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Assaz DA, Tyndall I, Oshiro CKB, Roche B. A Process-Based Analysis of Cognitive Defusion in Acceptance and Commitment Therapy. Behav Ther 2023; 54:1020-1035. [PMID: 37863583 DOI: 10.1016/j.beth.2022.06.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2021] [Revised: 02/22/2022] [Accepted: 06/13/2022] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
Cognitive defusion is among the main components of Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT), a contextual behavioral approach to psychotherapy. Defusion serves as a middle-level term, and, as such, may be useful for applying and disseminating behavior science, despite its lower precision. However, some authors argue that for middle-level terms in psychotherapy to be useful to clinicians, they need to be clearly linked to basic behavioral concepts, with higher precision; and that this is not currently the case with defusion. Our objective is to increase the pragmatic utility of the concept of "cognitive defusion" by providing a more nuanced, multifaceted and process-based definition of the term. In order to do this, we surveyed the ACT literature regarding defusion and critically examined it through the lens of conceptual analysis. This culminated in a revised and updated conceptualization of defusion in terms of its relationship to basic behavioral concepts, in which defusion is an outcome that may be achieved through different processes.
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2
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Vandael K, Vervliet B, Peters M, Meulders A. Excessive generalization of pain-related avoidance behavior: mechanisms, targets for intervention, and future directions. Pain 2023; 164:2405-2410. [PMID: 37498749 PMCID: PMC10578424 DOI: 10.1097/j.pain.0000000000002990] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2022] [Revised: 05/22/2023] [Accepted: 05/26/2023] [Indexed: 07/29/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Kristof Vandael
- Experimental Health Psychology, Maastricht University, Maastricht, the Netherlands
- Laboratory of Biological Psychology, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Bram Vervliet
- Laboratory of Biological Psychology, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Madelon Peters
- Experimental Health Psychology, Maastricht University, Maastricht, the Netherlands
| | - Ann Meulders
- Experimental Health Psychology, Maastricht University, Maastricht, the Netherlands
- Research Group Health Psychology, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
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3
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Brown VM, Price R, Dombrovski AY. Anxiety as a disorder of uncertainty: implications for understanding maladaptive anxiety, anxious avoidance, and exposure therapy. COGNITIVE, AFFECTIVE & BEHAVIORAL NEUROSCIENCE 2023; 23:844-868. [PMID: 36869259 PMCID: PMC10475148 DOI: 10.3758/s13415-023-01080-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 02/14/2023] [Indexed: 03/05/2023]
Abstract
In cognitive-behavioral conceptualizations of anxiety, exaggerated threat expectancies underlie maladaptive anxiety. This view has led to successful treatments, notably exposure therapy, but is not consistent with the empirical literature on learning and choice alterations in anxiety. Empirically, anxiety is better described as a disorder of uncertainty learning. How disruptions in uncertainty lead to impairing avoidance and are treated with exposure-based methods, however, is unclear. Here, we integrate concepts from neurocomputational learning models with clinical literature on exposure therapy to propose a new framework for understanding maladaptive uncertainty functioning in anxiety. Specifically, we propose that anxiety disorders are fundamentally disorders of uncertainty learning and that successful treatments, particularly exposure therapy, work by remediating maladaptive avoidance from dysfunctional explore/exploit decisions in uncertain, potentially aversive situations. This framework reconciles several inconsistencies in the literature and provides a path forward to better understand and treat anxiety.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vanessa M Brown
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA.
