Comparative Transcriptomic and Epigenomic Analyses Reveal New Regulators of Murine Brown Adipogenesis

Loss of RREB1 reduces adipogenesis and improves insulin sensitivity in mouse and human adipocytes

There are multiple independent genetic signals at the Ras-responsive element binding protein 1 (RREB1) locus associated with type 2 diabetes risk, fasting glucose, ectopic fat, height, and bone mineral density. We have previously shown that loss of RREB1 in pancreatic beta cells reduces insulin content and impairs islet cell development and function. However, RREB1 is a widely expressed transcription factor and the metabolic impact of RREB1 loss in vivo remains unknown. Here, we show that male and female global heterozygous knockout (Rreb1 +/-) mice have reduced body length, weight, and fat mass on high-fat diet. Rreb1+/- mice have sex- and diet-specific decreases in adipose tissue and adipocyte size; male mice on high-fat diet had larger gonadal adipocytes, while males on standard chow and females on high-fat diet had smaller, more insulin sensitive subcutaneous adipocytes. Mouse and human precursor cells lacking RREB1 have decreased adipogenic gene expression and activated transcription of genes associated with osteoblast differentiation, which was associated with Rreb1 +/- mice having increased bone mineral density in vivo. Finally, human carriers of RREB1 T2D protective alleles have smaller adipocytes, consistent with RREB1 loss-of-function reducing diabetes risk.

Deletion of adipocyte Sine Oculis Homeobox Homolog 1 prevents lipolysis and attenuates skin fibrosis

Dermal fibrosis is a cardinal feature of systemic sclerosis (SSc) for which there are limited treatment strategies. This is in part due to our fragmented understanding of how dermal white adipose tissue (DWAT) contributes to skin fibrosis. We identified elevated sine oculis homeobox homolog 1 (SIX1) expression in SSc skin samples from the GENISOS and PRESS cohorts, the expression of which correlated with adipose-associated genes and molecular pathways. SIX1 localization studies identified increased signals in the DWAT area in SSc and in experimental models of skin fibrosis. Global and adipocyte specific Six1 deletion abrogated end-stage fibrotic gene expression and dermal adipocyte shrinkage induced by SQ bleomycin treatment. Further studies revealed a link between elevated SIX1 and increased expression of SERPINE1 and its protein PAI-1 which are known pro-fibrotic mediators. However, SIX1 deletion did not appear to affect cellular trans differentiation. Taken together these results point at SIX1 as a potential target for dermal fibrosis in SSc.

Cold-induced expression of a truncated adenylyl cyclase 3 acts as rheostat to brown fat function

Promoting brown adipose tissue (BAT) activity innovatively targets obesity and metabolic disease. While thermogenic activation of BAT is well understood, the rheostatic regulation of BAT to avoid excessive energy dissipation remains ill-defined. Here, we demonstrate that adenylyl cyclase 3 (AC3) is key for BAT function. We identified a cold-inducible promoter that generates a 5' truncated AC3 mRNA isoform (Adcy3-at), whose expression is driven by a cold-induced, truncated isoform of PPARGC1A (PPARGC1A-AT). Male mice lacking Adcy3-at display increased energy expenditure and are resistant to obesity and ensuing metabolic imbalances. Mouse and human AC3-AT are retained in the endoplasmic reticulum, unable to translocate to the plasma membrane and lack enzymatic activity. AC3-AT interacts with AC3 and sequesters it in the endoplasmic reticulum, reducing the pool of adenylyl cyclases available for G-protein-mediated cAMP synthesis. Thus, AC3-AT acts as a cold-induced rheostat in BAT, limiting adverse consequences of cAMP activity during chronic BAT activation.

Regulation of adipogenesis by histone methyltransferases

Epigenetic regulation is a critical component of lineage determination. Adipogenesis is the process through which uncommitted stem cells or adipogenic precursor cells differentiate into adipocytes, the most abundant cell type of the adipose tissue. Studies examining chromatin modification during adipogenesis have provided further understanding of the molecular blueprint that controls the onset of adipogenic differentiation. Unlike histone acetylation, histone methylation has context dependent effects on the activity of a transcribed region of DNA, with individual or combined marks on different histone residues providing distinct signals for gene expression. Over half of the 42 histone methyltransferases identified in mammalian cells have been investigated in their role during adipogenesis, but across the large body of literature available, there is a lack of clarity over potential correlations or emerging patterns among the different players. In this review, we will summarize important findings from studies published in the past 15 years that have investigated the role of histone methyltransferases during adipogenesis, including both protein arginine methyltransferases (PRMTs) and lysine methyltransferases (KMTs). We further reveal that PRMT1/4/5, H3K4 KMTs (MLL1, MLL3, MLL4, SMYD2 and SET7/9) and H3K27 KMTs (EZH2) all play positive roles during adipogenesis, while PRMT6/7 and H3K9 KMTs (G9a, SUV39H1, SUV39H2, and SETDB1) play negative roles during adipogenesis.

A PPARγ/long noncoding RNA axis regulates adipose thermoneutral remodeling in mice

Interplay between energy-storing white adipose cells and thermogenic beige adipocytes contributes to obesity and insulin resistance. Irrespective of specialized niche, adipocytes require the activity of the nuclear receptor PPARγ for proper function. Exposure to cold or adrenergic signaling enriches thermogenic cells though multiple pathways that act synergistically with PPARγ; however, the molecular mechanisms by which PPARγ licenses white adipose tissue to preferentially adopt a thermogenic or white adipose fate in response to dietary cues or thermoneutral conditions are not fully elucidated. Here, we show that a PPARγ/long noncoding RNA (lncRNA) axis integrates canonical and noncanonical thermogenesis to restrain white adipose tissue heat dissipation during thermoneutrality and diet-induced obesity. Pharmacologic inhibition or genetic deletion of the lncRNA Lexis enhances uncoupling protein 1-dependent (UCP1-dependent) and -independent thermogenesis. Adipose-specific deletion of Lexis counteracted diet-induced obesity, improved insulin sensitivity, and enhanced energy expenditure. Single-nuclei transcriptomics revealed that Lexis regulates a distinct population of thermogenic adipocytes. We systematically map Lexis motif preferences and show that it regulates the thermogenic program through the activity of the metabolic GWAS gene and WNT modulator TCF7L2. Collectively, our studies uncover a new mode of crosstalk between PPARγ and WNT that preserves white adipose tissue plasticity.

