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Vera-Salmoral E, Sánchez-Carvajal JM, Gómez-Gascón L, Larenas-Muñoz F, Tarradas C, Gómez-Laguna J, Huerta B. Assessment of the diagnostic performance of intradermal tuberculin test and post-mortem inspection for the diagnosis of bovine tuberculosis according to WOAH guidelines. Res Vet Sci 2024; 168:105159. [PMID: 38266351 DOI: 10.1016/j.rvsc.2024.105159] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2023] [Revised: 01/17/2024] [Accepted: 01/19/2024] [Indexed: 01/26/2024]
Abstract
Bovine tuberculosis (bTB) constitutes a global challenge for public and animal health with still some deficiencies regarding its diagnosis. This study aimed to estimate the accuracy of the single intradermal tuberculin test (SIT) and post-mortem inspection for different diagnostic objectives following WOAH guidelines. Tissue samples from 59 microbiological culture/PCR-positive and 58 microbiological culture/PCR-negative cattle were evaluated. The diagnostic sensitivity and specificity, the positive and negative probability indices as well as the positive and negative predictive values (PPV and NPV) of each technique were estimated for different pretest probabilities. The SIT with strict interpretation demonstrated moderate precision in confirming the absence of infection in populations historically free of bTB, with a 12.1% rate of false positives, but also detecting positive animals in the early stage of the eradication programs, with a 13.6% rate of false negatives. The diagnostic performance for ruling out bTB was notably high (NPV > 90%) in animals with a pre-test probability (PTP) below 42%. Post-mortem inspection constituted an interesting alternative tool to confirm suspected and positive cases for SIT, particularly in areas with bTB prevalence exceeding 19%, where implementing SIT and eradication measures may be impractical. In these areas, the likelihood that animals with tuberculosis-like lesions are affected by the disease surpasses 90%. Similarly, in herds with a PTP below 25%, the absence of bTB could be confidently ruled out with over 90% certainty. These findings highlight the effectiveness of SIT and post-mortem inspection as valuable techniques for current eradication programs and controlling bTB in high-prevalence areas where molecular techniques may not be feasible.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eduardo Vera-Salmoral
- Department of Animal Health, UIC Zoonosis y Enfermedades Emergentes ENZOEM, University of Córdoba, International Excellence Agrifood Campus 'CeiA3', University of Córdoba, 14014 Córdoba, Spain; Department of Anatomy and Comparative Pathology and Toxicology, Pathology and Immunology Group (UCO-PIG), UIC Zoonosis y Enfermedades Emergentes ENZOEM, University of Córdoba, International Excellence Agrifood Campus 'CeiA3', 14014 Córdoba, Spain
| | - José María Sánchez-Carvajal
- Department of Anatomy and Comparative Pathology and Toxicology, Pathology and Immunology Group (UCO-PIG), UIC Zoonosis y Enfermedades Emergentes ENZOEM, University of Córdoba, International Excellence Agrifood Campus 'CeiA3', 14014 Córdoba, Spain.
| | - Lidia Gómez-Gascón
- Department of Animal Health, UIC Zoonosis y Enfermedades Emergentes ENZOEM, University of Córdoba, International Excellence Agrifood Campus 'CeiA3', University of Córdoba, 14014 Córdoba, Spain
| | - Fernanda Larenas-Muñoz
- Department of Anatomy and Comparative Pathology and Toxicology, Pathology and Immunology Group (UCO-PIG), UIC Zoonosis y Enfermedades Emergentes ENZOEM, University of Córdoba, International Excellence Agrifood Campus 'CeiA3', 14014 Córdoba, Spain
| | - Carmen Tarradas
- Department of Animal Health, UIC Zoonosis y Enfermedades Emergentes ENZOEM, University of Córdoba, International Excellence Agrifood Campus 'CeiA3', University of Córdoba, 14014 Córdoba, Spain
| | - Jaime Gómez-Laguna
- Department of Anatomy and Comparative Pathology and Toxicology, Pathology and Immunology Group (UCO-PIG), UIC Zoonosis y Enfermedades Emergentes ENZOEM, University of Córdoba, International Excellence Agrifood Campus 'CeiA3', 14014 Córdoba, Spain
| | - Belén Huerta
- Department of Animal Health, UIC Zoonosis y Enfermedades Emergentes ENZOEM, University of Córdoba, International Excellence Agrifood Campus 'CeiA3', University of Córdoba, 14014 Córdoba, Spain
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2
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Zahran M, El-Shabasy RM, Elrashedy A, Mousa W, Nayel M, Salama A, Zaghawa A, Elsify A. Recent progress in the genotyping of bovine tuberculosis and its rapid diagnosis via nanoparticle-based electrochemical biosensors. RSC Adv 2023; 13:31795-31810. [PMID: 37908649 PMCID: PMC10613952 DOI: 10.1039/d3ra05606f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2023] [Accepted: 10/16/2023] [Indexed: 11/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Bovine tuberculosis (bTB) is considered a worldwide infectious zoonotic disease. Mycobacterium bovis causes bTB disease. It is one of the Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex (MTBC) members. MTBC is a clonal complex of close relatives with approximately 99.95% similarity. M. bovis is a spillover pathogen that can transmit from animals to humans and rarely from humans to animals with contact. Genotyping techniques are important to discriminate and differentiate between MTBC species. Spoligotyping and mycobacterial interspersed repetitive unit-variable number tandem repeat (MIRU-VNTR) are widely used but they have some limitations. As an alternative, whole genome sequencing approaches have been utilized due to their high-resolution power. They are employed in typing M. bovis and explain the evolutionary and phylogenetic relationships between isolates. The control of bTB disease has attracted a large amount of attention. Rapid and proper diagnosis is necessary for monitoring the disease as an initial step for its control and treatment. Nanotechnology has a potential impact on the rapid diagnosis and treatment of bTB through the use of nanocarrier and metal nanoparticles (NPs). Special attention has been paid to voltammetric and impedimetric electrochemical strategies as facile, sensitive, and selective methods for the efficient detection of tuberculosis. The efficacy of these sensors is enhanced in the presence of NPs, which act as recognition and/or redox probes. Gold, silver, copper, cobalt, graphene, and magnetic NPs, as well as polypyrrole nanowires and multiwalled carbon nanotubes have been employed for detecting tuberculosis. Overall, NP-based electrochemical sensors represent a promising tool for the diagnosis of bTB.
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Affiliation(s)
- Moustafa Zahran
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Menoufia University Shebin El-Kom 32512 Egypt
- Menoufia Company for Water and Wastewater, Holding Company for Water and Wastewater Menoufia 32514 Egypt
| | - Rehan M El-Shabasy
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Menoufia University Shebin El-Kom 32512 Egypt
- Chemistry Department, The American University in Cairo AUC Avenue New Cairo 11835 Egypt
| | - Alyaa Elrashedy
- Department of Animal Medicine and Infectious Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Sadat City Egypt
| | - Walid Mousa
- Department of Animal Medicine and Infectious Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Sadat City Egypt
| | - Mohamed Nayel
- Department of Animal Medicine and Infectious Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Sadat City Egypt
| | - Akram Salama
- Department of Animal Medicine and Infectious Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Sadat City Egypt
| | - Ahmed Zaghawa
- Department of Animal Medicine and Infectious Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Sadat City Egypt
| | - Ahmed Elsify
- Department of Animal Medicine and Infectious Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Sadat City Egypt
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Damina SM, Barnes DA, Inuwa B, Ularamu GH, Bello M, Okaiyeto OS, Kudi AC, Thapa J, Nakajima C, Suzuki Y. Molecular Characterisation of Mycobacterium bovis Isolates from Cattle Slaughtered in Adamawa and Gombe States, North-Eastern Nigeria. Curr Issues Mol Biol 2023; 45:6055-6066. [PMID: 37504298 PMCID: PMC10377879 DOI: 10.3390/cimb45070382] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2023] [Revised: 07/12/2023] [Accepted: 07/15/2023] [Indexed: 07/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Bovine tuberculosis is endemic in Nigeria with control measures as provided by the laws of the country being minimally enforced mostly at the abattoirs only. This study focused on bovine tuberculosis in Adamawa and Gombe States. Tuberculosis lesions were observed in 183 of 13,688 slaughtered cattle in the regions between June and December 2020. Analysis of tissue samples resulted in 17 Mycobacterium bovis isolates, predominantly from Gombe State. Spoligotyping identified four spoligotypes, including SB0944, SB1025, SB1104, and one novel pattern. MIRU-VNTR analysis further differentiated these spoligotypes into eight profiles. All isolates belonged to the Af1 clonal complex. The study emphasises the need for broader coverage and more isolates to comprehensively understand the molecular epidemiology of bovine tuberculosis in Nigeria. To enhance research and surveillance, a cost-effective approach is proposed, utilising a discriminatory VNTR panel comprising five or nine loci. The five-locus panel consists of ETR-C, QUB26, QUB11b, MIRU04, and QUB323. Alternatively, the nine-locus panel includes ETR-A, ETR-B, QUB11a, and MIRU26. Implementing this approach would provide valuable insights into the genetic diversity of M. bovis strains in Nigeria. These findings are crucial for developing effective control measures and minimising the impact of bovine tuberculosis on both animal and human health.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - David Atomanyi Barnes
- Division of Bioresources, Hokkaido University International Institute for Zoonosis Control, Kita 20 Nishi 10, Kita-ku, Hokkaido 001-0020, Japan
| | - Bitrus Inuwa
- National Veterinary Research Institute, P.M.B.01, Vom 930103, Nigeria
| | | | - Mohammed Bello
- Department of Veterinary, Medicine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria 810211, Nigeria
| | - Olu Solomon Okaiyeto
- Department of Veterinary, Medicine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria 810211, Nigeria
| | - Ayuba Caleb Kudi
- Department of Veterinary, Medicine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria 810211, Nigeria
| | - Jeewan Thapa
- Division of Bioresources, Hokkaido University International Institute for Zoonosis Control, Kita 20 Nishi 10, Kita-ku, Hokkaido 001-0020, Japan
| | - Chie Nakajima
- Division of Bioresources, Hokkaido University International Institute for Zoonosis Control, Kita 20 Nishi 10, Kita-ku, Hokkaido 001-0020, Japan
- International Collaboration Unit, Hokkaido University International Institute for Zoonosis Control, Kita 20 Nishi 10, Kita-ku, Hokkaido 001-0020, Japan
- Division of Research Support, Hokkaido University Institute for Vaccine Research and Development, Kita 20 Nishi 10, Kita-ku, Hokkaido 001-0020, Japan
| | - Yasuhiko Suzuki
- Division of Bioresources, Hokkaido University International Institute for Zoonosis Control, Kita 20 Nishi 10, Kita-ku, Hokkaido 001-0020, Japan
- International Collaboration Unit, Hokkaido University International Institute for Zoonosis Control, Kita 20 Nishi 10, Kita-ku, Hokkaido 001-0020, Japan
- Division of Research Support, Hokkaido University Institute for Vaccine Research and Development, Kita 20 Nishi 10, Kita-ku, Hokkaido 001-0020, Japan
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Ahmad I, Raji YE, Hassan L, Samaila A, Aliyu B, Zinsstag J, Fasina FO. Systematic review and meta-analysis of tuberculosis in animals in Nigeria. Heliyon 2023; 9:e17215. [PMID: 37383186 PMCID: PMC10293676 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e17215] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2022] [Revised: 06/07/2023] [Accepted: 06/09/2023] [Indexed: 06/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Animal tuberculosis (TB) is a contagious and chronic disease caused by mycobacteria belonging to theMycobacterium tuberculosis complex (MTBC) in domestic and wild animals. MTBC strains infection has been confirmed in many animal species in Nigeria, including captive wildlife, cattle, dromedary camels, goats, and pigs. Despite widespread infection and the potential impact of the disease on public health, active surveillance and control strategies are absent in Nigeria. This study aimed to conduct the first comprehensive meta-analysis to assess the distribution of tuberculosis and analyze the potential moderators of infection in animals in Nigeria. Eligible studies (sixty-one (Cadmus et al., 2014) [61] prevalence and seven (Menzies and Neill, 2000) [7] case reports) were retrieved and included in the analysis. The analyses showed an overall pooled TB prevalence of 7.0% (95% CI: 6.0-8.0) comprising of infection distributed in cattle (8.0%, 95% CI: 7.0-8.0), goats (0.47%, 95% CI: 0-1.2), sheep (0.27%, 95% CI: 0.14-0.46), camels (13.0%, 95% CI: 0-47), and wildlife (13.0%, 95% CI: 9-16) respectively. The occurrence of infection was significantly moderated by the publication periods, geographical location, sample size, and detection methods. TB prevalence was heterogeneous across several predictors, with the year of publication exhibiting a higher rate (46%) of the detected heterogeneity. These findings should provide policy-relevant information to guide the design and establishment of prevention and control measures amenable to the local situations in Nigeria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ibrahim Ahmad
- Animal Health and Livestock Development, Gusau, Zamfara, Nigeria
- Department of Veterinary Pathology and Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Universiti Putra Malaysia, UPM, 43400, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Yakubu Egigogo Raji
- Department of Pathology, Clinical Microbiology Unit, College of Health Sciences Ibrahim Badamasi Babangida University, Lapai, Nigeria
| | - Latiffah Hassan
- Department of Veterinary Pathology and Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Universiti Putra Malaysia, UPM, 43400, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Abdullahi Samaila
- Department of Pharmacology, College of Medical Sciences, Umaru Musa Yar'adua University, Katsina, Nigeria
| | - Basiru Aliyu
- Department of Microbiology, Federal University Birnin Kebbi, Kebbi, Nigeria
| | - Jakob Zinsstag
- Human and Animal Health Unit, Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, PO Box, 4002, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Folorunso O. Fasina
- Emergency Centre for Transboundary Animal Diseases (ECTAD), Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), United Nations Office in Nairobi, 00100, Kenya
- Department of Veterinary Tropical Diseases, University of Pretoria, Onderstepoort, 0110, South Africa
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5
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Kasir D, Osman N, Awik A, El Ratel I, Rafei R, Al Kassaa I, El Safadi D, Salma R, El Omari K, Cummings KJ, Kassem II, Osman M. Zoonotic Tuberculosis: A Neglected Disease in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) Region. Diseases 2023; 11:diseases11010039. [PMID: 36975589 PMCID: PMC10047434 DOI: 10.3390/diseases11010039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2022] [Revised: 02/20/2023] [Accepted: 02/22/2023] [Indexed: 03/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Mycobacterium bovis is the etiologic agent of bovine tuberculosis (BTB), a serious infectious disease in both humans and animals. BTB is a zoonotic disease primarily affecting cattle and occasionally humans infected through close contact with infected hosts or the consumption of unpasteurized dairy products. Zoonotic tuberculosis is strongly associated with poverty and poor hygiene, and low- and middle-income countries bear the brunt of the disease. BTB has been increasingly recognized as a growing public health threat in developing countries. However, the lack of effective surveillance programs in many of these countries poses a barrier to accurately determining the true burden of this disease. Additionally, the control of BTB is threatened by the emergence of drug-resistant strains that affect the effectiveness of current treatment regimens. Here, we analyzed current trends in the epidemiology of the disease as well as the antimicrobial susceptibility patterns of M. bovis in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region, a region that includes several developing countries. Following PRISMA guidelines, a total of 90 studies conducted in the MENA region were selected. Our findings revealed that the prevalence of BTB among humans and cattle varied significantly according to the population size and country in the MENA region. Most of the available studies were based on culture and/or PCR strategies and were published without including data on antimicrobial resistance and molecular typing. Our findings highlighted the paramount need for the use of appropriate diagnostic tools and the implementation of sustainable control measures, especially at the human/animal interface, in the MENA region.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dalal Kasir
- Quality Control Center Laboratories at the Chamber of Commerce, Industry & Agriculture of Tripoli & North Lebanon, Tripoli 1300, Lebanon
| | - Nour Osman
- Department of Epidemiology and Population Health, Faculty of Health Sciences, American University of Beirut, Beirut 1100, Lebanon
| | - Aicha Awik
- Laboratoire Microbiologie Santé et Environnement (LMSE), Doctoral School of Sciences and Technology, Faculty of Public Health, Lebanese University, Tripoli 1300, Lebanon
| | - Imane El Ratel
- Laboratoire Microbiologie Santé et Environnement (LMSE), Doctoral School of Sciences and Technology, Faculty of Public Health, Lebanese University, Tripoli 1300, Lebanon
| | - Rayane Rafei
- Laboratoire Microbiologie Santé et Environnement (LMSE), Doctoral School of Sciences and Technology, Faculty of Public Health, Lebanese University, Tripoli 1300, Lebanon
| | - Imad Al Kassaa
- Fonterra Research and Development Center, Palmerston North 4410, New Zealand
| | - Dima El Safadi
- Department of Clinical Sciences, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool L3 5QA, UK
| | - Rayane Salma
- Quality Control Center Laboratories at the Chamber of Commerce, Industry & Agriculture of Tripoli & North Lebanon, Tripoli 1300, Lebanon
| | - Khaled El Omari
- Quality Control Center Laboratories at the Chamber of Commerce, Industry & Agriculture of Tripoli & North Lebanon, Tripoli 1300, Lebanon
- Laboratoire Microbiologie Santé et Environnement (LMSE), Doctoral School of Sciences and Technology, Faculty of Public Health, Lebanese University, Tripoli 1300, Lebanon
| | - Kevin J. Cummings
- Department of Public and Ecosystem Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Issmat I. Kassem
- Center for Food Safety, Department of Food Science and Technology, University of Georgia, 1109 Experiment Street, Griffin, GA 30223, USA
| | - Marwan Osman
- Department of Public and Ecosystem Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
- Cornell Atkinson Center for Sustainability, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
- Correspondence: or ; Tel.: +1-607-262-4219
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Evaluating Data Sharing of SARS-CoV-2 Genomes for Molecular Epidemiology across the COVID-19 Pandemic. Viruses 2023; 15:v15020560. [PMID: 36851774 PMCID: PMC9959893 DOI: 10.3390/v15020560] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2022] [Revised: 02/12/2023] [Accepted: 02/16/2023] [Indexed: 02/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Following the emergence of COVID-19 in December 2019, caused by the coronavirus SARS-CoV-2, the disease spread dramatically worldwide. The use of genomics to trace the dissemination of the virus and the identification of novel variants was essential in defining measures for containing the disease. We aim to evaluate the global effort to genomically characterize the circulating lineages of SARS-CoV-2, considering the data deposited in GISAID, the major platform for data sharing in a massive worldwide collaborative undertaking. We contextualize data for nearly three years (January 2020-October 2022) for the major contributing countries, percentage of characterized isolates and time for data processing in the context of the global pandemic. Within this collaborative effort, we also evaluated the early detection of seven major SARS-CoV-2 lineages, G, GR, GH, GK, GV, GRY and GRA. While Europe and the USA, following an initial period, showed positive results across time in terms of cases sequenced and time for data deposition, this effort is heterogeneous worldwide. Given the current immunization the major threat is the appearance of variants that evade the acquired immunity. In that scenario, the monitoring of those hypothetical variants will still play an essential role.
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Abstract
This perspective draws on the record of ancient pathogen genomes and microbiomes illuminating patterns of infectious disease over the course of the Holocene in order to address the following question. How did major changes in living circumstances involving the transition to and intensification of farming alter pathogens and their distributions? Answers to this question via ancient DNA research provide a rapidly expanding picture of pathogen evolution and in concert with archaeological and historical data, give a temporal and behavioral context for heath in the past that is relevant for challenges facing the world today, including the rise of novel pathogens.
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Edao BM, Ameni G, Berg S, Tekle M, Whatmore AM, Wood JLN, van Tonder AJ, Ashford RT. Whole genome sequencing of Ethiopian Brucella abortus isolates expands the known diversity of an early branching sub-Saharan African lineage. Front Microbiol 2023; 14:1128966. [PMID: 37213520 PMCID: PMC10192883 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2023.1128966] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2022] [Accepted: 02/23/2023] [Indexed: 05/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Brucellosis remains one of the most significant zoonotic diseases globally, responsible for both considerable human morbidity and economic losses due to its impacts on livestock productivity. Despite this, there remain significant evidence gaps in many low- and middle-income countries, including those of sub-Saharan Africa. Here we report the first molecular characterisation of Brucella sp. from Ethiopia. Fifteen Brucella sp. isolates from an outbreak in cattle from a herd in central Ethiopia were identified as Brucella abortus, using bacterial culture and molecular methods. Sequencing of the Ethiopian B. abortus isolates allowed their phylogenetic comparison with 411 B. abortus strains of diverse geographical origins, using whole genome single nucleotide polymorphisms (wgSNP). The Ethiopian isolates belonged to an early-branching lineage (Lineage A) previously only represented by data from two strains, both of sub-Saharan African origin (Kenya and Mozambique). A second B. abortus lineage (Lineage B), also comprised solely of strains originating from sub-Saharan Africa, was identified. The majority of strains belonged to one of two lineages of strains originating from a much broader geographical range. Further analyses based on multi-locus sequence typing (MLST) and multi-locus variable-number tandem repeat analysis (MLVA) expanded the number of B. abortus strains available for comparison with the Ethiopian isolates and were consistent with the findings from wgSNP analysis. MLST profiles of the Ethiopian isolates expanded the sequence type (ST) diversity of the early branching lineage of B. abortus, equivalent to wgSNP Lineage A. A more diverse cluster of STs, equivalent to wgSNP Lineage B, was comprised solely of strains originating from sub-Saharan Africa. Similarly, analysis of B. abortus MLVA profiles (n = 1891) confirmed that the Ethiopian isolates formed a unique cluster, similar to only two existing strains, and distinct from the majority of other strains of sub-Saharan African origin. These findings expand the known diversity of an under-represented lineage of B. abortus and suggest a potential evolutionary origin for the species in East Africa. In addition to providing information concerning Brucella species extant within Ethiopia this work serves as the basis for further studies on the global population structure and evolutionary history of a major zoonotic pathogen.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bedaso Mammo Edao
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Addis Ababa University, Bishoftu, Ethiopia
| | - Gobena Ameni
- Aklilu Lemma Institute of Pathobiology, Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, College of Food and Agriculture, United Arab Emirates University, Al Ain, United Arab Emirates
| | - Stefan Berg
- Department of Bacteriology, Animal and Plant Health Agency, Weybridge, United Kingdom
| | - Muluken Tekle
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Addis Ababa University, Bishoftu, Ethiopia
| | - Adrian M. Whatmore
- Department of Bacteriology, Animal and Plant Health Agency, Weybridge, United Kingdom
| | - James L. N. Wood
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Andries J. van Tonder
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Roland T. Ashford
- Department of Bacteriology, Animal and Plant Health Agency, Weybridge, United Kingdom
- *Correspondence: Roland T. Ashford,
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9
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Ncube P, Bagheri B, Goosen WJ, Miller MA, Sampson SL. Evidence, Challenges, and Knowledge Gaps Regarding Latent Tuberculosis in Animals. Microorganisms 2022; 10:microorganisms10091845. [PMID: 36144447 PMCID: PMC9503773 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms10091845] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2022] [Revised: 09/08/2022] [Accepted: 09/09/2022] [Indexed: 01/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Mycobacterium bovis and other Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex (MTBC) pathogens that cause domestic animal and wildlife tuberculosis have received considerably less attention than M. tuberculosis, the primary cause of human tuberculosis (TB). Human TB studies have shown that different stages of infection can exist, driven by host–pathogen interactions. This results in the emergence of heterogeneous subpopulations of mycobacteria in different phenotypic states, which range from actively replicating (AR) cells to viable but slowly or non-replicating (VBNR), viable but non-culturable (VBNC), and dormant mycobacteria. The VBNR, VBNC, and dormant subpopulations are believed to underlie latent tuberculosis (LTB) in humans; however, it is unclear if a similar phenomenon could be happening in animals. This review discusses the evidence, challenges, and knowledge gaps regarding LTB in animals, and possible host–pathogen differences in the MTBC strains M. tuberculosis and M. bovis during infection. We further consider models that might be adapted from human TB research to investigate how the different phenotypic states of bacteria could influence TB stages in animals. In addition, we explore potential host biomarkers and mycobacterial changes in the DosR regulon, transcriptional sigma factors, and resuscitation-promoting factors that may influence the development of LTB.
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10
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Phylogeography of Sub-Saharan Mitochondrial Lineages Outside Africa Highlights the Roles of the Holocene Climate Changes and the Atlantic Slave Trade. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23169219. [PMID: 36012483 PMCID: PMC9408831 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23169219] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2022] [Revised: 08/14/2022] [Accepted: 08/15/2022] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Despite the importance of ancient DNA for understanding human prehistoric dispersals, poor survival means that data remain sparse for many areas in the tropics, including in Africa. In such instances, analysis of contemporary genomes remains invaluable. One promising approach is founder analysis, which identifies and dates migration events in non-recombining systems. However, it has yet to be fully exploited as its application remains controversial. Here, we test the approach by evaluating the age of sub-Saharan mitogenome lineages sampled outside Africa. The analysis confirms that such lineages in the Americas date to recent centuries—the time of the Atlantic slave trade—thereby validating the approach. By contrast, in North Africa, Southwestern Asia and Europe, roughly half of the dispersal signal dates to the early Holocene, during the “greening” of the Sahara. We elaborate these results by showing that the main source regions for the two main dispersal episodes are distinct. For the recent dispersal, the major source was West Africa, but with two exceptions: South America, where the fraction from Southern Africa was greater, and Southwest Asia, where Eastern Africa was the primary source. These observations show the potential of founder analysis as both a supplement and complement to ancient DNA studies.
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11
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Mtetwa HN, Amoah ID, Kumari S, Bux F, Reddy P. Molecular surveillance of tuberculosis-causing mycobacteria in wastewater. Heliyon 2022; 8:e08910. [PMID: 35198775 PMCID: PMC8842018 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2022.e08910] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2021] [Revised: 12/31/2021] [Accepted: 02/02/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
The surveillance of tuberculosis infections has largely depended on clinical diagnostics and hospitalization data. The advancement in molecular methods creates an opportunity for the adoption of alternative surveillance systems, such as wastewater-based epidemiology. This study presents the use of conventional and advanced polymerase chain reaction techniques (droplet digital PCR) to determine the occurrence and concentration of total mycobacteria and members of the Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex (MTBC) in treated and untreated wastewater. Wastewater samples were taken from three wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) in the city of Durban, South Africa, known for a high burden of TB/MDR-TB due to HIV infections. All untreated wastewater samples contained total mycobacteria and MTBC at varying percentages per WWTP studied. Other members of the MTBC related to tuberculosis infection in animals, M. bovis and M. caprae were also detected. The highest median concentration detected in untreated wastewater was up to 4.9 (±0.2) Log10 copies/ml for total mycobacteria, 4.0 (±0.85) Log10 copies/ml for MTBC, 3.9 (±0.54) Log10 copies/ml for M. tuberculosis, 2.7 (±0.42) Log10 copies/ml for M. africanum, 4.0 (±0.29) Log10 copies/ml for M. bovis and 4.5 (±0.52) Log10 copies/ml for M. caprae. Lower concentrations were detected in the treated wastewater, with a statistically significant difference (P-value ≤ 0.05) in concentrations observed. The log reduction achieved for these bacteria in the respective WWTPs was not statistically different, indicating that the treatment configuration did not have an impact on their removal. The detection of M. africanum in wastewater from South Africa shows that it is possible that some of the TB infections in the community could be caused by this mycobacterium. This study, therefore, highlights the potential of wastewater-based epidemiology for monitoring tuberculosis infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hlengiwe N Mtetwa
- Department of Community Health Studies, Faculty of Health Sciences, Durban University of Technology, PO Box 1334, Durban, 4000, South Africa.,Institute for Water and Wastewater Technology (IWWT), Durban University of Technology, PO Box 1334, Durban, 4000, South Africa
| | - Isaac D Amoah
- Institute for Water and Wastewater Technology (IWWT), Durban University of Technology, PO Box 1334, Durban, 4000, South Africa
| | - Sheena Kumari
- Institute for Water and Wastewater Technology (IWWT), Durban University of Technology, PO Box 1334, Durban, 4000, South Africa
| | - Faizal Bux
- Institute for Water and Wastewater Technology (IWWT), Durban University of Technology, PO Box 1334, Durban, 4000, South Africa
| | - Poovendhree Reddy
- Department of Community Health Studies, Faculty of Health Sciences, Durban University of Technology, PO Box 1334, Durban, 4000, South Africa
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12
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Mtetwa HN, Amoah ID, Kumari S, Bux F, Reddy P. The source and fate of Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex in wastewater and possible routes of transmission. BMC Public Health 2022; 22:145. [PMID: 35057793 PMCID: PMC8781043 DOI: 10.1186/s12889-022-12527-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2021] [Accepted: 01/06/2022] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex (MTBC) consists of causative agents of both human and animal tuberculosis and is responsible for over 10 million annual infections globally. Infections occur mainly through airborne transmission, however, there are possible indirect transmissions through a faecal-oral route which is poorly reported. This faecal-oral transmission could be through the occurrence of the microbe in environments such as wastewater. This manuscript, therefore, reviews the source and fate of MTBC in the wastewater environment, including the current methods in use and the possible risks of infections. RESULTS The reviewed literature indicates that about 20% of patients with pulmonary TB may have extra-pulmonary manifestations such as GITB, resulting in shedding in feaces and urine. This could potentially be the reason for the detection of MTBC in wastewater. MTBC concentrations of up to 5.5 × 105 (±3.9 × 105) copies/L of untreated wastewater have been reported. Studies have indicated that wastewater may provide these bacteria with the required nutrients for their growth and could potentially result in environmental transmission. However, 98.6 (± 2.7) %, removal during wastewater treatment, through physical-chemical decantation (primary treatment) and biofiltration (secondary treatment) has been reported. Despite these reports, several studies observed the presence of MTBC in treated wastewater via both culture-dependent and molecular techniques. CONCLUSION The detection of viable MTBC cells in either treated or untreated wastewater, highlights the potential risks of infection for wastewater workers and communities close to these wastewater treatment plants. The generation of aerosols during wastewater treatment could be the main route of transmission. Additionally, direct exposure to the wastewater containing MTBC could potentially contribute to indirect transmissions which may lead to pulmonary or extra-pulmonary infections. This calls for the implementation of risk reduction measures aimed at protecting the exposed populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hlengiwe N Mtetwa
- Department of Community Health Studies, Faculty of Health Sciences, Durban University of Technology, PO Box 1334, Durban, 4000, South Africa
- Institute for Water and Wastewater Technology (IWWT), Durban University of Technology, PO Box 1334, Durban, 4000, South Africa
| | - Isaac D Amoah
- Institute for Water and Wastewater Technology (IWWT), Durban University of Technology, PO Box 1334, Durban, 4000, South Africa
| | - Sheena Kumari
- Institute for Water and Wastewater Technology (IWWT), Durban University of Technology, PO Box 1334, Durban, 4000, South Africa
| | - Faizal Bux
- Institute for Water and Wastewater Technology (IWWT), Durban University of Technology, PO Box 1334, Durban, 4000, South Africa
| | - Poovendhree Reddy
- Department of Community Health Studies, Faculty of Health Sciences, Durban University of Technology, PO Box 1334, Durban, 4000, South Africa.
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13
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Esmaeilzadeh N, Bahonar A, Rahimi Foroushani A, Nasehi M, Amiri K, Hadjzadeh MAR. Temporal trends and prediction of bovine tuberculosis: a time series analysis in the North-East of Iran. IRANIAN JOURNAL OF VETERINARY RESEARCH 2022; 23:12-17. [PMID: 35782355 PMCID: PMC9238935 DOI: 10.22099/ijvr.2021.39440.5727] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2021] [Revised: 11/29/2021] [Accepted: 12/11/2021] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Bovine tuberculosis (BTB) is a disease with high economic relevance. AIMS This study aimed to determine a fast alert surveillance system for bTB before the outbreak in the epidemic region of Iran. METHODS This cross-sectional study was conducted using the Auto-Regressive Integrated Moving Average (ARIMA) model for monthly bTB detections (reactors). These reactor cases result from the positive Tuberculin Purified Protein Derivative (PPD) test on cattle farms for the period between April 2007 and March 2019 in Razavi Khorasan province. Autocorrelation functions (ACF) and partial autocorrelation functions (PACF) plots were used to determine model parameters. The Akaike Information Criteria (AIC) were employed to select the best-fitted model. The root mean square error (RMSE) was applied for the evaluation of the models. Then, the best-fitted model was hired to predict the cases for 12 oncoming months. The data were analysed by STATA (ver. 14) software with a significant level at P≤0.05. RESULTS ARIMA (3, 0, 3) 12 was introduced as a recommended fitted model according to white noise residual test (Q=22.87 and P=0.98), lower AIC (541.85), and more precise model RMSE (1.50). However, the forecast values were more than the observed values. CONCLUSION The application and interpretation of ARIMA models are straightforward, and may be used as immediate tools for monitoring systems. However, we proposed an Auto-Regressive Integrated Moving Average with Exogenous Input (ARIMAX) model with some measurable exotic factors such as economic fluctuations, climate changes, and pulmonary tuberculosis to introduce a more precise and accurate model for the fast alert surveillance system.
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Affiliation(s)
- N. Esmaeilzadeh
- Department of Food Hygiene and Quality Control, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran
- Department of Epidemiology, Faculty of Public Health, Mashhad University of Medical Science, Mashhad, Iran
| | - A. Bahonar
- Department of Food Hygiene and Quality Control, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran
| | - A. Rahimi Foroushani
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Faculty of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Science, Tehran, Iran
| | - M. Nasehi
- Department of Epidemiology, Faculty of Public Health, Iran University of Medical Science, Tehran, Iran
| | - K. Amiri
- Deputy of Bureau Health and Management of Animal Diseases, Veterinary Organization of Iran, Tehran, Iran
| | - M. A. R. Hadjzadeh
- Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
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14
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Perea C, Ciaravino G, Stuber T, Thacker TC, Robbe-Austerman S, Allepuz A, de Val BP. Whole-Genome SNP Analysis Identifies Putative Mycobacterium bovis Transmission Clusters in Livestock and Wildlife in Catalonia, Spain. Microorganisms 2021; 9:microorganisms9081629. [PMID: 34442709 PMCID: PMC8401651 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms9081629] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2021] [Revised: 07/23/2021] [Accepted: 07/28/2021] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
The high-resolution WGS analyses of MTBC strains have provided useful insight for determining sources of infection for animal tuberculosis. In Spain, tuberculosis in livestock is caused by Mycobacterium bovis and Mycobacterium caprae, where wildlife reservoirs play an important role. We analyzed a set of 125 M. bovis isolates obtained from livestock and wildlife from Catalonia to investigate strain diversity and identify possible sources and/or causes of infection. Whole-genome SNP profiles were used for phylogenetic reconstruction and pairwise SNP distance analysis. Additionally, SNPs were investigated to identify virulence and antimicrobial resistance factors to investigate clade-specific associations. Putative transmission clusters (≤12 SNPs) were identified, and associated epidemiological metadata were used to determine possible explanatory factors for transmission. M. bovis distribution was heterogeneous, with 7 major clades and 21 putative transmission clusters. In order of importance, the explanatory factors associated were proximity and neighborhood, residual infection, livestock-wildlife interaction, shared pasture, and movement. Genes related to lipid transport and metabolism showed the highest number of SNPs. All isolates were pyrazinamide resistant, and five were additionally resistant to isoniazid, but no clade-specific associations could be determined. Our findings highlight the importance of high-resolution molecular surveillance to monitor bovine tuberculosis dynamics in a low-prevalence setting.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claudia Perea
- National Veterinary Services Laboratories, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, Veterinary Services, Ames, IA 50010, USA; (T.S.); (T.C.T.); (S.R.-A.)
- Correspondence:
| | - Giovanna Ciaravino
- Departament de Sanitat i Anatomia Animals, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193 Bellaterra, Spain; (G.C.); (A.A.)
| | - Tod Stuber
- National Veterinary Services Laboratories, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, Veterinary Services, Ames, IA 50010, USA; (T.S.); (T.C.T.); (S.R.-A.)
| | - Tyler C. Thacker
- National Veterinary Services Laboratories, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, Veterinary Services, Ames, IA 50010, USA; (T.S.); (T.C.T.); (S.R.-A.)
| | - Suelee Robbe-Austerman
- National Veterinary Services Laboratories, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, Veterinary Services, Ames, IA 50010, USA; (T.S.); (T.C.T.); (S.R.-A.)
| | - Alberto Allepuz
- Departament de Sanitat i Anatomia Animals, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193 Bellaterra, Spain; (G.C.); (A.A.)
- IRTA, Centre de Recerca en Sanitat Animal (CReSA, IRTA-UAB), 08197 Bellaterra, Spain;
- OIE Collaborating Centre for the Research and Control of Emerging and Re-Emerging Swine Diseases in Europe (IRTA-CReSA), 08193 Bellaterra, Spain
| | - Bernat Pérez de Val
- IRTA, Centre de Recerca en Sanitat Animal (CReSA, IRTA-UAB), 08197 Bellaterra, Spain;
- OIE Collaborating Centre for the Research and Control of Emerging and Re-Emerging Swine Diseases in Europe (IRTA-CReSA), 08193 Bellaterra, Spain
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15
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Marcinek P, Haag F, Geithe C, Krautwurst D. An evolutionary conserved olfactory receptor for foodborne and semiochemical alkylpyrazines. FASEB J 2021; 35:e21638. [PMID: 34047404 DOI: 10.1096/fj.202100224r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2021] [Revised: 04/09/2021] [Accepted: 04/15/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Molecular recognition is a fundamental principle in biological systems. The olfactory detection of both food and predators via ecological relevant odorant cues are abilities of eminent evolutionary significance for many species. Pyrazines are such volatile cues, some of which act as both human-centered key food odorants (KFOs) and semiochemicals. A pyrazine-selective odorant receptor has been elusive. Here we screened 2,3,5-trimethylpyrazine, a KFO and semiochemical, and 2,5-dihydro-2,4,5-trimethylthiazoline, an innate fear-associated non-KFO, against 616 human odorant receptor variants, in a cell-based luminescence assay. OR5K1 emerged as sole responding receptor. Tested against a comprehensive collection of 178 KFOs, we newly identified 18 pyrazines and (2R/2S)-4-methoxy-2,5-dimethylfuran-3(2H)-one as agonists. Notably, OR5K1 orthologs in mouse and domesticated species displayed a human-like, potency-ranked activation pattern of pyrazines, suggesting a domestication-led co-evolution of OR5K1 and its orthologs. In summary, OR5K1 is a specialized olfactory receptor across mammals for the detection of pyrazine-based key food odors and semiochemicals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrick Marcinek
- Leibniz-Institute for Food Systems Biology at the Technical University of Munich, Freising, Germany.,Hamilton Germany GmbH, Gräfelfing, Germany
| | - Franziska Haag
- Leibniz-Institute for Food Systems Biology at the Technical University of Munich, Freising, Germany
| | - Christiane Geithe
- Leibniz-Institute for Food Systems Biology at the Technical University of Munich, Freising, Germany.,Brandenburg University of Technology Cottbus - Senftenberg, Senftenberg, Germany
| | - Dietmar Krautwurst
- Leibniz-Institute for Food Systems Biology at the Technical University of Munich, Freising, Germany
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16
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Lean IJ, Moate PJ. Cattle, climate and complexity: food security, quality and sustainability of the Australian cattle industries. Aust Vet J 2021; 99:293-308. [PMID: 33973228 DOI: 10.1111/avj.13072] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2021] [Revised: 03/31/2021] [Accepted: 04/02/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Marked increases in atmospheric CO2 concentrations are largely associated with the release of sequestered carbon in fossil fuels. While emissions of green-house gasses (GHG) from cattle have significant global warming potential, these are biogenic sources and substantially involve carbon in natural cycles, rather than fossil fuel. Cattle use human inedible feeds and by-products of human food production to produce nutrient-dense foods of great value to humans. INTERVENTIONS TO REDUCE GHG PRODUCTION Reductions in land clearing and burning of grasslands and increased carbon sequestration in soils and trees have potential to substantially reduce GHG emissions. Increased efficiencies of production through intensified feeding and enteric modification have markedly reduced intensity of GHG emissions for cattle in Australia. Genetic selection for lower emissions has modest, but cumulative potential to reduce GHG (mostly CH4 ) emissions and intensity. Improved reproductive performance can reduce intensity of GHG emissions, especially in beef production. Feeds and technologies that reduce GHG production and intensity include improved pastures, grain feeding, dietary lipids, nitrates, ionophores, seaweed, 3-NOP, hormonal growth promotants in beef, and improved diets for peri-parturient dairy cattle. There is considerable potential to further reduce emissions from cattle using the technologies reviewed. INTERVENTIONS TO REDUCE HEAT STRESS Cattle are susceptible to heat stress and ameliorating interventions include tree and shelter belts, shade, housing, cooling with fans and water and dietary manipulations. CONCLUSIONS Numerous interventions can reduce GHG emissions and intensity from cattle. There are opportunities to increase carbon capture and maintain biodiversity in Australia's extensive rangelands, but these require quantification and application. We can reduce the intensity of CH4 emissions for cattle in Australia and simultaneously improve their well-being.
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Affiliation(s)
- I J Lean
- Scibus and University of Sydney, Camden, New South Wales, 2570, Australia
| | - P J Moate
- Agriculture Victoria, Ellinbank, Victoria, 3821, Australia
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Uren C, Hoal EG, Möller M. Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex and human coadaptation: a two-way street complicating host susceptibility to TB. Hum Mol Genet 2020; 30:R146-R153. [PMID: 33258469 DOI: 10.1093/hmg/ddaa254] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2020] [Revised: 11/09/2020] [Accepted: 11/26/2020] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
For centuries, the Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex (MTBC) has infected numerous populations, both human and non-human, causing symptomatic tuberculosis (TB) in some hosts. Research investigating the MTBC and how it has evolved with its host over time is sparse and has not resulted in many significant findings. There are even fewer studies investigating adaptation of the human host susceptibility to TB and these have largely focused on genome-wide association and candidate gene association studies. However, results emanating from these association studies are rarely replicated and appear to be population specific. It is, therefore, necessary to relook at the approach taken to investigate the relationship between the MTBC and the human host. Understanding that the evolution of the pathogen is coupled to the evolution of the host might be the missing link needed to effectively investigate their relationship. We hypothesize that this knowledge will bolster future efforts in combating the disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caitlin Uren
- DSI-NRF Centre of Excellence for Biomedical Tuberculosis Research, South African Medical Research Council Centre for Tuberculosis Research, Division of Molecular Biology and Human Genetics, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Stellenbosch University, 8000 Cape Town, South Africa.,Centre for Bioinformatics and Computational Biology, Stellenbosch University, 7602 Stellenbosch, South Africa
| | - Eileen G Hoal
- DSI-NRF Centre of Excellence for Biomedical Tuberculosis Research, South African Medical Research Council Centre for Tuberculosis Research, Division of Molecular Biology and Human Genetics, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Stellenbosch University, 8000 Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Marlo Möller
- DSI-NRF Centre of Excellence for Biomedical Tuberculosis Research, South African Medical Research Council Centre for Tuberculosis Research, Division of Molecular Biology and Human Genetics, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Stellenbosch University, 8000 Cape Town, South Africa.,Centre for Bioinformatics and Computational Biology, Stellenbosch University, 7602 Stellenbosch, South Africa
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