| | - Rebecca Price
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
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4
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Kaplan GB, Lakis GA, Zhoba H. Sleep-Wake and Arousal Dysfunctions in Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder:Role of Orexin Systems. Brain Res Bull 2022; 186:106-122. [PMID: 35618150 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainresbull.2022.05.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2021] [Revised: 04/20/2022] [Accepted: 05/10/2022] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a trauma-related condition that produces distressing fear memory intrusions, avoidance behaviors, hyperarousal/startle, stress responses and insomnia. This review focuses on the importance of the orexin neural system as a novel mechanism related to the pathophysiology of PTSD. Orexinergic neurons originate in the lateral hypothalamus and project widely to key neurotransmitter system neurons, autonomic neurons, the hypothalamic-pituitaryadrenal (HPA) axis, and fear-related neural circuits. After trauma or stress, the basolateral amygdala (BLA) transmits sensory information to the central nucleus of the amygdala (CeA) and in turn to the hypothalamus and other subcortical and brainstem regions to promote fear and threat. Orexin receptors have a prominent role in this circuit as fear conditioned orexin receptor knockout mice show decreased fear expression while dual orexin receptor antagonists (DORAs) inhibit fear acquisition and expression. Orexin activation of an infralimbic-amygdala circuit impedes fear extinction while DORA treatments enhance it. Increased orexin signaling to the amygdalocortical- hippocampal circuit promotes avoidance behaviors. Orexin has an important role in activating sympathetic nervous system (SNS) activity and the HPA axis stress responses. Blockade of orexin receptors reduces fear-conditioned startle responses. In PTSD models, individuals demonstrate sleep disturbances such as increased sleep latency and more transitions to wakefulness. Increased orexin activity impairs sleep by promoting wakefulness and reducing total sleep time while DORA treatments enhance sleep onset and maintenance. The orexinergic neural system provides important mechanisms for understanding multiple PTSD behaviors and provides new medication targets to treat this often persistent and debilitating illness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gary B Kaplan
- Mental Health Service, VA Boston Healthcare System, West Roxbury, MA, 02132 USA; Department of Psychiatry, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA, 02118 USA; Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA, 02118 USA.
| | - Gabrielle A Lakis
- Research Service, VA Boston Healthcare System, West Roxbury, MA, 02132 USA; Undergraduate Program in Neuroscience, Boston University, Boston, MA, 02215 USA
| | - Hryhoriy Zhoba
- Research Service, VA Boston Healthcare System, West Roxbury, MA, 02132 USA
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5
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Wong AH, Wirth FM, Pittig A. Avoidance of learnt fear: Models, potential mechanisms, and future directions. Behav Res Ther 2022; 151:104056. [DOI: 10.1016/j.brat.2022.104056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2021] [Revised: 01/31/2022] [Accepted: 02/07/2022] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
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6
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Wong AHK, Pittig A. Avoiding a feared stimulus: Modelling costly avoidance of learnt fear in a sensory preconditioning paradigm. Biol Psychol 2021; 168:108249. [PMID: 34973369 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsycho.2021.108249] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2021] [Revised: 12/23/2021] [Accepted: 12/27/2021] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Avoidance of learnt fear prevents the onset of a feared stimulus and the threat that follows. In anxiety-related disorders, it turns pathological given its cost and persistence in the absence of realistic threat. The current study examined the acquisition of costly avoidance of learnt fear in healthy individuals (n = 45), via a sensory preconditioning paradigm. Two neutral preconditioning stimuli (PSs) were paired with two neutral conditioned stimuli (CSs). One CS then came to predict an aversive outcome whereas the other CS came to predict safety. In test, participants engaged in stronger avoidance to the PS associated with the fear-related CS than the PS associated with the safety-related CS. Of note, executing behavioral avoidance led to missing out a competing reward, thus rendering avoidance costly. The results also provide preliminary evidence that threat anticipation and a negative change in valence play a role in driving costly avoidance of learnt fear. Future studies should examine how avoidance of learnt fear maintains pathological anxiety.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alex H K Wong
- Department of Psychology (Biological Psychology, Clinical Psychology, and Psychotherapy), University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany.
| | - Andre Pittig
- Department of Psychology (Biological Psychology, Clinical Psychology, and Psychotherapy), University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany; Translational Psychotherapy, Department of Psychology, Friedrich-Alexander University Erlangen-Nürnberg (FAU), Erlangen, Germany
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7
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Glogan E, Vandael K, Gatzounis R, Meulders A. When Do We Not Face Our Fears? Investigating the Boundary Conditions of Costly Pain-Related Avoidance Generalization. THE JOURNAL OF PAIN 2021; 22:1221-1232. [PMID: 33852945 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpain.2021.03.149] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2020] [Revised: 03/24/2021] [Accepted: 03/26/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Excessive generalization of fear and avoidance are hallmark symptoms of chronic pain disability, yet research focusing on the mechanisms underlying generalization of avoidance specifically, is scarce. Two experiments investigated the boundary conditions of costly pain-related avoidance generalization in healthy participants who learned to avoid pain by performing increasingly effortful (in terms of deviation and force) arm-movements using a robot-arm (acquisition). During generalization, novel, but similar arm-movements, without pain, were tested. Experiment 1 (N = 64) aimed to facilitate generalization to these movements by reducing visual contextual changes between acquisition and generalization, whereas Experiment 2 (N = 70) aimed to prevent extinction by increasing pain uncertainty. Both experiments showed generalization of pain-expectancies and pain-related fear. However, