative Biology, University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School, Worcester, MA, 01605, USA
- NeuroNexus Institute, University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School, Worcester, MA, 01605, USA
- Department of Molecular, Cell and Cancer Biology, University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School, Worcester, MA, 01605, USA
| | - Jivanna N Mason
- Department of Neurology, University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School, Worcester, MA, 01605, USA
- Program in Bioinformatics and Integrative Biology, University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School, Worcester, MA, 01605, USA
- NeuroNexus Institute, University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School, Worcester, MA, 01605, USA
- Department of Molecular, Cell and Cancer Biology, University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School, Worcester, MA, 01605, USA
| | - Yucheng Zhang
- Department of Neurology, University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School, Worcester, MA, 01605, USA
- Program in Bioinformatics and Integrative Biology, University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School, Worcester, MA, 01605, USA
- NeuroNexus Institute, University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School, Worcester, MA, 01605, USA
- Department of Molecular, Cell and Cancer Biology, University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School, Worcester, MA, 01605, USA
| | - Aria A Fernandez-Fontaine
- Department of Neurology, University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School, Worcester, MA, 01605, USA
- Program in Bioinformatics and Integrative Biology, University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School, Worcester, MA, 01605, USA
- NeuroNexus Institute, University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School, Worcester, MA, 01605, USA
- Department of Molecular, Cell and Cancer Biology, University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School, Worcester, MA, 01605, USA
| | - George M Church
- Department of Genetics, Blavatnik Institute, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
- Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering, Harvard University, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
| | - Diego Mastroeni
- ASU-Banner Neurodegenerative Disease Research Center, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, 85281, USA
| | - Qi Wang
- ASU-Banner Neurodegenerative Disease Research Center, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, 85281, USA
| | - Elaine T Lim
- Department of Neurology, University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School, Worcester, MA, 01605, USA
- Program in Bioinformatics and Integrative Biology, University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School, Worcester, MA, 01605, USA
- NeuroNexus Institute, University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School, Worcester, MA, 01605, USA
- Department of Molecular, Cell and Cancer Biology, University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School, Worcester, MA, 01605, USA
| | - Yingleong Chan
- Department of Neurology, University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School, Worcester, MA, 01605, USA.
- Program in Bioinformatics and Integrative Biology, University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School, Worcester, MA, 01605, USA.
- NeuroNexus Institute, University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School, Worcester, MA, 01605, USA.
| | - Benjamin Readhead
- ASU-Banner Neurodegenerative Disease Research Center, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, 85281, USA.
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Cieślik M, Zawadzka A, Czapski GA, Wilkaniec A, Adamczyk A. Developmental Stage-Dependent Changes in Mitochondrial Function in the Brain of Offspring Following Prenatal Maternal Immune Activation. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24087243. [PMID: 37108406 PMCID: PMC10138707 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24087243] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2023] [Revised: 04/01/2023] [Accepted: 04/09/2023] [Indexed: 04/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Maternal immune activation (MIA) is an important risk factor for neurodevelopmental disorders such as autism. The aim of the current study was to investigate the development-dependent changes in the mitochondrial function of MIA-exposed offspring, which may contribute to autism-like deficits. MIA was evoked by the single intraperitoneal administration of lipopolysaccharide to pregnant rats at gestation day 9.5, and several aspects of mitochondrial function in fetuses and in the brains of seven-day-old pups and adolescent offspring were analyzed along with oxidative stress parameters measurement. It was found that MIA significantly increased the activity of NADPH oxidase (NOX), an enzyme generating reactive oxygen species (ROS) in the fetuses and in the brain of seven-day-old pups, but not in the adolescent offspring. Although a lower mitochondrial membrane potential accompanied by a decreased ATP level was already observed in the fetuses and in the brain of seven-day-old pups, persistent alterations of ROS, mitochondrial membrane depolarization, and lower ATP generation with concomitant electron transport chain complexes downregulation were observed only in the adolescent offspring. We suggest that ROS observed in infancy are most likely of a NOX activity origin, whereas in adolescence, ROS are produced by damaged mitochondria. The accumulation of dysfunctional mitochondria leads to the intense release of free radicals that trigger oxidative stress and neuroinflammation, resulting in an interlinked vicious cascade.
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Affiliation(s)
- Magdalena Cieślik
- Department of Cellular Signalling, Mossakowski Medical Research Institute, Polish Academy of Sciences, ul. Pawińskiego 5, 02-106 Warsaw, Poland
| | - Aleksandra Zawadzka
- Department of Cellular Signalling, Mossakowski Medical Research Institute, Polish Academy of Sciences, ul. Pawińskiego 5, 02-106 Warsaw, Poland
| | - Grzegorz A Czapski
- Department of Cellular Signalling, Mossakowski Medical Research Institute, Polish Academy of Sciences, ul. Pawińskiego 5, 02-106 Warsaw, Poland
| | - Anna Wilkaniec
- Department of Cellular Signalling, Mossakowski Medical Research Institute, Polish Academy of Sciences, ul. Pawińskiego 5, 02-106 Warsaw, Poland
| | - Agata Adamczyk
- Department of Cellular Signalling, Mossakowski Medical Research Institute, Polish Academy of Sciences, ul. Pawińskiego 5, 02-106 Warsaw, Poland
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7
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Anitha A, Thanseem I, Iype M, Thomas SV. Mitochondrial dysfunction in cognitive neurodevelopmental disorders: Cause or effect? Mitochondrion 2023; 69:18-32. [PMID: 36621534 DOI: 10.1016/j.mito.2023.01.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2022] [Revised: 12/21/2022] [Accepted: 01/04/2023] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Mitochondria have a crucial role in brain development and neurogenesis, both in embryonic and adult brains. Since the brain is the highest energy consuming organ, it is highly vulnerable to mitochondrial dysfunction. This has been implicated in a range of brain disorders including, neurodevelopmental conditions, psychiatric illnesses, and neurodegenerative diseases. Genetic variations in mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), and nuclear DNA encoding mitochondrial proteins, have been associated with several cognitive disorders. However, it is not yet clear whether mitochondrial dysfunction is a primary cause of these conditions or a secondary effect. Our review article deals with this topic, and brings out recent advances in mitochondria-oriented therapies. Mitochondrial dysfunction could be involved in the pathogenesis of a subset of disorders involving cognitive impairment. In these patients, mitochondrial dysfunction could be the cause of the condition, rather than the consequence. There are vast areas in this topic that remains to be explored and elucidated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ayyappan Anitha
- Dept. of Neurogenetics, Institute for Communicative and Cognitive Neurosciences (ICCONS), Shoranur, Palakkad 679 523, Kerala, India.
| | - Ismail Thanseem
- Dept. of Neurogenetics, Institute for Communicative and Cognitive Neurosciences (ICCONS), Shoranur, Palakkad 679 523, Kerala, India
| | - Mary Iype
- Dept. of Pediatric Neurology, Government Medical College, Thiruvananthapuram 695 011, Kerala, India; Dept. of Neurology, ICCONS, Thiruvananthapuram 695 033, Kerala, India
| | - Sanjeev V Thomas
- Dept. of Neurology, ICCONS, Thiruvananthapuram 695 033, Kerala, India
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8
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Ryan NM, Heron EA. Evidence for parent-of-origin effects in autism spectrum disorder: a narrative review. J Appl Genet 2023; 64:303-317. [PMID: 36710277 PMCID: PMC10076404 DOI: 10.1007/s13353-022-00742-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2022] [Revised: 12/08/2022] [Accepted: 12/15/2022] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a heterogeneous group of early-onset neurodevelopmental disorders known to be highly heritable with a complex genetic architecture. Abnormal brain developmental trajectories that impact synaptic functioning, excitation-inhibition balance and brain connectivity are now understood to play a central role in ASD. Ongoing efforts to identify the genetic underpinnings still prove challenging, in part due to phenotypic and genetic heterogeneity.This review focuses on parent-of-origin effects (POEs), where the phenotypic effect of an allele depends on its parental origin. POEs include genomic imprinting, transgenerational effects, mitochondrial DNA, sex chromosomes and mutational transmission bias. The motivation for investigating these mechanisms in ASD has been driven by their known impacts on early brain development and brain functioning, in particular for the most well-documented POE, genomic imprinting. Moreover, imprinting is implicated in syndromes such as Angelman and Prader-Willi, which frequently share comorbid symptoms with ASD. In addition to other regions in the genome, this comprehensive review highlights the 15q11-q13 and 7q chromosomal regions as well as the mitochondrial DNA as harbouring the majority of currently identified POEs in ASD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Niamh M Ryan
- Neuropsychiatric Genetics Research Group, Department of Psychiatry, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Elizabeth A Heron
- Neuropsychiatric Genetics Research Group, Department of Psychiatry, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland.
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9
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High-frequency and functional mitochondrial DNA mutations at the single-cell level. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2023; 120:e2201518120. [PMID: 36577067 PMCID: PMC9910596 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2201518120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Decline in mitochondrial function underlies aging and age-related diseases, but the role of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) mutations in these processes remains elusive. To investigate patterns of mtDNA mutations, it is particularly important to quantify mtDNA mutations and their associated pathogenic effects at the single-cell level. However, existing single-cell mtDNA sequencing approaches remain inefficient due to high cost and low mtDNA on-target rates. In this study, we developed a cost-effective mtDNA targeted-sequencing protocol called single-cell sequencing by targeted amplification of multiplex probes (scSTAMP) and experimentally validated its reliability. We then applied our method to assess single-cell mtDNA mutations in 768 B lymphocytes and 768 monocytes from a 76-y-old female. Across 632 B lymphocyte and 617 monocytes with medium mtDNA coverage over >100×, our results indicated that over 50% of cells carried at least one mtDNA mutation with variant allele frequencies (VAFs) over 20%, and that cells carried an average of 0.658 and 0.712 such mutation for B lymphocytes and monocytes, respectively. Surprisingly, more than 20% of the observed mutations had VAFs of over 90% in either cell population. In addition, over 60% of the mutations were in protein-coding genes, of which over 70% were nonsynonymous, and more than 50% of the nonsynonymous mutations were predicted to be highly pathogenic. Interestingly, about 80% of the observed mutations were singletons in the respective cell populations. Our results revealed mtDNA mutations with functional significance might be prevalent at advanced age, calling further investigation on age-related mtDNA mutation dynamics at the single-cell level.