Experimental Validation and Prediction of Super-Enhancers: Advances and Challenges

Super-enhancers (SEs) are cis-regulatory elements of the human genome that have been widely discussed since the discovery and origin of the term. Super-enhancers have been shown to be strongly associated with the expression of genes crucial for cell differentiation, cell stability maintenance, and tumorigenesis. Our goal was to systematize research studies dedicated to the investigation of structure and functions of super-enhancers as well as to define further perspectives of the field in various applications, such as drug development and clinical use. We overviewed the fundamental studies which provided experimental data on various pathologies and their associations with particular super-enhancers. The analysis of mainstream approaches for SE search and prediction allowed us to accumulate existing data and propose directions for further algorithmic improvements of SEs' reliability levels and efficiency. Thus, here we provide the description of the most robust algorithms such as ROSE, imPROSE, and DEEPSEN and suggest their further use for various research and development tasks. The most promising research direction, which is based on topic and number of published studies, are cancer-associated super-enhancers and prospective SE-targeted therapy strategies, most of which are discussed in this review.

H3K27me3-H3K4me1 transition at bivalent promoters instructs lineage specification in development

BACKGROUND

Bivalent genes, of which promoters are marked by both H3K4me3 (trimethylation of histone H3 on lysine 4) and H3K27me3 (trimethylation of histone H3 on lysine 27), play critical roles in development and tumorigenesis. Monomethylation on lysine 4 of histone H3 (H3K4me1) is commonly associated with enhancers, but H3K4me1 is also present at promoter regions as an active bimodal or a repressed unimodal pattern. Whether the co-occurrence of H3K4me1 and bivalent marks at promoters plays regulatory role in development is largely unknown.

RESULTS

We report that in the process of lineage differentiation, bivalent promoters undergo H3K27me3-H3K4me1 transition, the loss of H3K27me3 accompanies by bimodal pattern loss or unimodal pattern enrichment of H3K4me1. More importantly, this transition regulates tissue-specific gene expression to orchestrate the development. Furthermore, knockout of Eed (Embryonic Ectoderm Development) or Suz12 (Suppressor of Zeste 12) in mESCs (mouse embryonic stem cells), the core components of Polycomb repressive complex 2 (PRC2) which catalyzes H3K27 trimethylation, generates an artificial H3K27me3-H3K4me1 transition at partial bivalent promoters, which leads to up-regulation of meso-endoderm related genes and down-regulation of ectoderm related genes, thus could explain the observed neural ectoderm differentiation failure upon retinoic acid (RA) induction. Finally, we find that lysine-specific demethylase 1 (LSD1) interacts with PRC2 and contributes to the H3K27me3-H3K4me1 transition in mESCs.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings suggest that H3K27me3-H3K4me1 transition plays a key role in lineage differentiation by regulating the expression of tissue specific genes, and H3K4me1 pattern in bivalent promoters could be modulated by LSD1 via interacting with PRC2.

Bidirectional effect of vitamin D on brown adipogenesis of C3H10T1/2 fibroblast-like cells

Background

Brown adipose tissue (BAT) dissipates caloric energy as heat and plays a role in glucose and lipid metabolism. Therefore, augmentation and activation of BAT are the focus of new treatment strategies against obesity, a primary risk factor of metabolic syndrome. The vitamin D system plays a crucial role in mineral homeostasis, bone metabolism, and cell proliferation and differentiation. In this study, we investigated the effects of vitamin D₃ [1,25(OH)₂D₃] on brown adipocyte differentiation.

Methods

The mouse fibroblast-like cell line C3H10T1/2 was differentiated into brown adipocytes in the presence of 1,25(OH)₂D₃. The effect of 1,25(OH)₂D₃ on brown adipocyte differentiation was assessed by measuring lipid accumulation, the expression of related genes, and cytotoxicity. The viability of C3H10T1/2 cells was measured using the Cell Counting Kit-8 assay. Gene expression was investigated using quantitative reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction. Protein expression was estimated using western blotting.

Results

1,25(OH)₂D₃ inhibited adipocyte differentiation and exerted a cytotoxic effect at 1 nM. However, in the physiological concentration range (50-250 pM), 1,25(OH)₂D₃ promoted uncoupling protein 1 (UCP1) expression in C3H10T1/2 cells. This effect was not observed when 1,25(OH)₂D₃ was added 48 h after the initiation of differentiation, suggesting that the vitamin D system acts in the early phase of the differentiation program. We showed that 1,25(OH)₂D₃ increased the expression of two key regulators of brown adipogenesis, PR domain containing 16 (Prdm16) and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ coactivator-1α (Pgc1α ). Furthermore, 1,25(OH)₂D₃ increased Ucp1 expression in 3T3-L1 beige adipogenesis in a dose-dependent manner.

Conclusion

These data indicate the potential of vitamin D and its analogs as therapeutics for the treatment of obesity and related metabolic diseases.

Lineage-specific rearrangement of chromatin loops and epigenomic features during adipocytes and osteoblasts commitment

Human mesenchymal stem cells (hMSCs) can be differentiated into adipocytes and osteoblasts. The processes are driven by the rewiring of chromatin architectures and transcriptomic/epigenomic changes. Here, we induced hMSCs to adipogenic and osteogenic differentiation, and performed 2 kb resolution Hi-C experiments for chromatin loops detection. We also generated matched RNA-seq, ChIP-seq and ATAC-seq data for integrative analysis. After comprehensively comparing adipogenesis and osteogenesis, we quantitatively identified lineage-specific loops and screened out lineage-specific enhancers and open chromatin. We reveal that lineage-specific loops can activate gene expression and facilitate cell commitment through combining enhancers and accessible chromatin in a lineage-specific manner. We finally proposed loop-mediated regulatory networks and identified the controlling factors for adipocytes and osteoblasts determination. Functional experiments validated the lineage-specific regulation networks towards IRS2 and RUNX2 that are associated with adipogenesis and osteogenesis, respectively. These results are expected to help better understand the chromatin conformation determinants of hMSCs fate commitment.

Hierarchical regulation of autophagy during adipocyte differentiation

We previously showed that some adipogenic transcription factors such as CEBPB and PPARG directly and indirectly regulate autophagy gene expression in adipogenesis. The order and effect of these events are undetermined. In this study, we modeled the gene expression, DNA-binding of transcriptional regulators, and histone modifications during adipocyte differentiation and evaluated the effect of the regulators on gene expression in terms of direction and magnitude. Then, we identified the overlap of the transcription factors and co-factors binding sites and targets. Finally, we built a chromatin state model based on the histone marks and studied their relation to the factors’ binding. Adipogenic factors differentially regulated autophagy genes as part of the differentiation program. Co-regulators associated with specific transcription factors and preceded them to the regulatory regions. Transcription factors differed in the binding time and location, and their effect on expression was either localized or long-lasting. Adipogenic factors disproportionately targeted genes coding for autophagy-specific transcription factors. In sum, a hierarchical arrangement between adipogenic transcription factors and co-factors drives the regulation of autophagy during adipocyte differentiation.

OUP accepted manuscript

Tight control of gene expression networks required for adipose tissue formation and plasticity is essential for adaptation to energy needs and environmental cues. However, the mechanisms that orchestrate the global and dramatic transcriptional changes leading to adipocyte differentiation remain to be fully unraveled. We investigated the regulation of nascent transcription by the sumoylation pathway during adipocyte differentiation using SLAMseq and ChIPseq. We discovered that the sumoylation pathway has a dual function in differentiation; it supports the initial downregulation of pre-adipocyte-specific genes, while it promotes the establishment of the mature adipocyte transcriptional program. By characterizing endogenous sumoylome dynamics in differentiating adipocytes by mass spectrometry, we found that sumoylation of specific transcription factors like PPARγ/RXR and their co-factors are associated with the transcription of adipogenic genes. Finally, using RXR as a model, we found that sumoylation may regulate adipogenic transcription by supporting the chromatin occurrence of transcription factors. Our data demonstrate that the sumoylation pathway supports the rewiring of transcriptional networks required for formation of functional adipocytes. This study also provides the scientists in the field of cellular differentiation and development with an in-depth resource of the dynamics of the SUMO-chromatin landscape, SUMO-regulated transcription and endogenous sumoylation sites during adipocyte differentiation.

A Small Fraction of Progenitors Differentiate Into Mature Adipocytes by Escaping the Constraints on the Cell Structure

Differentiating 3T3-L1 pre-adipocytes are a mixture of non-identical culture cells. It is vital to identify the cell types that respond to the induction stimulus to understand the pre-adipocyte potential and the mature adipocyte behavior. To test this hypothesis, we deconvoluted the gene expression profiles of the cell culture of MDI-induced 3T3-L1 cells. Then we estimated the fractions of the sub-populations and their changes in time. We characterized the sub-populations based on their specific expression profiles. Initial cell cultures comprised three distinct phenotypes. A small fraction of the starting cells responded to the induction and developed into mature adipocytes. Unresponsive cells were probably under structural constraints or were committed to differentiating into alternative phenotypes. Using the same population gene markers, similar proportions were found in induced human primary adipocyte cell cultures. The three sub-populations had diverse responses to treatment with various drugs and compounds. Only the response of the maturating sub-population resembled that estimated from the profiles of the mixture. We then showed that even at a low division rate, a small fraction of cells could increase its share in a dynamic two-populations model. Finally, we used a cell cycle expression index to validate that model. To sum, pre-adipocytes are a mixture of different cells of which a limited fraction become mature adipocytes.

Comparative genomic analysis of a naturally born serpentized pig reveals putative mutations related to limb and bone development

BACKGROUND

It is believed that natural selection acts on the phenotypical changes caused by mutations. Phenotypically, from fishes to amphibians to reptiles, the emergence of limbs greatly facilitates the landing of ancient vertebrates, but the causal mutations and evolutionary trajectory of this process remain unclear.

RESULTS

We serendipitously obtained a pig of limbless phenotype. Mutations specific to this handicapped pig were identified using genome re-sequencing and comparative genomic analysis. We narrowed down the causal mutations to particular chromosomes and even several candidate genes and sites, such like a mutation-containing codon in gene BMP7 (bone morphogenetic protein) which was conserved in mammals but variable in lower vertebrates.

CONCLUSIONS

We parsed the limbless-related mutations in the light of evolution. The limbless pig shows phenocopy of the clades before legs were evolved. Our findings might help deduce the emergence of limbs during vertebrate evolution and should be appealing to the broad community of human genetics and evolutionary biology.

Mutation profiling of a limbless pig reveals genome-wide regulation of RNA processing related to bone development

Mutation is the basis of phenotypic changes and serves as the source of natural selection. The development of limbs has been the milestone in vertebrate evolution. Several limb and bone-related genes were verified experimentally, but other indirect and regulatory factors of limb development remained untested, especially very few cases were observed in natural environment. We report a naturally born serpentized pig without hindlimbs. Whole genome sequencing followed by comparative genomic analysis revealed multiple interesting patterns on the handicapped pig-specific mutations. Although the bone-related genes are not directly subjected to mutations, other regulatory factors such as the RNA deaminase genes Adar are damaged in the handicapped pig, leading to the abolished A-to-I deamination in many functional, conserved genes as well as the bone-related genes. This is a precious case that the limbless phenotype is observed in naturally born non-model organisms. Our study broadened the generality of the limbless phenotype across mammals and extended the regulation of hindlimb development to other non-bone-related genes. Our knowledge of limb and bone-related mutations and regulation would also contribute to human genetics.

DOT1L Regulates Thermogenic Adipocyte Differentiation and Function via Modulating H3K79 Methylation

Brown and beige adipocytes are characterized as thermogenic adipocytes and have great potential for treating obesity and associated metabolic diseases. In this article, we identify a conserved mammalian lysine 79 of histone H3 (H3K79) methyltransferase, disruptor of telomeric silencing-1 like (DOT1L), as a new epigenetic regulator that controls thermogenic adipocyte differentiation and function. We show that deletion of DOT1L in thermogenic adipocytes potently protects mice from diet-induced obesity, improves glucose homeostasis, alleviates hepatic steatosis, and facilitates adaptive thermogenesis in vivo. Loss of DOT1L in primary preadipocytes significantly promotes brown and beige adipogenesis and thermogenesis in vitro. Mechanistically, DOT1L epigenetically regulates the brown adipose tissue-selective gene program by modulating H3K79 methylation, in particular H3K79me2 modification. Thus, our study demonstrates that DOT1L exerts an important role in energy homeostasis by regulating thermogenic adipocyte differentiation and function.