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10
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Nabi SU, Rehman MU, Arafah A, Taifa S, Khan IS, Khan A, Rashid S, Jan F, Wani HA, Ahmad SF. Treatment of Autism Spectrum Disorders by Mitochondrial-targeted Drug: Future of Neurological Diseases Therapeutics. Curr Neuropharmacol 2023; 21:1042-1064. [PMID: 36411568 PMCID: PMC10286588 DOI: 10.2174/1570159x21666221121095618] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2022] [Revised: 10/09/2022] [Accepted: 10/11/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Autism is a neurodevelopmental disorder with a complex etiology that might involve environmental and genetic variables. Recently, some epidemiological studies conducted in various parts of the world have estimated a significant increase in the prevalence of autism, with 1 in every 59 children having some degree of autism. Since autism has been associated with other clinical abnormalities, there is every possibility that a sub-cellular component may be involved in the progression of autism. The organelle remains a focus based on mitochondria's functionality and metabolic role in cells. Furthermore, the mitochondrial genome is inherited maternally and has its DNA and organelle that remain actively involved during embryonic development; these characteristics have linked mitochondrial dysfunction to autism. Although rapid stride has been made in autism research, there are limited studies that have made particular emphasis on mitochondrial dysfunction and autism. Accumulating evidence from studies conducted at cellular and sub-cellular levels has indicated that mitochondrial dysfunction's role in autism is more than expected. The present review has attempted to describe the risk factors of autism, the role of mitochondria in the progression of the disease, oxidative damage as a trigger point to initiate mitochondrial damage, genetic determinants of the disease, possible pathogenic pathways and therapeutic regimen in vogue and the developmental stage. Furthermore, in the present review, an attempt has been made to include the novel therapeutic regimens under investigation at different clinical trial stages and their potential possibility to emerge as promising drugs against ASD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Showkat Ul Nabi
- Large Animal Diagnostic Laboratory, Department of Clinical Veterinary Medicine, Ethics & Jurisprudence, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences and Animal Husbandry, Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences and Technology (SKUAST-K), Srinagar J&K, 190006, India
| | - Muneeb U. Rehman
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
| | - Azher Arafah
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
| | - Syed Taifa
- Large Animal Diagnostic Laboratory, Department of Clinical Veterinary Medicine, Ethics & Jurisprudence, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences and Animal Husbandry, Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences and Technology (SKUAST-K), Srinagar J&K, 190006, India
| | - Iqra Shafi Khan
- Large Animal Diagnostic Laboratory, Department of Clinical Veterinary Medicine, Ethics & Jurisprudence, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences and Animal Husbandry, Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences and Technology (SKUAST-K), Srinagar J&K, 190006, India
| | - Andleeb Khan
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Pharmacy, Jazan University, Jazan, 45142, Saudi Arabia
| | - Summya Rashid
- Department of Pharmacology & Toxicology, College of Pharmacy, Prince Sattam Bin Abdulaziz University, P.O. Box 173, Al-Kharj, 11942, Saudi Arabia
| | - Fatimah Jan
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, CT University, Ludhiana, Ferozepur Road, Punjab, 142024, India
| | - Hilal Ahmad Wani
- Department of Biochemistry, Government Degree College Sumbal, Bandipora, J&K, India
| | - Sheikh Fayaz Ahmad
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Riyadh, 11451, Saudi Arabia
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11
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Trost B, Thiruvahindrapuram B, Chan AJS, Engchuan W, Higginbotham EJ, Howe JL, Loureiro LO, Reuter MS, Roshandel D, Whitney J, Zarrei M, Bookman M, Somerville C, Shaath R, Abdi M, Aliyev E, Patel RV, Nalpathamkalam T, Pellecchia G, Hamdan O, Kaur G, Wang Z, MacDonald JR, Wei J, Sung WWL, Lamoureux S, Hoang N, Selvanayagam T, Deflaux N, Geng M, Ghaffari S, Bates J, Young EJ, Ding Q, Shum C, D'Abate L, Bradley CA, Rutherford A, Aguda V, Apresto B, Chen N, Desai S, Du X, Fong MLY, Pullenayegum S, Samler K, Wang T, Ho K, Paton T, Pereira SL, Herbrick JA, Wintle RF, Fuerth J, Noppornpitak J, Ward H, Magee P, Al Baz A, Kajendirarajah U, Kapadia S, Vlasblom J, Valluri M, Green J, Seifer V, Quirbach M, Rennie O, Kelley E, Masjedi N, Lord C, Szego MJ, Zawati MH, Lang M, Strug LJ, Marshall CR, Costain G, Calli K, Iaboni A, Yusuf A, Ambrozewicz P, Gallagher L, Amaral DG, Brian J, Elsabbagh M, Georgiades S, Messinger DS, Ozonoff S, Sebat J, Sjaarda C, Smith IM, Szatmari P, Zwaigenbaum L, Kushki A, Frazier TW, Vorstman JAS, Fakhro KA, Fernandez BA, Lewis MES, Weksberg R, Fiume M, Yuen RKC, Anagnostou E, Sondheimer N, Glazer D, Hartley DM, Scherer SW. Genomic architecture of autism from comprehensive whole-genome sequence annotation. Cell 2022; 185:4409-4427.e18. [PMID: 36368308 PMCID: PMC10726699 DOI: 10.1016/j.cell.2022.10.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 31.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2022] [Revised: 08/30/2022] [Accepted: 10/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Fully understanding autism spectrum disorder (ASD) genetics requires whole-genome sequencing (WGS). We present the latest release of the Autism Speaks MSSNG resource, which includes WGS data from 5,100 individuals with ASD and 6,212 non-ASD parents and siblings (total n = 11,312). Examining a wide variety of genetic variants in MSSNG and the Simons Simplex Collection (SSC; n = 9,205), we identified ASD-associated rare variants in 718/5,100 individuals with ASD from MSSNG (14.1%) and 350/2,419 from SSC (14.5%). Considering genomic architecture, 52% were nuclear sequence-level variants, 46% were nuclear structural variants (including copy-number variants, inversions, large insertions, uniparental isodisomies, and tandem repeat expansions), and 2% were mitochondrial variants. Our study provides a guidebook for exploring genotype-phenotype correlations in families who carry ASD-associated rare variants and serves as an entry point to the expanded studies required to dissect the etiology in the ∼85% of the ASD population that remain idiopathic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brett Trost
- The Centre for Applied Genomics, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON M5G 0A4, Canada; Genetics and Genome Biology Program, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON M5G 0A4, Canada
| | | | - Ada J S Chan
- The Centre for Applied Genomics, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON M5G 0A4, Canada; Genetics and Genome Biology Program, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON M5G 0A4, Canada
| | - Worrawat Engchuan
- The Centre for Applied Genomics, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON M5G 0A4, Canada; Genetics and Genome Biology Program, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON M5G 0A4, Canada
| | - Edward J Higginbotham
- The Centre for Applied Genomics, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON M5G 0A4, Canada; Genetics and Genome Biology Program, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON M5G 0A4, Canada
| | - Jennifer L Howe
- The Centre for Applied Genomics, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON M5G 0A4, Canada
| | - Livia O Loureiro
- The Centre for Applied Genomics, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON M5G 0A4, Canada; Genetics and Genome Biology Program, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON M5G 0A4, Canada
| | - Miriam S Reuter
- The Centre for Applied Genomics, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON M5G 0A4, Canada; Genetics and Genome Biology Program, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON M5G 0A4, Canada; CGEn, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON M5G 0A4, Canada
| | - Delnaz Roshandel
- Genetics and Genome Biology Program, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON M5G 0A4, Canada
| | - Joe Whitney
- The Centre for Applied Genomics, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON M5G 0A4, Canada
| | - Mehdi Zarrei
- The Centre for Applied Genomics, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON M5G 0A4, Canada; Genetics and Genome Biology Program, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON M5G 0A4, Canada
| | | | - Cherith Somerville
- Ted Rogers Centre for Heart Research, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON M5G 1X8, Canada
| | - Rulan Shaath
- The Centre for Applied Genomics, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON M5G 0A4, Canada
| | - Mona Abdi
- Department of Human Genetics, Sidra Medicine, Doha, Qatar; College of Health and Life Sciences, Hamad Bin Khalifa University, Doha, Qatar
| | - Elbay Aliyev
- Department of Human Genetics, Sidra Medicine, Doha, Qatar
| | - Rohan V Patel
- The Centre for Applied Genomics, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON M5G 0A4, Canada
| | - Thomas Nalpathamkalam
- The Centre for Applied Genomics, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON M5G 0A4, Canada
| | - Giovanna Pellecchia
- The Centre for Applied Genomics, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON M5G 0A4, Canada
| | - Omar Hamdan
- The Centre for Applied Genomics, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON M5G 0A4, Canada
| | - Gaganjot Kaur
- The Centre for Applied Genomics, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON M5G 0A4, Canada
| | - Zhuozhi Wang
- The Centre for Applied Genomics, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON M5G 0A4, Canada
| | - Jeffrey R MacDonald
- The Centre for Applied Genomics, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON M5G 0A4, Canada
| | - John Wei
- The Centre for Applied Genomics, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON M5G 0A4, Canada
| | - Wilson W L Sung
- The Centre for Applied Genomics, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON M5G 0A4, Canada
| | - Sylvia Lamoureux
- The Centre for Applied Genomics, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON M5G 0A4, Canada
| | - Ny Hoang
- Genetics and Genome Biology Program, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON M5G 0A4, Canada; Autism Research Unit, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON M5G 1X8, Canada; Department of Molecular Genetics, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 1A8, Canada; Department of Genetic Counselling, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON M5G 1X8, Canada
| | - Thanuja Selvanayagam
- Genetics and Genome Biology Program, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON M5G 0A4, Canada; Autism Research Unit, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON M5G 1X8, Canada; Department of Genetic Counselling, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON M5G 1X8, Canada
| | - Nicole Deflaux
- Verily Life Sciences, South San Francisco, CA 94080, USA
| | - Melissa Geng
- Genetics and Genome Biology Program, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON M5G 0A4, Canada; Department of Molecular Genetics, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 1A8, Canada
| | - Siavash Ghaffari
- The Centre for Applied Genomics, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON M5G 0A4, Canada; Genetics and Genome Biology Program, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON M5G 0A4, Canada
| | - John Bates
- Verily Life Sciences, South San Francisco, CA 94080, USA
| | - Edwin J Young
- Genome Diagnostics, Department of Paediatric Medicine, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON M5G 1X8, Canada; Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathobiology, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON M5G 1X8, Canada
| | - Qiliang Ding
- Ted Rogers Centre for Heart Research, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON M5G 1X8, Canada
| | - Carole Shum
- The Centre for Applied Genomics, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON M5G 0A4, Canada; Genetics and Genome Biology Program, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON M5G 0A4, Canada
| | - Lia D'Abate
- The Centre for Applied Genomics, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON M5G 0A4, Canada; Genetics and Genome Biology Program, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON M5G 0A4, Canada
| | - Clarrisa A Bradley
- Genetics and Genome Biology Program, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON M5G 0A4, Canada; Neurosciences and Mental Health, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON M5G 0A4, Canada
| | - Annabel Rutherford
- The Centre for Applied Genomics, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON M5G 0A4, Canada; Genetics and Genome Biology Program, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON M5G 0A4, Canada; Department of Molecular Genetics, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 1A8, Canada
| | - Vernie Aguda
- The Centre for Applied Genomics, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON M5G 0A4, Canada
| | - Beverly Apresto
- The Centre for Applied Genomics, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON M5G 0A4, Canada
| | - Nan Chen
- The Centre for Applied Genomics, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON M5G 0A4, Canada
| | - Sachin Desai
- The Centre for Applied Genomics, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON M5G 0A4, Canada
| | - Xiaoyan Du
- The Centre for Applied Genomics, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON M5G 0A4, Canada
| | - Matthew L Y Fong
- The Centre for Applied Genomics, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON M5G 0A4, Canada
| | - Sanjeev Pullenayegum
- The Centre for Applied Genomics, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON M5G 0A4, Canada
| | - Kozue Samler
- The Centre for Applied Genomics, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON M5G 0A4, Canada
| | - Ting Wang
- The Centre for Applied Genomics, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON M5G 0A4, Canada
| | - Karen Ho
- The Centre for Applied Genomics, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON M5G 0A4, Canada
| | - Tara Paton
- The Centre for Applied Genomics, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON M5G 0A4, Canada
| | - Sergio L Pereira
- The Centre for Applied Genomics, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON M5G 0A4, Canada
| | - Jo-Anne Herbrick
- The Centre for Applied Genomics, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON M5G 0A4, Canada
| | - Richard F Wintle
- The Centre for Applied Genomics, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON M5G 0A4, Canada
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Olivia Rennie
- The Centre for Applied Genomics, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON M5G 0A4, Canada
| | - Elizabeth Kelley
- Department of Psychology, Queen's University, Kingston, ON K7L 3N6, Canada; Department of Psychiatry, Queen's University, Kingston, ON K7L 7X3, Canada
| | - Nina Masjedi
- Semel Institute for Neuroscience and Human Behavior, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90024, USA
| | - Catherine Lord
- Semel Institute for Neuroscience and Human Behavior, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90024, USA
| | - Michael J Szego
- Department of Molecular Genetics, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 1A8, Canada; Department of Family and Community Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5G 1V7, Canada; Dalla Lana School of Public Health, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5T 3M7, Canada
| | - Ma'n H Zawati
- Department of Human Genetics, McGill University, Montreal, QC H3A 0C7, Canada
| | - Michael Lang
- Department of Human Genetics, McGill University, Montreal, QC H3A 0C7, Canada
| | - Lisa J Strug
- Genetics and Genome Biology Program, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON M5G 0A4, Canada; Department of Statistical Sciences, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 3G3, Canada
| | - Christian R Marshall
- Genome Diagnostics, Department of Paediatric Medicine, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON M5G 1X8, Canada; Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathobiology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 1A8, Canada
| | - Gregory Costain
- Genetics and Genome Biology Program, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON M5G 0A4, Canada; Division of Clinical and Metabolic Genetics, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON M5G 1X8, Canada; Department of Pediatrics, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5G 1X8, Canada
| | - Kristina Calli
- Department of Medical Genetics, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6H 3N1, Canada; BC Children's Hospital Research Institute, Vancouver, BC V5Z 4H4, Canada
| | - Alana Iaboni
- Holland Bloorview Kids Rehabilitation Hospital, Toronto, ON M4G 1R8, Canada
| | - Afiqah Yusuf
- Montreal Neurological Institute, McGill University, Montreal, QC H3A 2B4, Canada
| | - Patricia Ambrozewicz
- Autism Research Unit, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON M5G 1X8, Canada; Department of Psychology, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON M5G 1X8, Canada
| | - Louise Gallagher
- Department of Psychiatry, School of Medicine, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland; Department of Psychiatry, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON M5G 1X8, Canada; Child, Youth and Family Services, The Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, Toronto, ON M6J 1H4, Canada; Department of Psychiatry, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5T 1R8, Canada
| | - David G Amaral
- MIND Institute, University of California, Davis, Sacramento, CA 95817, USA; Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of California, Davis, Sacramento, CA 95817, USA
| | - Jessica Brian
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5G 1X8, Canada; Holland Bloorview Kids Rehabilitation Hospital, Toronto, ON M4G 1R8, Canada
| | - Mayada Elsabbagh
- Montreal Neurological Institute, McGill University, Montreal, QC H3A 2B4, Canada
| | - Stelios Georgiades
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioural Neurosciences, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON L8N 3K7, Canada
| | | | - Sally Ozonoff
- MIND Institute, University of California, Davis, Sacramento, CA 95817, USA; Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of California, Davis, Sacramento, CA 95817, USA
| | - Jonathan Sebat
- Department of Psychiatry and Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - Calvin Sjaarda
- Department of Psychiatry, Queen's University, Kingston, ON K7L 7X3, Canada; Queen's Genomics Lab at Ongwanada, Queen's University, Kingston, ON K7M 8A6, Canada
| | - Isabel M Smith
- Department of Pediatrics, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS B3H 4R2, Canada; IWK Health Centre, Halifax, NS B3K 6R8, Canada
| | - Peter Szatmari
- Department of Psychiatry, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON M5G 1X8, Canada; Department of Psychiatry, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5T 1R8, Canada; Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, Toronto, ON M6J 1H4, Canada
| | - Lonnie Zwaigenbaum
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 1C9, Canada
| | - Azadeh Kushki
- Holland Bloorview Kids Rehabilitation Hospital, Toronto, ON M4G 1R8, Canada; Institute of Biomedical Engineering, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 3G9, Canada
| | - Thomas W Frazier
- Autism Speaks, Princeton, NJ 08540, USA; Department of Psychology, John Carroll University, Cleveland, OH 44118, USA
| | - Jacob A S Vorstman
- Genetics and Genome Biology Program, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON M5G 0A4, Canada; Department of Psychiatry, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5T 1R8, Canada
| | - Khalid A Fakhro
- Department of Human Genetics, Sidra Medicine, Doha, Qatar; College of Health and Life Sciences, Hamad Bin Khalifa University, Doha, Qatar; Department of Genetic Medicine, Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar, Doha, Qatar
| | - Bridget A Fernandez
- Department of Pediatrics, Children's Hospital Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90027, USA; Keck School of Medicine of USC, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA
| | - M E Suzanne Lewis
- Department of Medical Genetics, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6H 3N1, Canada; BC Children's Hospital Research Institute, Vancouver, BC V5Z 4H4, Canada
| | - Rosanna Weksberg
- Division of Clinical and Metabolic Genetics, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON M5G 1X8, Canada; Department of Pediatrics, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5G 1X8, Canada
| | | | - Ryan K C Yuen
- Genetics and Genome Biology Program, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON M5G 0A4, Canada; Department of Molecular Genetics, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 1A8, Canada
| | - Evdokia Anagnostou
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5G 1X8, Canada; Holland Bloorview Kids Rehabilitation Hospital, Toronto, ON M4G 1R8, Canada
| | - Neal Sondheimer
- Genetics and Genome Biology Program, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON M5G 0A4, Canada; Department of Molecular Genetics, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 1A8, Canada; Department of Pediatrics, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5G 1X8, Canada
| | - David Glazer
- Verily Life Sciences, South San Francisco, CA 94080, USA
| | | | - Stephen W Scherer
- The Centre for Applied Genomics, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON M5G 0A4, Canada; Genetics and Genome Biology Program, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON M5G 0A4, Canada; Department of Molecular Genetics, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 1A8, Canada; McLaughlin Centre, Toronto, ON M5G 0A4, Canada.
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12
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Caporali L, Fiorini C, Palombo F, Romagnoli M, Baccari F, Zenesini C, Visconti P, Posar A, Scaduto MC, Ormanbekova D, Battaglia A, Tancredi R, Cameli C, Viggiano M, Olivieri A, Torroni A, Maestrini E, Rochat MJ, Bacchelli E, Carelli V, Maresca A. Dissecting the multifaceted contribution of the mitochondrial genome to autism spectrum disorder. Front Genet 2022; 13:953762. [PMID: 36419830 PMCID: PMC9676943 DOI: 10.3389/fgene.2022.953762] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2022] [Accepted: 10/12/2022] [Indexed: 11/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a clinically heterogeneous class of neurodevelopmental conditions with a strong, albeit complex, genetic basis. The genetic architecture of ASD includes different genetic models, from monogenic transmission at one end, to polygenic risk given by thousands of common variants with small effects at the other end. The mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) was also proposed as a genetic modifier for ASD, mostly focusing on maternal mtDNA, since the paternal mitogenome is not transmitted to offspring. We extensively studied the potential contribution of mtDNA in ASD pathogenesis and risk through deep next generation sequencing and quantitative PCR in a cohort of 98 families. While the maternally-inherited mtDNA did not seem to predispose to ASD, neither for haplogroups nor for the presence of pathogenic mutations, an unexpected influence of paternal mtDNA, apparently centered on haplogroup U, came from the Italian families extrapolated from the test cohort (n = 74) when compared to the control population. However, this result was not replicated in an independent Italian cohort of 127 families and it is likely due to the elevated paternal age at time of conception. In addition, ASD probands showed a reduced mtDNA content when compared to their unaffected siblings. Multivariable regression analyses indicated that variants with 15%-5% heteroplasmy in probands are associated to a greater severity of ASD based on ADOS-2 criteria, whereas paternal super-haplogroups H and JT were associated with milder phenotypes. In conclusion, our results suggest that the mtDNA impacts on ASD, significantly modifying the phenotypic expression in the Italian population. The unexpected finding of protection induced by paternal mitogenome in term of severity may derive from a role of mtDNA in influencing the accumulation of nuclear de novo mutations or epigenetic alterations in fathers' germinal cells, affecting the neurodevelopment in the offspring. This result remains preliminary and needs further confirmation in independent cohorts of larger size. If confirmed, it potentially opens a different perspective on how paternal non-inherited mtDNA may predispose or modulate other complex diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leonardo Caporali
- IRCCS Istituto delle Scienze Neurologiche di Bologna, Programma di Neurogenetica, Bologna, Italy
| | - Claudio Fiorini
- IRCCS Istituto delle Scienze Neurologiche di Bologna, Programma di Neurogenetica, Bologna, Italy
| | - Flavia Palombo
- IRCCS Istituto delle Scienze Neurologiche di Bologna, Programma di Neurogenetica, Bologna, Italy
| | - Martina Romagnoli
- IRCCS Istituto delle Scienze Neurologiche di Bologna, Programma di Neurogenetica, Bologna, Italy
| | - Flavia Baccari
- IRCCS Istituto delle Scienze Neurologiche di Bologna, UOSI Epidemiologia e Statistica, Bologna, Italy
| | - Corrado Zenesini
- IRCCS Istituto delle Scienze Neurologiche di Bologna, UOSI Epidemiologia e Statistica, Bologna, Italy
| | - Paola Visconti
- IRCCS Istituto delle Scienze Neurologiche di Bologna, UOSI Disturbi dello Spettro Autistico, Bologna, Italy
| | - Annio Posar
- IRCCS Istituto delle Scienze Neurologiche di Bologna, UOSI Disturbi dello Spettro Autistico, Bologna, Italy
- Department of Biomedical and Neuromotor Sciences, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - Maria Cristina Scaduto
- IRCCS Istituto delle Scienze Neurologiche di Bologna, UOSI Disturbi dello Spettro Autistico, Bologna, Italy
| | - Danara Ormanbekova
- IRCCS Istituto delle Scienze Neurologiche di Bologna, Programma di Neurogenetica, Bologna, Italy
| | - Agatino Battaglia
- IRCCS Stella Maris Foundation, Department of Developmental Neuroscience, Pisa, Italy
| | - Raffaella Tancredi
- IRCCS Stella Maris Foundation, Department of Developmental Neuroscience, Pisa, Italy
| | - Cinzia Cameli
- Department of Pharmacy and Biotechnology, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - Marta Viggiano
- Department of Pharmacy and Biotechnology, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - Anna Olivieri
- Department of Biology and Biotechnology “L. Spallanzani”, University of Pavia, Pavia, Italy
| | - Antonio Torroni
- Department of Biology and Biotechnology “L. Spallanzani”, University of Pavia, Pavia, Italy
| | - Elena Maestrini
- Department of Pharmacy and Biotechnology, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - Magali Jane Rochat
- IRCCS Istituto delle Scienze Neurologiche di Bologna, Programma Diagnostica Funzionale Neuroradiologica, Bologna, Italy
| | - Elena Bacchelli
- Department of Pharmacy and Biotechnology, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - Valerio Carelli
- IRCCS Istituto delle Scienze Neurologiche di Bologna, Programma di Neurogenetica, Bologna, Italy
- Department of Biomedical and Neuromotor Sciences, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - Alessandra Maresca
- IRCCS Istituto delle Scienze Neurologiche di Bologna, Programma di Neurogenetica, Bologna, Italy
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Murtaza N, Cheng AA, Brown CO, Meka DP, Hong S, Uy JA, El-Hajjar J, Pipko N, Unda BK, Schwanke B, Xing S, Thiruvahindrapuram B, Engchuan W, Trost B, Deneault E, Calderon de Anda F, Doble BW, Ellis J, Anagnostou E, Bader GD, Scherer SW, Lu Y, Singh KK. Neuron-specific protein network mapping of autism risk genes identifies shared biological mechanisms and disease-relevant pathologies. Cell Rep 2022; 41:111678. [DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2022.111678] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2022] [Revised: 08/16/2022] [Accepted: 10/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
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14
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Wang Y, Guo X, Hong X, Wang G, Pearson C, Zuckerman B, Clark AG, O'Brien KO, Wang X, Gu Z. Association of mitochondrial DNA content, heteroplasmies and inter-generational transmission with autism. Nat Commun 2022; 13:3790. [PMID: 35778412 PMCID: PMC9249801 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-022-30805-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2021] [Accepted: 05/19/2022] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Mitochondria are essential for brain development. While previous studies linked dysfunctional mitochondria with autism spectrum disorder (ASD), the role of the mitochondrial genome (mtDNA) in ASD risk is largely unexplored. This study investigates the association of mtDNA heteroplasmies (co-existence of mutated and unmutated mtDNA) and content with ASD, as well as its inter-generational transmission and sex differences among two independent samples: a family-based study (n = 1,938 families with parents, probands and sibling controls) and a prospective birth cohort (n = 997 mother-child pairs). In both samples, predicted pathogenic (PP) heteroplasmies in children are associated with ASD risk (Meta-OR = 1.56, P = 0.00068). Inter-generational transmission of mtDNA reveals attenuated effects of purifying selection on maternal heteroplasmies in children with ASD relative to controls, particularly among males. Among children with ASD and PP heteroplasmies, increased mtDNA content shows benefits for cognition, communication, and behaviors (P ≤ 0.02). These results underscore the value of exploring maternal and newborn mtDNA in ASD. Most genetic studies of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) have focused on the nuclear genome. Here, the authors show that variations in mitochondrial DNA, detectable at birth, are also associated with risk of ASD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yiqin Wang
- Division of Nutritional Sciences, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
| | - Xiaoxian Guo
- Division of Nutritional Sciences, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
| | - Xiumei Hong
- Center on Early Life Origins of Disease, Department of Population, Family and Reproductive Health, Johns Hopkins University Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Guoying Wang
- Center on Early Life Origins of Disease, Department of Population, Family and Reproductive Health, Johns Hopkins University Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Colleen Pearson
- Department of Pediatrics, Boston University School of Medicine and Boston Medical Center, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Barry Zuckerman
- Department of Pediatrics, Boston University School of Medicine and Boston Medical Center, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Andrew G Clark
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA.,Department of Computational Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
| | | | - Xiaobin Wang
- Center on Early Life Origins of Disease, Department of Population, Family and Reproductive Health, Johns Hopkins University Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, USA. .,Department of Pediatrics, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA.
| | - Zhenglong Gu
- Division of Nutritional Sciences, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA. .,Center for Mitochondrial Genetics and Medicine, Greater Bay Area Institute of Precision Medicine (Guangzhou), Fudan University, Guangzhou, China.
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15
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Willcox JAL, Geiger JT, Morton SU, McKean D, Quiat D, Gorham JM, Tai AC, DePalma S, Bernstein D, Brueckner M, Chung WK, Giardini A, Goldmuntz E, Kaltman JR, Kim R, Newburger JW, Shen Y, Srivastava D, Tristani-Firouzi M, Gelb B, Porter GA, Seidman JG, Seidman CE. Neither cardiac mitochondrial DNA variation nor copy number contribute to congenital heart disease risk. Am J Hum Genet 2022; 109:961-966. [PMID: 35397206 PMCID: PMC9118105 DOI: 10.1016/j.ajhg.2022.03.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2021] [Accepted: 03/11/2022] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
The well-established manifestation of mitochondrial mutations in functional cardiac disease (e.g., mitochondrial cardiomyopathy) prompted the hypothesis that mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) sequence and/or copy number (mtDNAcn) variation contribute to cardiac defects in congenital heart disease (CHD). MtDNAcns were calculated and rare, non-synonymous mtDNA mutations were identified in 1,837 CHD-affected proband-parent trios, 116 CHD-affected singletons, and 114 paired cardiovascular tissue/blood samples. The variant allele fraction (VAF) of heteroplasmic variants in mitochondrial RNA from 257 CHD cardiovascular tissue samples was also calculated. On average, mtDNA from blood had 0.14 rare variants and 52.9 mtDNA copies per nuclear genome per proband. No variation with parental age at proband birth or CHD-affected proband age was seen. mtDNAcns in valve/vessel tissue (320 ± 70) were lower than in atrial tissue (1,080 ± 320, p = 6.8E-21), which were lower than in ventricle tissue (1,340 ± 280, p = 1.4E-4). The frequency of rare variants in CHD-affected individual DNA was indistinguishable from the frequency in an unaffected cohort, and proband mtDNAcns did not vary from those of CHD cohort parents. In both the CHD and the comparison cohorts, mtDNAcns were significantly correlated between mother-child, father-child, and mother-father. mtDNAcns among people with European (mean = 52.0), African (53.0), and Asian haplogroups (53.5) were calculated and were significantly different for European and Asian haplogroups (p = 2.6E-3). Variant heteroplasmic fraction (HF) in blood correlated well with paired cardiovascular tissue HF (r = 0.975) and RNA VAF (r = 0.953), which suggests blood HF is a reasonable proxy for HF in heart tissue. We conclude that mtDNA mutations and mtDNAcns are unlikely to contribute significantly to CHD risk.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jon A L Willcox
- Department of Genetics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Joshua T Geiger
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, NY 14642, USA
| | - Sarah U Morton
- Department of Pediatrics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA; Division of Newborn Medicine, Department of Medicine, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - David McKean
- Department of Genetics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Daniel Quiat
- Department of Genetics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA; Department of Pediatrics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA; Department of Cardiology, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Joshua M Gorham
- Department of Genetics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Angela C Tai
- Department of Genetics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Steven DePalma
- Department of Genetics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Daniel Bernstein
- Department of Pediatrics, Stanford University, Palo Alto, CA 94305, USA
| | - Martina Brueckner
- Departments of Genetics and Pediatric Cardiology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06510, USA
| | - Wendy K Chung
- Departments of Pediatrics and Medicine, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY 10019, USA
| | - Alessandro Giardini
- Cardiorespiratory Unit, Great Ormond Street Hospital, Great Ormond Street, London WC1N 3JH, UK
| | - Elizabeth Goldmuntz
- Department of Pediatrics, The Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Jonathan R Kaltman
- Heart Development and Structural Diseases Branch, Division of Cardiovascular Sciences, NHLBI/NIH, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Richard Kim
- Cardiothoracic Surgery, Children's Hospital Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90027, USA
| | - Jane W Newburger
- Department of Cardiology, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Yufeng Shen
- Departments of Systems Biology and Biomedical Informatics, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY 10019, USA
| | - Deepak Srivastava
- Gladstone Institute of Cardiovascular Disease, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
| | - Martin Tristani-Firouzi
- Nora Eccles Harrison Cardiovascular Research and Training Institute, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT 84132, USA
| | - Bruce Gelb
- Mindich Child Health and Development Institute and Departments of Pediatrics, Genetics and Genomic Sciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029, USA
| | - George A Porter
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, NY 14642, USA
| | - J G Seidman
- Department of Genetics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA.
| | - Christine E Seidman
- Department of Genetics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA; Department of Cardiology, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, MA 02115, USA; Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Harvard University, Boston, MA 02138, USA
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16
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Trumpff C, Michelson J, Lagranha CJ, Taleon V, Karan KR, Sturm G, Lindqvist D, Fernström J, Moser D, Kaufman BA, Picard M. Stress and circulating cell-free mitochondrial DNA: A systematic review of human studies, physiological considerations, and technical recommendations. Mitochondrion 2021; 59:225-245. [PMID: 33839318 PMCID: PMC8418815 DOI: 10.1016/j.mito.2021.04.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2020] [Revised: 02/23/2021] [Accepted: 04/05/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Cell-free mitochondrial DNA (cf-mtDNA) is a marker of inflammatory disease and a predictor of mortality, but little is known about cf-mtDNA in relation to psychobiology. A systematic review of the literature reveals that blood cf-mtDNA varies in response to common real-world stressors including psychopathology, acute psychological stress, and exercise. Moreover, cf-mtDNA is inducible within minutes and exhibits high intra-individual day-to-day variation, highlighting the dynamic regulation of cf-mtDNA levels. We discuss current knowledge on the mechanisms of cf-mtDNA release, its forms of transport ("cell-free" does not mean "membrane-free"), potential physiological functions, putative cellular and neuroendocrine triggers, and factors that may contribute to cf-mtDNA removal from the circulation. A review of in vitro, pre-clinical, and clinical studies shows conflicting results around the dogma that physiological forms of cf-mtDNA are pro-inflammatory, opening the possibility of other physiological functions, including the cell-to-cell transfer of whole mitochondria. Finally, to enhance the reproducibility and biological interpretation of human cf-mtDNA research, we propose guidelines for blood collection, cf-mtDNA isolation, quantification, and reporting standards, which can promote concerted advances by the community. Defining the mechanistic basis for cf-mtDNA signaling is an opportunity to elucidate the role of mitochondria in brain-body interactions and psychopathology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caroline Trumpff
- Department of Psychiatry, Division of Behavioral Medicine, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, USA
| | - Jeremy Michelson
- Department of Psychiatry, Division of Behavioral Medicine, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, USA
| | - Claudia J Lagranha
- University of Pittsburgh, School of Medicine, Division of Cardiology, Center for Metabolism and Mitochondrial Medicine and Vascular Medicine Institute, Pittsburgh, PA, United States
| | - Veronica Taleon
- Department of Psychiatry, Division of Behavioral Medicine, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, USA
| | - Kalpita R Karan
- Department of Psychiatry, Division of Behavioral Medicine, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, USA
| | - Gabriel Sturm
- Department of Psychiatry, Division of Behavioral Medicine, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, USA
| | - Daniel Lindqvist
- Faculty of Medicine, Department of Clinical Sciences, Psychiatry, Lund University, Lund, Sweden; Office of Psychiatry and Habilitation, Region Skåne, Sweden
| | - Johan Fernström
- Faculty of Medicine, Department of Clinical Sciences, Psychiatry, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
| | - Dirk Moser
- Department of Genetic Psychology, Faculty of Psychology, Ruhr-University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
| | - Brett A Kaufman
- University of Pittsburgh, School of Medicine, Division of Cardiology, Center for Metabolism and Mitochondrial Medicine and Vascular Medicine Institute, Pittsburgh, PA, United States
| | - Martin Picard
- Department of Psychiatry, Division of Behavioral Medicine, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, USA; Department of Neurology, H. Houston Merritt Center, Columbia Translational Neuroscience Initiative, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, USA; New York State Psychiatric Institute, NY, USA.
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17
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An mtDNA mutant mouse demonstrates that mitochondrial deficiency can result in autism endophenotypes. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2021; 118:2021429118. [PMID: 33536343 PMCID: PMC8017921 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2021429118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Autism spectrum disorders (ASDs) have increasingly been associated with mitochondrial dysfunction, corroborated by mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) germline and somatic variants being found in ASD patients. If mitochondrial defects can generate ASD, then specific mtDNA mutations should induce ASD endophenotypes in mice. We tested this prediction by introduction of an mtDNA ND6 gene missense mutation (ND6P25L) into the mouse germline and found ASD endophenotypes. The ND6P25L mice exhibit impaired social interaction, compulsive behavior, and increased anxiety. They have reduced electroencephalographic delta and theta wave power, increased predilection to seizures, but without diminution of hippocampal interneurons. These endophenotypes correlate with impaired cortical and hippocampal mitochondrial respiration and increased reactive oxygen species production. Thus, mitochondrial defects can be sufficient to produce ASD phenotypes. Autism spectrum disorders (ASDs) are characterized by a deficit in social communication, pathologic repetitive behaviors, restricted interests, and electroencephalogram (EEG) aberrations. While exhaustive analysis of nuclear DNA (nDNA) variation has revealed hundreds of copy number variants (CNVs) and loss-of-function (LOF) mutations, no unifying hypothesis as to the pathophysiology of ASD has yet emerged. Based on biochemical and physiological analyses, it has been hypothesized that ASD may be the result of a systemic mitochondrial deficiency with brain-specific manifestations. This proposal has been supported by recent mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) analyses identifying both germline and somatic mtDNA variants in ASD. If mitochondrial defects do predispose to ASD, then mice with certain mtDNA mutations should present with autism endophenotypes. To test this prediction, we examined a mouse strain harboring an mtDNA ND6 gene missense mutation (P25L). This mouse manifests impaired social interactions, increased repetitive behaviors and anxiety, EEG alterations, and a decreased seizure threshold, in the absence of reduced hippocampal interneuron numbers. EEG aberrations were most pronounced in the cortex followed by the hippocampus. Aberrations in mitochondrial respiratory function and reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels were also most pronounced in the cortex followed by the hippocampus, but absent in the olfactory bulb. These data demonstrate that mild systemic mitochondrial defects can result in ASD without apparent neuroanatomical defects and that systemic mitochondrial mutations can cause tissue-specific brain defects accompanied by regional neurophysiological alterations.
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18
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Kawarada L, Fukaya M, Saito R, Kassai H, Sakagami H, Aiba A. Telencephalon-specific Alkbh1 conditional knockout mice display hippocampal atrophy and impaired learning. FEBS Lett 2021; 595:1671-1680. [PMID: 33930188 DOI: 10.1002/1873-3468.14098] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2021] [Revised: 04/14/2021] [Accepted: 04/16/2021] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
AlkB homolog 1 (ALKBH1) is responsible for the biogenesis of 5-formylcytidine (f5 C) on mitochondrial tRNAMet and essential for mitochondrial protein synthesis. The brain, especially the hippocampus, is highly susceptible to mitochondrial dysfunction; hence, the maintenance of mitochondrial activity is strongly required to prevent disorders associated with hippocampal malfunction. To study the role of ALKBH1 in the hippocampus, we generated dorsal telencephalon-specific Alkbh1 conditional knockout (cKO) mice in inbred C57BL/6 background. These mice showed reduced activity of the respiratory chain complex, hippocampal atrophy, and CA1 pyramidal neuron abnormalities. Furthermore, performances in the fear-conditioning and Morris water maze tests in cKO mice indicated that the hippocampal abnormalities led to impaired hippocampus-dependent learning. These findings indicate critical roles of ALKBH1 in the hippocampus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Layla Kawarada
- Laboratory of Animal Resources, Center for Disease Biology and Integrative Medicine, Graduate School of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, Japan.,Department of Biological Sciences, School of Science, The University of Tokyo, Japan
| | - Masahiro Fukaya
- Department of Anatomy, Kitasato University School of Medicine, Sagamihara, Japan
| | - Ryo Saito
- Laboratory of Animal Resources, Center for Disease Biology and Integrative Medicine, Graduate School of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, Japan
| | - Hidetoshi Kassai
- Laboratory of Animal Resources, Center for Disease Biology and Integrative Medicine, Graduate School of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, Japan
| | - Hiroyuki Sakagami
- Department of Anatomy, Kitasato University School of Medicine, Sagamihara, Japan
| | - Atsu Aiba
- Laboratory of Animal Resources, Center for Disease Biology and Integrative Medicine, Graduate School of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, Japan.,Department of Biological Sciences, School of Science, The University of Tokyo, Japan
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19
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Potential Role of L-Carnitine in Autism Spectrum Disorder. J Clin Med 2021; 10:jcm10061202. [PMID: 33805796 PMCID: PMC8000371 DOI: 10.3390/jcm10061202] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2021] [Revised: 03/12/2021] [Accepted: 03/12/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
L-carnitine plays an important role in the functioning of the central nervous system, and especially in the mitochondrial metabolism of fatty acids. Altered carnitine metabolism, abnormal fatty acid metabolism in patients with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) has been documented. ASD is a complex heterogeneous neurodevelopmental condition that is usually diagnosed in early childhood. Patients with ASD require careful classification as this heterogeneous clinical category may include patients with an intellectual disability or high functioning, epilepsy, language impairments, or associated Mendelian genetic conditions. L-carnitine participates in the long-chain oxidation of fatty acids in the brain, stimulates acetylcholine synthesis (donor of the acyl groups), stimulates expression of growth-associated protein-43, prevents cell apoptosis and neuron damage and stimulates neurotransmission. Determination of L-carnitine in serum/plasma and analysis of acylcarnitines in a dried blood spot may be useful in ASD diagnosis and treatment. Changes in the acylcarnitine profiles may indicate potential mitochondrial dysfunctions and abnormal fatty acid metabolism in ASD children. L-carnitine deficiency or deregulation of L-carnitine metabolism in ASD is accompanied by disturbances of other metabolic pathways, e.g., Krebs cycle, the activity of respiratory chain complexes, indicative of mitochondrial dysfunction. Supplementation of L-carnitine may be beneficial to alleviate behavioral and cognitive symptoms in ASD patients.