Distinct Associations of BMI and Fatty Acids With DNA Methylation in Fasting and Postprandial States in Men

We have previously shown that blood global DNA methylation (DNAm) differs between postprandial state (PS) and fasting state (FS) and is associated with BMI and polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) (negatively and positively, respectively) in 12 metabolically healthy adult Mexican men (AMM cohort) equally distributed among conventional BMI classes. Here, we detailed those associations at CpG dinucleotide level by exploiting the Infinium methylation EPIC array (Illumina). We sought differentially methylated CpG (dmCpG) that were (1) associated with BMI (BMI-dmCpG) and/or fatty acids (FA) (FA-dmCpG) in FS or PS and (2) different across FS and PS within a BMI class. BMI-dmCpG and FA-dmCpG were more numerous in FS compared to PS and largely prandial state-specific. For saturated and monounsaturated FA, dmCpG overlap was higher across than within the respective saturation group. Several BMI- and FA-dmCpG mapped to genes involved in metabolic disease and in some cases matched published experimental data sets. Notably, SETDB1 and MTHFS promoter dmCpG could explain the previously observed associations between global DNAm, PUFA content, and BMI in FS. Surprisingly, overlap between BMI-dmCpG and FA-dmCpG was limited and the respective dmCpG were differentially distributed across functional genomic elements. BMI-dmCpG showed the highest overlap with dmCpG of the saturated FA palmitate, monounsaturated C20:1 and PUFA C20:2. Of these, selected promoter BMI-dmCpG showed opposite associations with palmitate compared to C20:1 and C20:2. As for the comparison between FS and PS within BMI classes, dmCpG were strikingly more abundant and variably methylated in overweight relative to normoweight or obese subjects (∼70–139-fold, respectively). Overweight-associated dmCpG-hosting genes were significantly enriched in targets for E47, SREBP1, and RREB1 transcription factors, which are known players in obesity and lipid homeostasis, but none overlapped with BMI-dmCpG. We show for the first time that the association of BMI and FA with methylation of disease-related genes is distinct in FS and PS and that limited overlap exists between BMI- and FA-dmCpG within and across prandial states. Our study also identifies a transcriptional regulation circuitry in overweight that might contribute to adaptation to that condition or to transition to obesity. Further work is necessary to define the pathophysiological implications of these findings.

Global transcriptomic analysis reveals Lnc-ADAMTS9 exerting an essential role in myogenesis through modulating the ERK signaling pathway

Background

Long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) are emerging key regulators involved in a variety of biological processes such as cell differentiation and development. The balance between myogenesis and adipogenesis is crucial for skeletal muscle homeostasis in humans and meat quality in farm animals. The present study aimed to reveal the global transcriptomic profiles of adipogenic (Adi-) and myogenic (Myo-) precursors derived from porcine skeletal muscle and identify lncRNAs involved in the modulation of myogenesis homeostasis in porcine skeletal muscle.

Results

In this study, a total of 655 novel individual lncRNAs including differentially expressed 24 lncRNAs, and 755 differentially expressed mRNAs were identified (fold change ≥2 or ≤ 0.5 and adjusted P < 0.05). Integrated results of Gene Ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) enrichment analysis accompanied by the variation of intracellular Ca²⁺ concentration highlighted Lnc-ADAMTS9 involved in the modulation of myogenesis homeostasis in porcine skeletal muscle. Although Lnc-ADAMTS9 knock-down did not alter the mRNA expression of ADAMTS9, we demonstrated that Lnc-ADAMTS9 can promote myogenic proliferation and myogenic differentiation of myogenic precursors through inhibiting the ERK/MAPK signaling pathway.

Conclusion

We deciphered a comprehensive catalog of mRNAs and lncRNAs that might be involved in the regulation of myogenesis and adipogenesis homeostasis in the skeletal muscle of pigs. The Lnc-ADAMTS9 exerts an essential role in myogenesis through the ERK signaling pathway.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s40104-020-00524-4.

Maternal nicotine exposure impairs brown adipose tissue via AMPK-SIRT1-PGC-1α signals in male offspring

AIMS

Maternal nicotine exposure during pregnancy and lactation is associated with obesity in offspring. Brown adipose tissue (BAT) is correlated with energy metabolism and obesity. In this study, we explored the mechanism of maternal nicotine exposure on BAT changes in male offspring.

MAIN METHODS

Pregnant rats were randomly assigned to nicotine (1.0 mg/kg twice per day, subcutaneous administration) or control groups. In vitro, C3H10T1/2 cells were induced to differentiate into mature brown adipocytes, and 0-50 μM nicotine was given to C3H10T1/2 cells during the differentiation process.

KEY FINDINGS

Nicotine-exposed males had white-like adipocytes and abnormal mitochondria structure in iBAT at 26 weeks. The expression of mitochondrial genes, UCP1 and AMPK-SIRT1-PGC-1α pathway were downregulated in the nicotine group at 26 weeks rather than 4 weeks. In vitro, 50 μM nicotine decreased the expression of mitochondrial genes, UCP1 and AMPK-SIRT1-PGC-1α pathway in brown adipocytes.

SIGNIFICANCE

Maternal nicotine exposure showed the "programming" effect on the decreased brown-like phenotype in BAT of adult male offspring via downregulating AMPK-SIRT1-PGC-1α pathway. This impairment of BAT may be a potential mechanism of nicotine-induced obesity in male offspring.

Zc3h10 Acts as a Transcription Factor and Is Phosphorylated to Activate the Thermogenic Program

Brown adipose tissue harbors UCP1 to dissipate chemical energy as heat. However, the transcriptional network that governs the thermogenic gene program is incompletely understood. Zc3h10, a CCCH-type zinc finger protein, has recently been reported to bind RNA. However, we report here that Zc3h10 functions as a transcription factor to activate UCP1 not through the enhancer region, but by binding to a far upstream region of the UCP1 promoter. Upon sympathetic stimulation, Zc3h10 is phosphorylated at S126 by p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) to increase binding to the distal region of the UCP1 promoter. Zc3h10, as well as mutant Zc3h10, which cannot bind RNA, enhances thermogenic capacity and energy expenditure, protecting mice from diet-induced obesity. Conversely, Zc3h10 ablation in UCP1⁺ cells in mice impairs thermogenic capacity and lowers oxygen consumption, leading to weight gain. Hence, Zc3h10 plays a critical role in the thermogenic gene program and may present future targets for obesity therapeutics.