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20
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Rahmani Z, Fayyazi Bordbar MR, Dibaj M, Alimardani M, Moghbeli M. Genetic and molecular biology of autism spectrum disorder among Middle East population: a review. Hum Genomics 2021; 15:17. [PMID: 33712060 PMCID: PMC7953769 DOI: 10.1186/s40246-021-00319-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2021] [Accepted: 03/04/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a neurodevelopmental disease, characterized by impaired social communication, executive dysfunction, and abnormal perceptual processing. It is more frequent among males. All of these clinical manifestations are associated with atypical neural development. Various genetic and environmental risk factors are involved in the etiology of autism. Genetic assessment is essential for the early detection and intervention which can improve social communications and reduce abnormal behaviors. Although, there is a noticeable ASD incidence in Middle East countries, there is still a lack of knowledge about the genetic and molecular biology of ASD among this population to introduce efficient diagnostic and prognostic methods. MAIN BODY In the present review, we have summarized all of the genes which have been associated with ASD progression among Middle East population. We have also categorized the reported genes based on their cell and molecular functions. CONCLUSIONS This review clarifies the genetic and molecular biology of ASD among Middle East population and paves the way of introducing an efficient population based panel of genetic markers for the early detection and management of ASD in Middle East countries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zahra Rahmani
- Department of Medical Genetics, Golestan University of Medical Sciences, Gorgan, Iran
| | | | - Mohsen Dibaj
- Department of Biological Sciences, School of Natural Sciences, University of Tabriz, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Maliheh Alimardani
- Department of Medical Genetics and Molecular Medicine, School of Medicine, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
- Student Research Committee, Faculty of Medicine, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
| | - Meysam Moghbeli
- Department of Medical Genetics and Molecular Medicine, School of Medicine, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
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21
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Atilano SR, Udar N, Satalich TA, Udar V, Chwa M, Kenney MC. Low frequency mitochondrial DNA heteroplasmy SNPs in blood, retina, and [RPE+choroid] of age-related macular degeneration subjects. PLoS One 2021; 16:e0246114. [PMID: 33513185 PMCID: PMC7846006 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0246114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2020] [Accepted: 01/13/2021] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Purpose Mitochondrial (mt) DNA damage is associated with age-related macular degeneration (AMD) and other human aging diseases. This study was designed to quantify and characterize mtDNA low-frequency heteroplasmy single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) of three different tissues isolated from AMD subjects using Next Generation Sequencing (NGS) technology. Methods DNA was extracted from neural retina, [RPE+choroid] and blood from three deceased age-related macular degeneration (AMD) subjects. Entire mitochondrial genomes were analyzed for low-frequency heteroplasmy SNPs using NGS technology that independently sequenced both mtDNA strands. This deep sequencing method (average sequencing depth of 30,000; range 1,000–100,000) can accurately differentiate low-frequency heteroplasmy SNPs from DNA modification artifacts. Twenty-three ‘hot-spot’ heteroplasmy mtDNA SNPs were analyzed in 222 additional blood samples. Results Germline homoplasmy SNPs that defined mtDNA haplogroups were consistent in the three tissues of each subject. Analyses of SNPs with <40% heteroplasmy revealed the blood had significantly greater numbers of heteroplasmy SNPs than retina alone (p≤0.05) or retina+choroid combined (p = 0.008). Twenty-three ‘hot-spot’ mtDNA heteroplasmy SNPs were present, with three being non-synonymous (amino acid change). Four ‘hot-spot’ heteroplasmy SNPs (m.1120C>T, m.1284T>C, m.1556C>T, m.7256C>T) were found in additional samples (n = 222). Five heteroplasmy SNPs (m.4104A>G, m.5320C>T, m.5471G>A, m.5474A>G, m.5498A>G) declined with age. Two heteroplasmy SNPs (m.13095T>C, m.13105A>G) increased in AMD compared to Normal samples. In the heteroplasmy SNPs, very few transversion mutations (purine to pyrimidine or vice versa, associated with oxidative damage) were found and the majority were transition changes (purine to purine or pyrimidine to pyrimidine, associated with replication errors). Conclusion Within an individual, the blood, retina and [RPE+choroid] contained identical homoplasmy SNPs representing inherited germline mtDNA haplogroup. NGS methodology showed significantly more mtDNA heteroplasmy SNPs in blood compared to retina and [RPE+choroid], suggesting the latter tissues have substantial protection. Significantly higher heteroplasmy levels of m.13095T>C and m.13105A>G may represent potential AMD biomarkers. Finally, high levels of transition mutations suggest that accumulation of heteroplasmic SNPs may occur through replication errors rather than oxidative damage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shari R. Atilano
- Gavin Herbert Eye Institute, University of California Irvine, Irvine, CA, United States of America
| | - Nitin Udar
- Gavin Herbert Eye Institute, University of California Irvine, Irvine, CA, United States of America
| | - Timothy A. Satalich
- Institute for Mathematical Behavioral Science, University of California Irvine, Irvine, CA, United States of America
| | - Viraat Udar
- Gavin Herbert Eye Institute, University of California Irvine, Irvine, CA, United States of America
| | - Marilyn Chwa
- Gavin Herbert Eye Institute, University of California Irvine, Irvine, CA, United States of America
| | - M. Cristina Kenney
- Gavin Herbert Eye Institute, University of California Irvine, Irvine, CA, United States of America
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of California Irvine, Irvine, CA, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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22
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Kwan V, Rosa E, Xing S, Murtaza N, Singh K, Holzapfel NT, Berg T, Lu Y, Singh KK. Proteomic Analysis Reveals Autism-Associated Gene DIXDC1 Regulates Proteins Associated with Mitochondrial Organization and Function. J Proteome Res 2020; 20:1052-1062. [PMID: 33337894 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jproteome.0c00896] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
DIX-domain containing 1 (Dixdc1) is an important regulator of neuronal development including cortical neurogenesis, neuronal migration and synaptic connectivity, and sequence variants in the gene have been linked to autism spectrum disorders (ASDs). Previous studies indicate that Dixdc1 controls neurogenesis through Wnt signaling, whereas its regulation of dendrite and synapse development requires Wnt and cytoskeletal signaling. However, the prediction of these signaling pathways is primarily based on the structure of Dixdc1. Given the role of Dixdc1 in neural development and brain disorders, we hypothesized that Dixdc1 may regulate additional signaling pathways in the brain. We performed transcriptomic and proteomic analyses of Dixdc1 KO mouse cortices to reveal such alterations. We found that transcriptomic approaches do not yield any novel findings about the downstream impacts of Dixdc1. In comparison, our proteomic approach reveals that several important mitochondrial proteins are significantly dysregulated in the absence of Dixdc1, suggesting a novel function of Dixdc1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vickie Kwan
- Department of Biochemistry and Biomedical Sciences, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario L8S 4K1, Canada
| | - Elyse Rosa
- Department of Biochemistry and Biomedical Sciences, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario L8S 4K1, Canada
| | - Sansi Xing
- Department of Biochemistry and Biomedical Sciences, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario L8S 4K1, Canada
| | - Nadeem Murtaza
- Department of Biochemistry and Biomedical Sciences, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario L8S 4K1, Canada
| | - Kanwaldeep Singh
- Department of Oncology, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, L8S 4K1, Canada
| | - Nicholas T Holzapfel
- Department of Biochemistry and Biomedical Sciences, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario L8S 4K1, Canada
| | - Tobias Berg
- Department of Oncology, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, L8S 4K1, Canada
| | - Yu Lu
- Department of Biochemistry and Biomedical Sciences, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario L8S 4K1, Canada
| | - Karun K Singh
- Department of Biochemistry and Biomedical Sciences, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario L8S 4K1, Canada.,Krembil Research Institute, University Health Network, Toronto, Ontario, M5T 1S8, Canada.,Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, M5S 1A8, Canada
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23
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Guo X, Wang Y, Zhang R, Gu Z. STAMP: a multiplex sequencing method for simultaneous evaluation of mitochondrial DNA heteroplasmies and content. NAR Genom Bioinform 2020; 2:lqaa065. [PMID: 33134911 DOI: 10.1093/nargab/lqaa065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2020] [Revised: 08/04/2020] [Accepted: 10/09/2020] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Human mitochondrial genome (mtDNA) variations, such as mtDNA heteroplasmies (the co-existence of mutated and wild-type mtDNA), have received increasing attention in recent years for their clinical relevance to numerous diseases. But large-scale population studies of mtDNA heteroplasmies have been lagging due to the lack of a labor- and cost-effective method. Here, we present a novel human mtDNA sequencing method called STAMP (sequencing by targeted amplification of multiplex probes) for measuring mtDNA heteroplasmies and content in a streamlined workflow. We show that STAMP has high-mapping rates to mtDNA, deep coverage of unique reads and high tolerance to sequencing and polymerase chain reaction errors when applied to human samples. STAMP also has high sensitivity and low false positive rates in identifying artificial mtDNA variants at fractions as low as 0.5% in genomic DNA samples. We further extend STAMP, by including nuclear DNA-targeting probes, to enable assessment of relative mtDNA content in the same assay. The high cost-effectiveness of STAMP, along with the flexibility of using it for measuring various aspects of mtDNA variations, will accelerate the research of mtDNA heteroplasmies and content in large population cohorts, and in the context of human diseases and aging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoxian Guo
- Division of Nutritional Sciences, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Yiqin Wang
- Division of Nutritional Sciences, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Ruoyu Zhang
- Division of Nutritional Sciences, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Zhenglong Gu
- Division of Nutritional Sciences, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
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24
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Yang X, Zhang R, Nakahira K, Gu Z. Mitochondrial DNA Mutation, Diseases, and Nutrient-Regulated Mitophagy. Annu Rev Nutr 2020; 39:201-226. [PMID: 31433742 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-nutr-082018-124643] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
A wide spectrum of human diseases, including cancer, neurodegenerative diseases, and metabolic disorders, have been shown to be associated with mitochondrial dysfunction through multiple molecular mechanisms. Mitochondria are particularly susceptible to nutrient deficiencies, and nutritional intervention is an essential way to maintain mitochondrial homeostasis. Recent advances in genetic manipulation and next-generation sequencing reveal the crucial roles of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) in various pathophysiological conditions. Mitophagy, a term coined to describe autophagy that targets dysfunctional mitochondria, has emerged as an important cellular process to maintain mitochondrial homeostasis and has been shown to be regulated by various nutrients and nutritional stresses. Given the high prevalence of mtDNA mutations in humans and their impact on mitochondrial function, it is important to investigate the mechanisms that regulate mtDNA mutation. Here, we discuss mitochondrial genetics and mtDNA mutations and their implications for human diseases. We also examine the role of mitophagy as a therapeutic target, highlighting how nutrients may eliminate mtDNA mutations through mitophagy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xuan Yang
- Division of Nutritional Sciences, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853, USA; , ,
| | - Ruoyu Zhang
- Division of Nutritional Sciences, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853, USA; , ,
| | - Kiichi Nakahira
- Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Joan and Sanford I. Weill Department of Medicine, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY 10065, USA;
| | - Zhenglong Gu
- Division of Nutritional Sciences, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853, USA; , ,
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25
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Hui K, Katayama Y, Nakayama KI, Nomura J, Sakurai T. Characterizing vulnerable brain areas and circuits in mouse models of autism: Towards understanding pathogenesis and new therapeutic approaches. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2020; 110:77-91. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2018.08.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2018] [Revised: 07/30/2018] [Accepted: 08/02/2018] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
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26
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Yardeni T, Tanes CE, Bittinger K, Mattei LM, Schaefer PM, Singh LN, Wu GD, Murdock DG, Wallace DC. Host mitochondria influence gut microbiome diversity: A role for ROS. Sci Signal 2019; 12:12/588/eaaw3159. [PMID: 31266851 DOI: 10.1126/scisignal.aaw3159] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Changes in the gut microbiota and the mitochondrial genome are both linked with the development of disease. To investigate why, we examined the gut microbiota of mice harboring various mutations in genes that alter mitochondrial function. These studies revealed that mitochondrial genetic variations altered the composition of the gut microbiota community. In cross-fostering studies, we found that although the initial microbiota community of newborn mice was that obtained from the nursing mother, the microbiota community progressed toward that characteristic of the microbiome of unfostered pups of the same genotype within 2 months. Analysis of the mitochondrial DNA variants associated with altered gut microbiota suggested that microbiome species diversity correlated with host reactive oxygen species (ROS) production. To determine whether the abundance of ROS could alter the gut microbiota, mice were aged, treated with N-acetylcysteine, or engineered to express the ROS scavenger catalase specifically within the mitochondria. All three conditions altered the microbiota from that initially established. Thus, these data suggest that the mitochondrial genotype modulates both ROS production and the species diversity of the gut microbiome, implying that the connection between the gut microbiome and common disease phenotypes might be due to underlying changes in mitochondrial function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tal Yardeni
- Center for Mitochondrial and Epigenomic Medicine, Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Ceylan E Tanes
- Division of Gastroenterology, Hepatology, and Nutrition, Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Kyle Bittinger
- Division of Gastroenterology, Hepatology, and Nutrition, Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Lisa M Mattei
- Division of Gastroenterology, Hepatology, and Nutrition, Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Patrick M Schaefer
- Center for Mitochondrial and Epigenomic Medicine, Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Larry N Singh
- Center for Mitochondrial and Epigenomic Medicine, Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Gary D Wu
- Division of Gastroenterology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Deborah G Murdock
- Center for Mitochondrial and Epigenomic Medicine, Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Douglas C Wallace
- Center for Mitochondrial and Epigenomic Medicine, Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA, USA.
- Department of Pediatrics, Division of Human Genetics and Metabolism, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
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27
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Castora FJ. Mitochondrial function and abnormalities implicated in the pathogenesis of ASD. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2019; 92:83-108. [PMID: 30599156 DOI: 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2018.12.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2018] [Revised: 12/20/2018] [Accepted: 12/24/2018] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Mitochondria are the powerhouse that generate over 90% of the ATP produced in cells. In addition to its role in energy production, the mitochondrion also plays a major role in carbohydrate, fatty acid, amino acid and nucleotide metabolism, programmed cell death (apoptosis), generation of and protection against reactive oxygen species (ROS), immune response, regulation of intracellular calcium ion levels and even maintenance of gut microbiota. With its essential role in bio-energetic as well as non-energetic biological processes, it is not surprising that proper cellular, tissue and organ function is dependent upon proper mitochondrial function. Accordingly, mitochondrial dysfunction has been shown to be directly linked to a variety of medical disorders, particularly neuromuscular disorders and increasing evidence has linked mitochondrial dysfunction to neurodegenerative and neurodevelopmental disorders such as Alzheimer's Disease (AD), Parkinson's Disease (PD), Rett Syndrome (RS) and Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD). Over the last 40 years there has been a dramatic increase in the diagnosis of ASD and, more recently, an increasing body of evidence indicates that mitochondrial dysfunction plays an important role in ASD development. In this review, the latest evidence linking mitochondrial dysfunction and abnormalities in mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) to the pathogenesis of autism will be presented. This review will also summarize the results of several recent `approaches used for improving mitochondrial function that may lead to new therapeutic approaches to managing and/or treating ASD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Frank J Castora
- Department of Physiological Sciences, Eastern Virginia Medical School, Norfolk, VA, USA; Department of Neurology, Eastern Virginia Medical School, Norfolk, VA, USA.
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28
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Abstract
BACKGROUND The integration of biological, psychological, and social factors in medicine has benefited from increasingly precise stress response biomarkers. Mitochondria, a subcellular organelle with its own genome, produce the energy required for life and generate signals that enable stress adaptation. An emerging concept proposes that mitochondria sense, integrate, and transduce psychosocial and behavioral factors into cellular and molecular modifications. Mitochondrial signaling might in turn contribute to the biological embedding of psychological states. METHODS A narrative literature review was conducted to evaluate evidence supporting this model implicating mitochondria in the stress response, and its implementation in behavioral and psychosomatic medicine. RESULTS Chronically, psychological stress induces metabolic and neuroendocrine mediators that cause structural and functional recalibrations of mitochondria, which constitutes mitochondrial allostatic load. Clinically, primary mitochondrial defects affect the brain, the endocrine system, and the immune systems that play a role in psychosomatic processes, suggesting a shared underlying mechanistic basis. Mitochondrial function and dysfunction also contribute to systemic physiological regulation through the release of mitokines and other metabolites. At the cellular level, mitochondrial signaling influences gene expression and epigenetic modifications, and modulates the rate of cellular aging. CONCLUSIONS This evidence suggests that mitochondrial allostatic load represents a potential subcellular mechanism for transducing psychosocial experiences and the resulting emotional responses-both adverse and positive-into clinically meaningful biological and physiological changes. The associated article in this issue of Psychosomatic Medicine presents a systematic review of the effects of psychological stress on mitochondria. Integrating mitochondria into biobehavioral and psychosomatic research opens new possibilities to investigate how psychosocial factors influence human health and well-being across the life-span.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin Picard
- Department of Psychiatry, Division of Behavioral Medicine, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY 10032, USA
- Department of Neurology, The H. Houston Merritt Center, Columbia Translational Neuroscience Initiative, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY 10032, USA
- Columbia Aging Center, Columbia University, New York, NY 10032, USA
| | - Bruce S. McEwen
- Laboratory for Neuroendocrinology, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY 10065, USA
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29
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Wiśniowiecka-Kowalnik B, Nowakowska BA. Genetics and epigenetics of autism spectrum disorder-current evidence in the field. J Appl Genet 2019; 60:37-47. [PMID: 30627967 PMCID: PMC6373410 DOI: 10.1007/s13353-018-00480-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 110] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2018] [Revised: 12/14/2018] [Accepted: 12/18/2018] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Autism spectrum disorders (ASD) is a heterogenous group of neurodevelopmental disorders characterized by problems in social interaction and communication as well as the presence of repetitive and stereotyped behavior. It is estimated that the prevalence of ASD is 1–2% in the general population with the average male to female ratio 4–5:1. Although the causes of ASD remain largely unknown, the studies have shown that both genetic and environmental factors play an important role in the etiology of these disorders. Array comparative genomic hybridization and whole exome/genome sequencing studies identified common and rare copy number or single nucleotide variants in genes encoding proteins involved in brain development, which play an important role in neuron and synapse formation and function. The genetic etiology is recognized in ~ 25–35% of patients with ASD. In this article, we review the current state of knowledge about the genetic etiology of ASD and also propose a diagnostic algorithm for patients.
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30
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Lo YC, Chen YJ, Hsu YC, Chien YL, Gau SSF, Tseng WYI. Altered frontal aslant tracts as a heritable neural basis of social communication deficits in autism spectrum disorder: A sibling study using tract-based automatic analysis. Autism Res 2018; 12:225-238. [PMID: 30548800 DOI: 10.1002/aur.2044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2018] [Revised: 09/12/2018] [Accepted: 10/21/2018] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Investigating social behaviors and brain structural alterations in unaffected siblings of individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) may help identify intermediate phenotypes of social communication deficits in ASD. This study hypothesized that such intermediate phenotypes could be identified in white matter tracts of the social communication model that exhibited reduced tract integrity and associations with social communication deficits. Boys with ASD (N = 30), unaffected male siblings (N = 27), and typically developing (TD) boys (N = 30) underwent clinical evaluation and MRI scanning. Group differences in generalized fractional anisotropy (GFA) values, a white matter integrity index derived from diffusion MRI data, and the relationships of GFA with the Social Responsiveness Scale (SRS) scores and the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL/4-18) scores were investigated. Significant differences were found in the GFA values of the frontal aslant tract (FAT) among the three groups, with the decreasing order of GFA from TD to siblings to ASD. The GFA values of the FAT were associated with the social communication scores (on the SRS) in the sibling group, and those of the superior longitudinal fasciculus III were associated with the social problems scores (on the CBCL/4-18) in the boys with ASD. Due to the altered tract integrity and association with social communication deficits in the unaffected siblings of individuals with ASD, the FAT might be a heritable neural basis for social communication deficits of ASD. Autism Res 2019, 12: 225-238 © 2018 International Society for Autism Research, Wiley Periodicals, Inc. LAY SUMMARY: Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a group of highly heritable disorders with social communication deficits as one of the core symptoms. This study aimed to identify a neural trait of social communication deficits in individuals with ASD. We investigated brain structural alterations and their associations with social communication scores in unaffected siblings of individuals with ASD. The siblings' frontal aslant tract was found to be impaired, and this tract showed a significant association with the social communication scores. Our findings support that the frontal aslant tract might be a potential neural trait of social communication deficits in ASD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu-Chun Lo
- Institute of Medical Device and Imaging, National Taiwan University College of Medicine, Taipei, Taiwan.,Ph.D. Program for Neural Regenerative Medicine, College of Medical Science and Technology, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan.,Research Center of Brain and Consciousness, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Yu-Jen Chen
- Institute of Medical Device and Imaging, National Taiwan University College of Medicine, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Yung-Chin Hsu
- Institute of Medical Device and Imaging, National Taiwan University College of Medicine, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Yi-Ling Chien
- Department of Psychiatry, National Taiwan University Hospital and College of Medicine, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Susan Shur-Fen Gau
- Department of Psychiatry, National Taiwan University Hospital and College of Medicine, Taipei, Taiwan.,Graduate Institute of Brain and Mind Sciences, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Wen-Yih Isaac Tseng
- Institute of Medical Device and Imaging, National Taiwan University College of Medicine, Taipei, Taiwan.,Graduate Institute of Brain and Mind Sciences, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan.,Department of Medical Imaging, National Taiwan University Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan.,Molecular Imaging Center, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan
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31
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Abstract
Inherited mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) diseases were discovered 30 years ago, and their characterization has provided a new perspective on the etiology of the common metabolic and degenerative diseases, cancer, and aging. The maternally inherited mtDNA contains 37 critical bioenergetic genes that are present in hundreds of copies per cell, but the 'mitochondrial genome' encompasses an additional 1,000-2,000 nuclear DNA (nDNA) mitochondrial genes. The interaction between these two mitochondrial genetic systems provides explanations for phenomena such as the non-Mendelian transmission of the common 'complex' diseases, age-related disease risk and progression, variable penetrance and expressivity, and gene-environment interactions. Thus, mtDNA genetics contributes to the quantitative and environmental components of human genetics that cannot be explained by Mendelian genetics. Because mtDNA is maternally inherited and cytoplasmic, it has fostered the first germline gene therapy, nuclear transplantation. However, effective interventions are still lacking for existing patients with mitochondrial dysfunction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Douglas C Wallace
- Center for Mitochondrial and Epigenomic Medicine, Children's Hospital of Philadelphia and Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA.
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32
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Rose S, Niyazov DM, Rossignol DA, Goldenthal M, Kahler SG, Frye RE. Clinical and Molecular Characteristics of Mitochondrial Dysfunction in Autism Spectrum Disorder. Mol Diagn Ther 2018; 22:571-593. [PMID: 30039193 PMCID: PMC6132446 DOI: 10.1007/s40291-018-0352-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 123] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) affects ~ 2% of children in the United States. The etiology of ASD likely involves environmental factors triggering physiological abnormalities in genetically sensitive individuals. One of these major physiological abnormalities is mitochondrial dysfunction, which may affect a significant subset of children with ASD. Here we systematically review the literature on human studies of mitochondrial dysfunction related to ASD. Clinical aspects of mitochondrial dysfunction in ASD include unusual neurodevelopmental regression, especially if triggered by an inflammatory event, gastrointestinal symptoms, seizures, motor delays, fatigue and lethargy. Traditional biomarkers of mitochondrial disease are widely reported to be abnormal in ASD, but appear non-specific. Newer biomarkers include buccal cell enzymology, biomarkers of fatty acid metabolism, non-mitochondrial enzyme function, apoptosis markers and mitochondrial antibodies. Many genetic abnormalities are associated with mitochondrial dysfunction in ASD, including chromosomal abnormalities, mitochondrial DNA mutations and large-scale deletions, and mutations in both mitochondrial and non-mitochondrial nuclear genes. Mitochondrial dysfunction has been described in immune and buccal cells, fibroblasts, muscle and gastrointestinal tissue and the brains of individuals with ASD. Several environmental factors, including toxicants, microbiome metabolites and an oxidized microenvironment are shown to modulate mitochondrial function in ASD tissues. Investigations of treatments for mitochondrial dysfunction in ASD are promising but preliminary. The etiology of mitochondrial dysfunction and how to define it in ASD is currently unclear. However, preliminary evidence suggests that the mitochondria may be a fruitful target for treatment and prevention of ASD. Further research is needed to better understand the role of mitochondrial dysfunction in the pathophysiology of ASD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shannon Rose
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences and Arkansas Children's Research Institute, Little Rock, AR, USA
| | - Dmitriy M Niyazov
- Section of Medical Genetics, Ochsner Health System, New Orleans, LA, USA
| | | | - Michael Goldenthal
- Department of Pediatrics, Neurology Section, St. Christopher's Hospital for Children, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Stephen G Kahler
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences and Arkansas Children's Research Institute, Little Rock, AR, USA
| | - Richard E Frye
- Division of Neurodevelopmental Disorders, Department of Neurology, Barrow Neurological Institute, Phoenix Children's Hospital, 1919 E Thomas St, Phoenix, AZ, USA.
- Department of Child Health, University of Arizona College of Medicine-Phoenix, Phoenix, AZ, USA.
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33
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Cruz ACP, Ferrasa A, Muotri AR, Herai RH. Frequency and association of mitochondrial genetic variants with neurological disorders. Mitochondrion 2018; 46:345-360. [PMID: 30218715 DOI: 10.1016/j.mito.2018.09.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2018] [Revised: 08/24/2018] [Accepted: 09/11/2018] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Mitochondria are small cytosolic organelles and the main source of energy production for the cells, especially in the brain. This organelle has its own genome, the mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), and genetic variants in this molecule can alter the normal energy metabolism in the brain, contributing to the development of a wide assortment of Neurological Disorders (ND), including neurodevelopmental syndromes, neurodegenerative diseases and neuropsychiatric disorders. These ND are comprised by a heterogeneous group of syndromes and diseases that encompass different cognitive phenotypes and behavioral disorders, such as autism, Asperger's syndrome, pervasive developmental disorder, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, Huntington disease, Leigh Syndrome and bipolar disorder. In this work we carried out a Systematic Literature Review (SLR) to identify and describe the mitochondrial genetic variants associated with the occurrence of ND. Most of genetic variants found in mtDNA were associated with Single Nucleotide Polimorphisms (SNPs), ~79%, with ~15% corresponding to deletions, ~3% to Copy Number Variations (CNVs), ~2% to insertions and another 1% included mtDNA replication problems and genetic rearrangements. We also found that most of the variants were associated with coding regions of mitochondrial proteins but were also found in regulatory transcripts (tRNA and rRNA) and in the D-Loop replication region of the mtDNA. After analysis of mtDNA deletions and CNV, none of them occur in the D-Loop region. This SLR shows that all transcribed mtDNA molecules have mutations correlated with ND. Finally, we describe that all mtDNA variants found were associated with deterioration of cognitive (dementia) and intellectual functions, learning disabilities, developmental delays, and personality and behavior problems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Carolina P Cruz
- Experimental Multiuser Laboratory (LEM), Graduate Program in Health Sciences (PPGCS), School of Medicine (PPGCS), Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Paraná (PUCPR), Curitiba, Paraná 80215-901, Brazil
| | - Adriano Ferrasa
- Experimental Multiuser Laboratory (LEM), Graduate Program in Health Sciences (PPGCS), School of Medicine (PPGCS), Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Paraná (PUCPR), Curitiba, Paraná 80215-901, Brazil; Department of Informatics (DEINFO), Universidade Estadual de Ponta Grossa (UEPG), Ponta Grossa, Paraná 84030-900, Brazil
| | - Alysson R Muotri
- University of California San Diego, School of Medicine, Department of Pediatrics/Rady Children's Hospital San Diego, Department of Cellular & Molecular Medicine, Stem Cell Program, La Jolla, CA 92037-0695, USA
| | - Roberto H Herai
- Experimental Multiuser Laboratory (LEM), Graduate Program in Health Sciences (PPGCS), School of Medicine (PPGCS), Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Paraná (PUCPR), Curitiba, Paraná 80215-901, Brazil; Lico Kaesemodel Institute (ILK), Curitiba, Paraná 80240-000, Brazil.
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34
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Jebb D, Foley NM, Whelan CV, Touzalin F, Puechmaille SJ, Teeling EC. Population level mitogenomics of long-lived bats reveals dynamic heteroplasmy and challenges the Free Radical Theory of Ageing. Sci Rep 2018; 8:13634. [PMID: 30206380 PMCID: PMC6134106 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-31093-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2018] [Accepted: 07/26/2018] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Bats are the only mammals capable of true, powered flight, which drives an extremely high metabolic rate. The "Free Radical Theory of Ageing" (FTRA) posits that a high metabolic rate causes mitochondrial heteroplasmy and the progressive ageing phenotype. Contrary to this, bats are the longest-lived order of mammals given their small size and high metabolic rate. To investigate if bats exhibit increased mitochondrial heteroplasmy with age, we performed targeted, deep sequencing of mitogenomes and measured point heteroplasmy in wild, long lived Myotis myotis. Blood was sampled from 195 individuals, aged between <1 and at 6+ years old, and whole mitochondria deep-sequenced, with a subset sampled over multiple years. The majority of heteroplasmies were at a low frequency and were transitions. Oxidative mutations were present in only a small number of individuals, suggesting local oxidative stress events. Cohort data showed no significant increase in heteroplasmy with age, while longitudinal data from recaptured individuals showed heteroplasmy is dynamic, and does not increase uniformly over time. We show that bats do not suffer from the predicted, inevitable increase in heteroplasmy as posited by the FRTA, instead heteroplasmy was found to be dynamic, questioning its presumed role as a primary driver of ageing.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Jebb
- School of Biology and Environmental Science, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland
| | - Nicole M Foley
- School of Biology and Environmental Science, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland
| | - Conor V Whelan
- School of Biology and Environmental Science, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland
| | - Frédéric Touzalin
- Laboratoire Evolution et Diversité Biologique, Université Toulouse 3, Paul Sabatier, 31062, Toulouse Cedex 09, France
| | - Sebastien J Puechmaille
- School of Biology and Environmental Science, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland
- Applied Zoology and Conservation, Zoological Institute, Greifswald University, Greifswald, Germany
| | - Emma C Teeling
- School of Biology and Environmental Science, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland.
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35
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Pei L, Wallace DC. Mitochondrial Etiology of Neuropsychiatric Disorders. Biol Psychiatry 2018; 83:722-730. [PMID: 29290371 PMCID: PMC5891364 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2017.11.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 105] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2017] [Revised: 10/31/2017] [Accepted: 11/02/2017] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
The brain has the highest mitochondrial energy demand of any organ. Therefore, subtle changes in mitochondrial energy production will preferentially affect the brain. Considerable biochemical evidence has accumulated revealing mitochondrial defects associated with neuropsychiatric diseases. Moreover, the mitochondrial genome encompasses over a thousand nuclear DNA genes plus hundreds to thousands of copies of the maternally inherited mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA). Therefore, partial defects in either the nuclear DNA or mtDNA genes or combinations of the two can be sufficient to cause neuropsychiatric disorders. Inherited and acquired mtDNA mutations have recently been associated with autism spectrum disorder, which parallels previous evidence of mtDNA variation in other neurological diseases. Therefore, mitochondrial dysfunction may be central to the etiology of a wide spectrum of neurological diseases. The mitochondria and the nucleus communicate to coordinate energy production and utilization, providing the potential for therapeutics by manipulating nuclear regulation of mitochondrial gene expression.
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Picard M, McEwen BS, Epel ES, Sandi C. An energetic view of stress: Focus on mitochondria. Front Neuroendocrinol 2018; 49:72-85. [PMID: 29339091 PMCID: PMC5964020 DOI: 10.1016/j.yfrne.2018.01.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 278] [Impact Index Per Article: 46.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2017] [Revised: 01/09/2018] [Accepted: 01/10/2018] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Energy is required to sustain life and enable stress adaptation. At the cellular level, energy is largely derived from mitochondria - unique multifunctional organelles with their own genome. Four main elements connect mitochondria to stress: (1) Energy is required at the molecular, (epi)genetic, cellular, organellar, and systemic levels to sustain components of stress responses; (2) Glucocorticoids and other steroid hormones are produced and metabolized by mitochondria; (3) Reciprocally, mitochondria respond to neuroendocrine and metabolic stress mediators; and (4) Experimentally manipulating mitochondrial functions alters physiological and behavioral responses to psychological stress. Thus, mitochondria are endocrine organelles that provide both the energy and signals that enable and direct stress adaptation. Neural circuits regulating social behavior - as well as psychopathological processes - are also influenced by mitochondrial energetics. An integrative view of stress as an energy-driven process opens new opportunities to study mechanisms of adaptation and regulation across the lifespan.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin Picard
- Department of Psychiatry, Division of Behavioral Medicine, Columbia University, Medical Center, New York, NY 10032, USA; Department of Neurology, The H. Houston Merritt Center, Columbia Translational Neuroscience Initiative, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY 10032, USA; Columbia Aging Center, Columbia University, New York, NY 10032, USA.