Identification of distinct transcriptome signatures of human adipose tissue from fifteen depots

The functional and metabolic characteristics of specific adipose tissue (AT) depots seem to be determined by intrinsic mechanisms. We performed a comprehensive transcriptome profiling of human AT from distinct fat depots to unravel their unique features potentially explaining molecular mechanisms underlying AT distribution and their contribution to health and disease. Post-mortem AT samples of five body donors from 15 anatomical locations were collected. Global mRNA expression was measured by Illumina® Human HT-12 v4 Expression BeadChips. Data were validated using qPCR and Western Blot in a subset of ATs from seven additional body donors. Buccal and heel AT clearly separated from the “classical” subcutaneous AT depots, and perirenal and epicardial AT were distinct from visceral depots. Gene-set enrichment analyses pointed to an inflammatory environment and insulin resistance particularly in the carotid sheath AT depot. Moreover, the epicardial fat transcriptome was enriched for genes involved in extracellular matrix remodeling, inflammation, immune signaling, coagulation, thrombosis, beigeing, and apoptosis. Interestingly, a striking downregulation of the expression of leptin receptor was found in AT from heel compared with all other AT depots. The distinct gene expression patterns are likely to define fat depot specific AT functions in metabolism, energy storage, immunity, body insulation or as cushions. Improved knowledge of the gene expression profiles of various fat depots may strongly benefit studies aimed at better understanding of the genetics and the pathophysiology of obesity and adverse body fat composition.

Dietary Supplementation with Dunaliella Tertiolecta Prevents Whitening of Brown Fat and Controls Diet-Induced Obesity at Thermoneutrality in Mice

We investigated the effect of evodiamine-containing microalga Dunaliella tertiolecta (DT) on the prevention of diet-induced obesity in a thermoneutral C57BL/6J male (30 °C). It attenuates the activity of brown adipose tissue (BAT), which accelerates diet-induced obesity. Nine-week-old mice were fed a high-fat diet supplemented with 10 g (Low group) or 25 g (High group) DT powder per kg food for 12 weeks. Compared to control mice without DT supplementation, body weight gain was significantly reduced in the High group with no difference in food intake. Tissue analyses indicated maintenance of multilocular morphology in BAT and reduced fat deposition in liver in DT-supplemented mice. Molecular analysis showed a significant decrease in mammalian target of rapamycin−ribosomal S6 protein kinase signaling pathway in white adipose tissue and upregulation in mRNA expression of brown fat-associated genes including fibroblast growth factor-21 (Fgf21) and uncoupling protein 1 (Ucp1) in BAT in the High group compared to the control. In the experiments using C3H10T1/2 adipocytes, DT extract upregulated mRNA expression of brown fat-associated genes in dose-dependent and time-dependent manners, accompanied by a significant increase in secreted FGF21 levels. Our data show the ability of DT as a nutraceutical to prevent brown fat attenuation and diet-induced obesity in vivo.

H3K4me1 Distribution Predicts Transcription State and Poising at Promoters

Monomethylation on lysine 4 of histone H3 (H3K4me1) is commonly associated with distal enhancers, but H3K4me1 is also present at promoter regions proximal to transcription start sites. To assess a possible role for H3K4me1 in dictating gene regulatory states at promoters, we examined H3K4me1 peak density around promoters in human and mouse germ cells using an analytic strategy that allowed us to assess relationships between different epigenetic marks on a promoter-by-promoter basis. We found that H3K4me1 exhibits either a bimodal pattern at active promoters, where it flanks H3K4me3, or a unimodal pattern at poised promoters, where it coincides with both H3K4me3 and H3K27me3. This pattern is correlated with gene expression level, but is more strongly linked to a poised chromatin state, defined by the simultaneous presence of H3K4me3 and H3K27me3, than to transcriptional activity. The pattern is especially prominent in germ cells, but is also present in other cell types, including embryonic stem cells and differentiated somatic cells. We propose that H3K4me1 is a key feature of the poised epigenetic state, and suggest possible roles for this mark in epigenetic memory.

Myogenesis control by SIX transcriptional complexes

SIX homeoproteins were first described in Drosophila, where they participate in the Pax-Six-Eya-Dach (PSED) network with eyeless, eyes absent and dachsund to drive synergistically eye development through genetic and biochemical interactions. The role of the PSED network and SIX proteins in muscle formation in vertebrates was subsequently identified. Evolutionary conserved interactions with EYA and DACH proteins underlie the activity of SIX transcriptional complexes (STC) both during embryogenesis and in adult myofibers. Six genes are expressed throughout muscle development, in embryonic and adult proliferating myogenic stem cells and in fetal and adult post-mitotic myofibers, where SIX proteins regulate the expression of various categories of genes. In vivo, SIX proteins control many steps of muscle development, acting through feedforward mechanisms: in the embryo for myogenic fate acquisition through the direct control of Myogenic Regulatory Factors; in adult myofibers for their contraction/relaxation and fatigability properties through the control of genes involved in metabolism, sarcomeric organization and calcium homeostasis. Furthermore, during development and in the adult, SIX homeoproteins participate in the genesis and the maintenance of myofibers diversity.

Regulation of Thermogenic Adipocyte Differentiation and Adaptive Thermogenesis Through Histone Acetylation

Over the past decade, the increasing prevalence of obesity and its associated metabolic disorders constitutes one of the most concerning healthcare issues for countries worldwide. In an effort to curb the increased mortality and morbidity derived from the obesity epidemic, various therapeutic strategies have been developed by researchers. In the recent years, advances in the field of adipocyte biology have revealed that the thermogenic adipose tissue holds great potential in ameliorating metabolic disorders. Additionally, epigenetic research has shed light on the effects of histone acetylation on adipogenesis and thermogenesis, thereby establishing the essential roles which histone acetyltransferases (HATs) and histone deacetylases (HDACs) play in metabolism and systemic energy homeostasis. In regard to the therapeutic potential of thermogenic adipocytes for the treatment of metabolic diseases, herein, we describe the current state of knowledge of the regulation of thermogenic adipocyte differentiation and adaptive thermogenesis through histone acetylation. Furthermore, we highlight how different HATs and HDACs maintain the epigenetic transcriptional network to mediate the pathogenesis of various metabolic comorbidities. Finally, we provide insights into recent advances of the potential therapeutic applications and development of HAT and HDAC inhibitors to alleviate these pathological conditions.

Uncovering the Role of p38 Family Members in Adipose Tissue Physiology

The complex functions of adipose tissue have been a focus of research interest over the past twenty years. Adipose tissue is not only the main energy storage depot, but also one of the largest endocrine organs in the body and carries out crucial metabolic functions. Moreover, brown and beige adipose depots are major sites of energy expenditure through the activation of adaptive, non-shivering thermogenesis. In recent years, numerous signaling molecules and pathways have emerged as critical regulators of adipose tissue, in both homeostasis and obesity-related disease. Among the best characterized are members of the p38 kinase family. The activity of these kinases has emerged as a key contributor to the biology of the white and brown adipose tissues, and their modulation could provide new therapeutic approaches against obesity. Here, we give an overview of the roles of the distinct p38 family members in adipose tissue, focusing on their actions in adipogenesis, thermogenic activity, and secretory function.

Modelling the gene expression and the DNA-binding in the 3T3-L1 differentiating adipocytes

The 3T3-L1 pre-adipocyte cell line is widely used to study the fat cell differentiation in vitro. Researchers also use this cell model to study obesity and insulin resistance. We surveyed the literature, the gene expression omnibus and the sequence read archive for RNA-Seq and ChIP-Seq datasets of MDI-induced 3T3-L1 differentiating cells sampled at one or more time points. The metadata of the relevant datasets were manually curated using unified language across the original studies. The raw reads were collected and pre-processed using a reproducible state-of-the-art pipeline. The final datasets are presented as reads count in genes for the RNA-Seq and reads count in peaks for the ChIP-Seq dataset. The curated datasets are available as two Bioconductor experimental data packages curatedAdipoRNA and curatedAdipoChIP. In addition, the packages document the source code of the data collection and the pre-processing pipelines. Here, we provide a descriptive analysis of the datasets with context and technical validation.

SIX1 Regulates Aberrant Endometrial Epithelial Cell Differentiation and Cancer Latency Following Developmental Estrogenic Chemical Exposure

Early-life exposure to estrogenic chemicals can increase cancer risk, likely by disrupting normal patterns of cellular differentiation. Female mice exposed neonatally to the synthetic estrogen diethylstilbestrol (DES) develop metaplastic and neoplastic uterine changes as adults. Abnormal endometrial glands express the oncofetal protein sine oculis homeobox 1 (SIX1) and contain cells with basal [cytokeratin (CK)14⁺/18^-] and poorly differentiated features (CK14⁺/18⁺), strongly associating SIX1 with aberrant differentiation and cancer. Here, we tested whether SIX1 expression is necessary for abnormal endometrial differentiation and DES-induced carcinogenesis by using Pgr-cre to generate conditional knockout mice lacking uterine Six1 (Six1 ^d/d). Interestingly, corn oil (CO) vehicle-treated Six1 ^d/d mice develop focal endometrial glandular dysplasia and features of carcinoma in situ as compared with CO wild-type Six1 (Six1 ^+/+) mice. Furthermore, Six1 ^d/d mice neonatally exposed to DES had a 42% higher incidence of endometrial cancer relative to DES Six1 ^+/+ mice. Although DES Six1 ^d/d mice had >10-fold fewer CK14⁺/18^- basal cells within the uterine horns as compared with DES Six1 ^+/+ mice, the appearance of CK14⁺/18⁺ cells remained a feature of neoplastic lesions. These findings suggest that SIX1 is required for normal endometrial epithelial differentiation, CK14⁺/18⁺ cells act as a cancer progenitor population, and SIX1 delays DES-induced endometrial carcinogenesis by promoting basal differentiation of CK14⁺/18⁺ cells. In human endometrial biopsies, 35% of malignancies showed CK14⁺/18⁺ expression, which positively correlated with tumor stage and grade and was not present in normal endometrium. IMPLICATIONS: Aberrant epithelial differentiation is a key feature in both the DES mouse model of endometrial cancer and human endometrial cancer. The association of CK14⁺/18⁺ cells with human endometrial cancer provides a novel cancer biomarker and could lead to new therapeutic strategies.

Lipokines and Thermogenesis

Adaptive thermogenesis is a catabolic process that consumes energy-storing molecules and expends that energy as heat in response to environmental changes. This process occurs primarily in brown and beige adipose tissue. Thermogenesis is regulated by many factors, including lipid derived paracrine and endocrine hormones called lipokines. Recently, technologic advances for identifying new lipid biomarkers of thermogenic activity have shed light on a diverse set of lipokines that act through different pathways to regulate energy expenditure. In this review, we highlight a few examples of lipokines that regulate thermogenesis. The biosynthesis, regulation, and effects of the thermogenic lipokines in several families are reviewed, including oloeylethanolamine, endocannabinoids, prostaglandin E2, and 12,13-diHOME. These thermogenic lipokines present potential therapeutic targets to combat states of excess energy storage, such as obesity and related metabolic disorders.

Triplet Male Lambs Are More Susceptible than Twins to Dietary Soybean Oil-Induced Fatty Liver

BACKGROUND

Litter size affects fetal development but its relation to diet-induced fatty liver later in life is unknown.

OBJECTIVES

This aim of this study was to test the hypothesis that litter size influences postweaning fatty liver development in response to soybean oil-supplemented diet.

METHODS

Weanling twin (TW) or triplet (TP) male lambs (n = 16) were fed a control diet or 2% soybean oil-supplemented diet (SO) for 90 d. Liver tissue morphology, biochemical parameters, and lipid metabolic enzymes were determined. Hepatic gene expression was analyzed by RNA sequencing (n = 3), followed by enrichment analysis according to Gene Ontology and the Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes. Differentially expressed genes involved in lipid metabolism were further verified by quantitative reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (n = 4). All data were analyzed by a 2-factor ANOVA, apart from differentially expressed genes, which were identified by the Benjamini-Hochberg approach (q value ≤0.05).

RESULTS

SO increased liver triglyceride (by 55%) and nonesterified fatty acid (by 54%) concentrations in TPs (P ≤ 0.05) but not in TWs (P > 0.05). SO also induced a 2.3- and 2.1-fold increase in the liver steatosis score of TPs and TWs, respectively (P ≤ 0.05). Moreover, SO reduced the activity of lipolytic enzymes including hepatic lipase and total lipase in TPs by 47% and 25%, respectively (P ≤ 0.05). In contrast, activities of lipogenic enzymes, including malic enzyme and acetyl coenzyme A carboxylase, were significantly higher in TPs (P ≤ 0.05). Moreover, TPs had higher expression of lipogenic genes, such as FASN (by 45%) and APOB (by 72%), and lower expression of lipolytic genes, such as PRKAA2 (by 28%) and CPT1A (by 43%), compared with TWs (P ≤ 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

TPs have a gene expression profile that is more susceptible to SO-induced fatty liver than that of TWs, which indicates that insufficient maternal nutrient supply at fetal and neonatal stages may increase the risk of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease.

Silencing an insulin-induced lncRNA, LncASIR, impairs the transcriptional response to insulin signalling in adipocytes

Long noncoding RNA(lncRNA)s are new regulators governing the metabolism in adipose tissue. In this study, we aimed to understand how lncRNAs respond to insulin signalling and explore whether lncRNAs have a functional role in insulin signalling pathway. We treated primary adipocyte cultures with insulin and collected RNA for RNA-sequencing to profile the non-coding transcriptome changes, through which we identified a top Adipose Specific Insulin Responsive LncRNA (LncASIR). To determine its biological function, we knocked down LncASIR using dcas9-KRAB, followed by RNA-seq to examine the effect on insulin-induced gene expression program. We identified a set of lncRNAs regulated by insulin signalling pathway. LncASIR is transcribed from a super enhancer region and responds robustly to insulin treatment. Silencing LncASIR resulted in an impaired global insulin-responsive gene program. LncASIR is a novel and integral component in the insulin signalling pathway in adipocytes.

How low can you go? Pushing the limits of low-input ChIP-seq

In the past decade, chromatin immunoprecipitation sequencing (ChIP-seq) has emerged as the dominant technique for those wishing to perform genome-wide protein:DNA profiling. Owing to the tissue- and cell-type-specific nature of epigenetic marks, the field has been driven towards obtaining data from ever-lower cell numbers. In this review, we focus on the methodological developments that have lowered input requirements and the biological findings they have enabled, as we strive towards the ultimate goal of robust single-cell ChIP-seq.

The Transcription Factor ATF7 Controls Adipocyte Differentiation and Thermogenic Gene Programming

Adipocytes function as major players in the regulation of metabolic homeostasis, and factors contributing to adipocyte differentiation and function are promising targets for combatting obesity and associated metabolic disorders. Activating transcription factor 7 (ATF7), a stress-responsive chromatin regulator, is involved in energy metabolism, but the underlying mechanisms remain unknown. Herein, we showed that ATF7 is required for adipocyte differentiation and interacts with histone dimethyltransferase G9a in adipocytes to repress the expression of interferon-stimulated genes, which in turn suppress adipogenesis. Ablation of ATF7 promotes beige fat biogenesis in inguinal white adipose tissue. ATF7 binds to transcriptional regulatory regions of the gene encoding uncoupling protein 1, silencing it by controlling histone H3K9 dimethylation. Our findings demonstrate that ATF7 is a multifunctional adipocyte protein involved in the epigenetic control of development and function in adipose tissues.

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ATF7 is required for adipocyte differentiation

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ATF7 represses the expression of interferon-stimulated genes (ISGs) in adipocytes

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Loss of ATF7 promotes the browning of inguinal white adipose tissue

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ATF7 associates with C/EBPβ and G9a to silence Ucp1 expression

SIX1 represses senescence and promotes SOX2-mediated cellular plasticity during tumorigenesis

Six1 is a developmental transcriptional regulator frequently overexpressed in human tumors. Recent results show that SIX1 also acts as a repressor of cell senescence, an antiproliferative response with a key role in tumor suppression, among other physiological and pathological settings. Here, we set to study the impact of SIX1 gain of function in transformation and tumorigenesis of fibroblasts, in connection with senescence. Using transcriptomic, histological, and functional analyses in murine tumors and cells of fibroblast origin, we show that SIX1 has a strong pro-tumorigenic action in this model, linked to the repression of a senescence-related gene signature and the induction of an undifferentiated phenotype mediated, at least in part, by the regulation of the stemness factor Sox2. Moreover, functional analyses with human glioma cell lines also show that SIX1 controls SOX2 expression, senescence and self-renewal in this model. Collectively, our results support a general link of SIX1 with senescence and SOX2-mediated cell plasticity in tumors.

CREG1 promotes uncoupling protein 1 expression and brown adipogenesis in vitro

Brown adipocytes play a critical role for adaptive thermogenesis to regulate body temperature in cold or to circumvent diet-induced obesity. In this study, we investigated the role of cellular repressor of E1A-stimulated genes 1 (CREG1) on brown adipogenesis and uncoupling protein 1 (UCP1) expression by using in vitro culture models. In murine mesenchymal stem cell line C3H10T1/2, Creg1 mRNA expression significantly increased in a time-dependent manner along with Ucp1 mRNA induction in brown adipogenesis. Creg1 gene overexpression upregulated the expression of brown fat-related genes including Ucp1 but its suppression downregulated these gene expression in C3H10T1/2 cells. Unlike the brown adipogenesis, Creg1 mRNA expression decreased significantly after differentiation stimulation in white adipogenesis of 3T3-L1 cells. Either Creg1 gene overexpression or suppression hardly affected white adipogenesis. In addition, CREG1 protein stimulated brown adipogenesis and rescued the adipogenesis in the absence of thyroid hormone in C3H10T1/2 cells. In reporter assay, CREG1 induction stimulated Ucp1 promoter activity, which was enhanced by co-expression with thyroid hormone receptors. The effect of CREG1 on Ucp1 promoter activity was also stimulated by retinoic acid. These results strongly suggest that CREG1 plays an important role on the regulation of UCP1 expression and brown adipogenesis.

Enhancer-driven transcriptional regulation is a potential key determinant for human visceral and subcutaneous adipocytes

Obesity is characterized by the excess of body fat leading to impaired health. Abdominal fat is particularly harmful and is associated with cardiovascular and metabolic diseases and cancer. In contrast, subcutaneous fat is generally considered less detrimental. The mechanisms that establish the cellular characteristics of these distinct fat types in humans are not fully understood. Here, we explored whether differences of their gene regulatory mechanisms can be investigated in vitro. For this purpose, we in vitro differentiated human visceral and subcutaneous pre-adipocytes into mature adipocytes and obtained their gene expression profiles and genome-wide H3K4me3, H3K9me3 and H3K27ac patterns. Subsequently, we compared those data with public gene expression data from visceral and subcutaneous fat tissues. We found that the in vitro differentiated adipocytes show significant differences in their transcriptional landscapes, which correlate with biological pathways that are characteristic for visceral and subcutaneous fat tissues, respectively. Unexpectedly, visceral adipocyte enhancers are rich on motifs for transcription factors involved in the Hippo-YAP pathway, cell growth and inflammation, which are not typically associated with adipocyte function. In contrast, enhancers of subcutaneous adipocytes show enrichment of motifs for common adipogenic transcription factors, such as C/EBP, NFI and PPARγ, implicating substantially disparate gene regulatory networks in visceral and subcutaneous adipocytes. Consistent with the role in obesity, predominantly the histone modification pattern of visceral adipocytes is linked to obesity-associated diseases. Thus, this work suggests that the properties of visceral and subcutaneous fat tissues can be studied in vitro and provides preliminary insights into their gene regulatory processes.

Epigenomic Control of Thermogenic Adipocyte Differentiation and Function

Obesity and its associated metabolic disorders are spreading at a fast pace throughout the world; thus, effective therapeutic approaches are necessary to combat this epidemic. Obesity develops when there is a greater caloric intake than energy expenditure. Promoting energy expenditure has recently attracted much attention as a promising approach for the management of body weight. Thermogenic adipocytes are capable of burning fat to dissipate chemical energy into heat, thereby enhancing energy expenditure. After the recent re-discovery of thermogenic adipocytes in adult humans, much effort has focused on understanding the molecular mechanisms, especially the epigenetic mechanisms, which regulate thermogenic adipocyte development and function. A number of chromatin signatures, such as histone modifications, DNA methylation, chromatin accessibilities, and interactions, have been profiled at the genome level and analyzed in various murine and human thermogenic fat cell systems. Moreover, writers and erasers, as well as readers of the epigenome are also investigated using genomic tools in thermogenic adipocytes. In this review, we summarize and discuss the recent advance in these studies and highlight the insights gained into the epigenomic regulation of thermogenic program as well as the pathogenesis of human metabolic diseases.

MLL3/MLL4 are required for CBP/p300 binding on enhancers and super-enhancer formation in brown adipogenesis

Histone H3K4me1/2 methyltransferases MLL3/MLL4 and H3K27 acetyltransferases CBP/p300 are major enhancer epigenomic writers. To understand how these epigenomic writers orchestrate enhancer landscapes in cell differentiation, we have profiled genomic binding of MLL4, CBP, lineage-determining transcription factors (EBF2, C/EBPβ, C/EBPα, PPARγ), coactivator MED1, RNA polymerase II, as well as epigenome (H3K4me1/2/3, H3K9me2, H3K27me3, H3K36me3, H3K27ac), transcriptome and chromatin opening during adipogenesis of immortalized preadipocytes derived from mouse brown adipose tissue (BAT). We show that MLL4 and CBP drive the dynamic enhancer epigenome, which correlates with the dynamic transcriptome. MLL3/MLL4 are required for CBP/p300 binding on enhancers activated during adipogenesis. Further, MLL4 and CBP identify super-enhancers (SEs) of adipogenesis and that MLL3/MLL4 are required for SE formation. Finally, in brown adipocytes differentiated in culture, MLL4 identifies primed SEs of genes fully activated in BAT such as Ucp1. Comparison of MLL4-defined SEs in brown and white adipogenesis identifies brown-specific SE-associated genes that could be involved in BAT functions. These results establish MLL3/MLL4 and CBP/p300 as master enhancer epigenomic writers and suggest that enhancer-priming by MLL3/MLL4 followed by enhancer-activation by CBP/p300 sequentially shape dynamic enhancer landscapes during cell differentiation. Our data also provide a rich resource for understanding epigenomic regulation of brown adipogenesis.

miRNA-32 Drives Brown Fat Thermogenesis and Trans-activates Subcutaneous White Fat Browning in Mice

Brown adipose tissue (BAT) activation and subcutaneous white fat browning are essential components of the thermogenic response to cold stimulus in mammals. microRNAs have been shown to regulate both processes in cis. Here, we identify miR-32 as a BAT-specific super-enhancer-associated miRNA in mice that is selectively expressed in BAT and further upregulated during cold exposure. Inhibiting miR-32 in vivo led to impaired cold tolerance, decreased BAT thermogenesis, and compromised white fat browning as a result of reduced serum FGF21 levels. Further examination showed that miR-32 directly represses its target gene Tob1, thereby activating p38 MAP kinase signaling to drive FGF21 expression and secretion from BAT. BAT-specific miR-32 overexpression led to increased BAT thermogenesis and serum FGF21 levels, which further promotes white fat browning in trans. Our results suggested miR-32 and Tob1 as modulators of FGF21 signaling that can be manipulated for therapeutic benefit against obesity and metabolic syndrome.

Regulation of white and brown adipocyte differentiation by RhoGAP DLC1

Adipose tissues constitute an important component of metabolism, the dysfunction of which can cause obesity and type II diabetes. Here we show that differentiation of white and brown adipocytes requires Deleted in Liver Cancer 1 (DLC1), a Rho GTPase Activating Protein (RhoGAP) previously studied for its function in liver cancer. We identified Dlc1 as a super-enhancer associated gene in both white and brown adipocytes through analyzing the genome-wide binding profiles of PPARγ, the master regulator of adipogenesis. We further observed that Dlc1 expression increases during differentiation, and knockdown of Dlc1 by siRNA in white adipocytes reduces the formation of lipid droplets and the expression of fat marker genes. Moreover, knockdown of Dlc1 in brown adipocytes reduces expression of brown fat-specific genes and diminishes mitochondrial respiration. Dlc1-/- knockout mouse embryonic fibroblasts show a complete inability to differentiate into adipocytes, but this phenotype can be rescued by inhibitors of Rho-associated kinase (ROCK) and filamentous actin (F-actin), suggesting the involvement of Rho pathway in DLC1-regulated adipocyte differentiation. Furthermore, PPARγ binds to the promoter of Dlc1 gene to regulate its expression during both white and brown adipocyte differentiation. These results identify DLC1 as an activator of white and brown adipocyte differentiation, and provide a molecular link between PPARγ and Rho pathways.