| | - Bruce S McEwen
- Laboratory for Neuroendocrinology, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY 10065, USA
| | - Elissa S Epel
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Carmen Sandi
- Brain Mind Institute, Ecole Polytechnique Federale de Lausanne, EPFL, 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
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Valiente-Pallejà A, Torrell H, Muntané G, Cortés MJ, Martínez-Leal R, Abasolo N, Alonso Y, Vilella E, Martorell L. Genetic and clinical evidence of mitochondrial dysfunction in autism spectrum disorder and intellectual disability. Hum Mol Genet 2018; 27:891-900. [DOI: 10.1093/hmg/ddy009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2017] [Accepted: 12/30/2017] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Alba Valiente-Pallejà
- Research Department, Hospital Universitari Institut Pere Mata, E43206 Reus, Spain
- Institut d’Investigació Sanitària Pere Virgili (IISPV), E43204 Reus, Catalonia, Spain
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red en Salud Mental (CIBERSAM), E43204 Reus, Catalonia, Spain
| | | | - Gerard Muntané
- Research Department, Hospital Universitari Institut Pere Mata, E43206 Reus, Spain
- Institute of Evolutionary Biology, Spanish National Research Council (CSIC), Universitat Pompeu Fabra, E08003 Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain
| | - Maria J Cortés
- Institut d’Investigació Sanitària Pere Virgili (IISPV), E43204 Reus, Catalonia, Spain
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red en Salud Mental (CIBERSAM), E43204 Reus, Catalonia, Spain
- Intellectual Disability-Developmental Disorders Research Unit (UNIVIDD), Fundació Villablanca, E43204 Reus, Catalonia, Spain
- Facultat de Medicina i CIències de la Salut, Universitat Rovira i Virgili (URV), E43201 Reus, Catalonia, Spain
| | - Rafael Martínez-Leal
- Institut d’Investigació Sanitària Pere Virgili (IISPV), E43204 Reus, Catalonia, Spain
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red en Salud Mental (CIBERSAM), E43204 Reus, Catalonia, Spain
- Intellectual Disability-Developmental Disorders Research Unit (UNIVIDD), Fundació Villablanca, E43204 Reus, Catalonia, Spain
- Facultat de Medicina i CIències de la Salut, Universitat Rovira i Virgili (URV), E43201 Reus, Catalonia, Spain
| | - Nerea Abasolo
- Center for Omic Sciences, 43204 Reus, Catalonia, Spain
| | - Yolanda Alonso
- Research Department, Hospital Universitari Institut Pere Mata, E43206 Reus, Spain
- Institut d’Investigació Sanitària Pere Virgili (IISPV), E43204 Reus, Catalonia, Spain
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red en Salud Mental (CIBERSAM), E43204 Reus, Catalonia, Spain
- Facultat de Medicina i CIències de la Salut, Universitat Rovira i Virgili (URV), E43201 Reus, Catalonia, Spain
| | - Elisabet Vilella
- Research Department, Hospital Universitari Institut Pere Mata, E43206 Reus, Spain
- Institut d’Investigació Sanitària Pere Virgili (IISPV), E43204 Reus, Catalonia, Spain
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red en Salud Mental (CIBERSAM), E43204 Reus, Catalonia, Spain
- Facultat de Medicina i CIències de la Salut, Universitat Rovira i Virgili (URV), E43201 Reus, Catalonia, Spain
| | - Lourdes Martorell
- Research Department, Hospital Universitari Institut Pere Mata, E43206 Reus, Spain
- Institut d’Investigació Sanitària Pere Virgili (IISPV), E43204 Reus, Catalonia, Spain
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red en Salud Mental (CIBERSAM), E43204 Reus, Catalonia, Spain
- Facultat de Medicina i CIències de la Salut, Universitat Rovira i Virgili (URV), E43201 Reus, Catalonia, Spain
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Chalkia D, Singh LN, Leipzig J, Lvova M, Derbeneva O, Lakatos A, Hadley D, Hakonarson H, Wallace DC. Association Between Mitochondrial DNA Haplogroup Variation and Autism Spectrum Disorders. JAMA Psychiatry 2017; 74:1161-1168. [PMID: 28832883 PMCID: PMC5710217 DOI: 10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2017.2604] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022]
Abstract
IMPORTANCE Autism spectrum disorders (ASD) are characterized by impairments in social interaction, communication, and repetitive or restrictive behavior. Although multiple physiologic and biochemical studies have reported defects in mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation in patients with ASD, the role of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) variation has remained relatively unexplored. OBJECTIVE To assess what impact mitochondrial lineages encompassing ancient mtDNA functional polymorphisms, termed haplogroups, have on ASD risk. DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS In this cohort study, individuals with autism and their families were studied using the Autism Genetic Resource Exchange cohort genome-wide association studies data previously generated at the Children's Hospital of Philadelphia. From October 2010 to January 2017, we analyzed the data and used the mtDNA single-nucleotide polymorphisms interrogated by the Illumina HumanHap 550 chip to determine the mtDNA haplogroups of the individuals. Taking into account the familial structure of the Autism Genetic Resource Exchange data, we then determined whether the mtDNA haplogroups correlate with ASD risk. MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES Odds ratios of mitochondrial haplogroup as predictors of ASD risk. RESULTS Of 1624 patients with autism included in this study, 1299 were boys (80%) and 325 were girls (20%). Families in the Autism Genetic Resource Exchange collection (933 families, encompassing 4041 individuals: 1624 patients with ASD and 2417 healthy parents and siblings) had been previously recruited in the United States with no restrictions on age, sex, race/ethnicity, or socioeconomic status. Relative to the most common European haplogroup HHV, European haplogroups I, J, K, O-X, T, and U were associated with increased risk of ASD, as were Asian and Native American haplogroups A and M, with odds ratios ranging from 1.55 (95% CI, 1.16-2.06) to 2.18 (95% CI, 1.59-3) (adjusted P < .04). Hence, mtDNA haplogroup variation is an important risk factor for ASD. CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE Because haplogroups I, J, K, O-X, T, and U encompass 55% of the European population, mtDNA lineages must make a significant contribution to overall ASD risk.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dimitra Chalkia
- Center for Mitochondrial and Epigenomic Medicine,
Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia Research Institute, Philadelphia,
Pennsylvania,Center for Systems Biomedicine, Division of Digestive
Diseases, School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles
| | - Larry N. Singh
- Center for Mitochondrial and Epigenomic Medicine,
Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia Research Institute, Philadelphia,
Pennsylvania
| | - Jeremy Leipzig
- Department of Biomedical and Health Informatics,
Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia Research Institute, Philadelphia,
Pennsylvania
| | - Maria Lvova
- Center for Mitochondrial and Epigenomic Medicine,
Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia Research Institute, Philadelphia,
Pennsylvania
| | - Olga Derbeneva
- Center for Mitochondrial and Epigenomic Medicine,
Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia Research Institute, Philadelphia,
Pennsylvania
| | - Anita Lakatos
- Institute of Memory Impairments and Neurological
Disorders, Department of Neurobiology and Behavior, University of California, Irvine
| | - Dexter Hadley
- Center for Applied Genomics, Department of Pediatrics,
Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia Research Institute, Philadelphia,
Pennsylvania
| | - Hakon Hakonarson
- Center for Applied Genomics, Department of Pediatrics,
Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia Research Institute, Philadelphia,
Pennsylvania
| | - Douglas C. Wallace
- Center for Mitochondrial and Epigenomic Medicine,
Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia Research Institute, Philadelphia,
Pennsylvania,Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine,
University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia
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Frye RE, Slattery JC, Quadros EV. Folate metabolism abnormalities in autism: potential biomarkers. Biomark Med 2017; 11:687-699. [PMID: 28770615 DOI: 10.2217/bmm-2017-0109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) has been linked to abnormalities in folate metabolism. Polymorphisms in folate genes may act in complex polygenic ways to increase the risk of developing ASD. Autoantibodies that block folate transport into the brain have been associated with ASD and children with ASD and these autoantibodies respond to high doses of a reduced form of folate known as folinic acid (leucovorin calcium). Some of the same abnormalities are also found in mothers of children with ASD and supplementing folate during preconception and gestational periods reduces the risk to the offspring from developing ASD. These data suggest that folate pathway abnormalities may be a major metabolic disturbance underlying ASD that can be leveraged as biomarkers to improve symptoms and prevent ASD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard E Frye
- Autism Research Program, Arkansas Children's Research Institute, Little Rock, AR 72202, USA
| | - John C Slattery
- Autism Research Program, Arkansas Children's Research Institute, Little Rock, AR 72202, USA
| | - Edward V Quadros
- Department of Medicine, State University of New York - Downstate Medical Center, Brooklyn, NY 11203, USA
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Reilly J, Gallagher L, Chen JL, Leader G, Shen S. Bio-collections in autism research. Mol Autism 2017; 8:34. [PMID: 28702161 PMCID: PMC5504648 DOI: 10.1186/s13229-017-0154-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2017] [Accepted: 06/23/2017] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a group of complex neurodevelopmental disorders with diverse clinical manifestations and symptoms. In the last 10 years, there have been significant advances in understanding the genetic basis for ASD, critically supported through the establishment of ASD bio-collections and application in research. Here, we summarise a selection of major ASD bio-collections and their associated findings. Collectively, these include mapping ASD candidate genes, assessing the nature and frequency of gene mutations and their association with ASD clinical subgroups, insights into related molecular pathways such as the synapses, chromatin remodelling, transcription and ASD-related brain regions. We also briefly review emerging studies on the use of induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) to potentially model ASD in culture. These provide deeper insight into ASD progression during development and could generate human cell models for drug screening. Finally, we provide perspectives concerning the utilities of ASD bio-collections and limitations, and highlight considerations in setting up a new bio-collection for ASD research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jamie Reilly
- Regenerative Medicine Institute, School of Medicine, BioMedical Sciences Building, National University of Ireland (NUI), Galway, Ireland
| | - Louise Gallagher
- Trinity Translational Medicine Institute and Department of Psychiatry, Trinity Centre for Health Sciences, St. James Hospital Street, Dublin 8, Ireland
| | - June L Chen
- Department of Special Education, Faculty of Education, East China Normal University, Shanghai, 200062 China
| | - Geraldine Leader
- Irish Centre for Autism and Neurodevelopmental Research (ICAN), Department of Psychology, National University of Ireland Galway, University Road, Galway, Ireland
| | - Sanbing Shen
- Regenerative Medicine Institute, School of Medicine, BioMedical Sciences Building, National University of Ireland (NUI), Galway, Ireland
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41
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Hollis F, Kanellopoulos AK, Bagni C. Mitochondrial dysfunction in Autism Spectrum Disorder: clinical features and perspectives. Curr Opin Neurobiol 2017. [PMID: 28628841 DOI: 10.1016/j.conb.2017.05.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is a prototypic pervasive developmental disorder characterized by social interaction, and communication deficits, repetitive, stereotypic patterns of behavior, and impairments in language and development. Clinical studies have identified mitochondrial disturbances at the levels of DNA, activity, complexes, oxidative stress, and metabolites in blood and urine of ASD patients. However, these observations from postmortem brains or peripheral tissues do not provide a direct link between autism and mitochondria. The synaptic abnormality of autistic patients has not been investigated yet. Here we review the findings of clinical studies investigating mitochondrial involvement in ASD patients, focusing particularly on the brain and the limitations and future directions needed in order to fully understand the role of mitochondria in ASD pathology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fiona Hollis
- University of Lausanne, Department of Fundamental Neuroscience, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | | | - Claudia Bagni
- University of Lausanne, Department of Fundamental Neuroscience, Lausanne, Switzerland; University of Rome Tor Vergata, Department of Biomedicine and Prevention, Rome, Italy.
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Evidence of Mitochondrial Dysfunction in Autism: Biochemical Links, Genetic-Based Associations, and Non-Energy-Related Mechanisms. OXIDATIVE MEDICINE AND CELLULAR LONGEVITY 2017. [PMID: 28630658 PMCID: PMC5467355 DOI: 10.1155/2017/4314025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Autism spectrum disorder (ASD), the fastest growing developmental disability in the United States, represents a group of neurodevelopmental disorders characterized by impaired social interaction and communication as well as restricted and repetitive behavior. The underlying cause of autism is unknown and therapy is currently limited to targeting behavioral abnormalities. Emerging studies suggest a link between mitochondrial dysfunction and ASD. Here, we review the evidence demonstrating this potential connection. We focus specifically on biochemical links, genetic-based associations, non-energy related mechanisms, and novel therapeutic strategies.
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43
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Connecting the dots: Overlaps between autism and cancer suggest possible common mechanisms regarding signaling pathways related to metabolic alterations. Med Hypotheses 2017; 103:118-123. [PMID: 28571796 DOI: 10.1016/j.mehy.2017.05.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2017] [Revised: 04/24/2017] [Accepted: 05/02/2017] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Common features between autism spectrum disorders (ASDs) and cancer have been discerned using methodologies from a number of disciplines, including genetics, bioinformatics and epidemiological studies. To understand such apparent overlaps between these two conditions and the mechanisms that may underlie these linkages, it is important to look at their multi-level systems context. Here we discuss ASDs and cancer linkages across levels ranging from genes to pathways and systems, as well as from the vantage points of mechanism and of clinical and epidemiological studies. Review of existing findings yielded evidence that ASDs and cancer overlap extensively in signal transduction pathways that are involved in metabolic processes. We hypothesize that further studies focusing on illuminating the relationships between ASDs and cancer, specifically with regard to signaling pathways that regulate metabolic activities, could help shed new insight on these conditions and develop treatment strategies that, by targeting underlying mechanisms, may be more efficient and effective for both conditions.
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Grand-maternal smoking in pregnancy and grandchild's autistic traits and diagnosed autism. Sci Rep 2017; 7:46179. [PMID: 28448061 PMCID: PMC5407180 DOI: 10.1038/srep46179] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2016] [Accepted: 03/10/2017] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Although there is considerable research into the genetic background of autism spectrum disorders, environmental factors are likely to contribute to the variation in prevalence over time. Rodent experiments indicate that environmental exposures can have effects on subsequent generations, and human studies indicate that parental prenatal exposures may play a part in developmental variation. Here we use the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (ALSPAC) to test the hypothesis that if the mother or father (F1) had been exposed to their own mother’s (F0) smoking during pregnancy, the offspring (F2) would be at increased risk of autism. We find an association between maternal grandmother smoking in pregnancy and grand daughters having adverse scores in Social Communication and Repetitive Behaviour measures that are independently predictive of diagnosed autism. In line with this, we show an association with actual diagnosis of autism in her grandchildren. Paternal grandmothers smoking in pregnancy showed no associations.
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Patowary A, Nesbitt R, Archer M, Bernier R, Brkanac Z. Next Generation Sequencing Mitochondrial DNA Analysis in Autism Spectrum Disorder. Autism Res 2017; 10:1338-1343. [PMID: 28419775 PMCID: PMC5573912 DOI: 10.1002/aur.1792] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2016] [Revised: 02/03/2017] [Accepted: 03/13/2017] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Autism is a complex genetic disorder where both de-novo and inherited genetics factors play a role. Next generation sequencing approaches have been extensively used to identify rare variants associated with autism. To date, all such studies were focused on nuclear genome; thereby leaving the role of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) variation in autism unexplored. Recently, analytical tools have been developed to evaluate mtDNA in whole-exome data. We have analyzed the mtDNA sequence derived from whole-exome sequencing in 10 multiplex families. In one of the families we have identified two variants of interest in MT-ND5 gene that were previously determined to impair mitochondrial function. In addition in a second family we have identified two VOIs; mtDNA variant in MT-ATP6 and nuclear DNA variant in NDUFS4, where both VOIs are within mitochondrial Respiratory Chain Complex. Our findings provide further support for the role of mitochondria in ASD and confirm that whole-exome sequencing allows for analysis of mtDNA, which sets a stage for further comprehensive genetic investigations of the role of mitochondria in autism. Autism Res 2017, 10: 1338-1343. © 2017 International Society for Autism Research, Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ashok Patowary
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA
| | - Ryan Nesbitt
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA
| | - Marilyn Archer
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA
| | - Raphael Bernier
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA
| | - Zoran Brkanac
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA
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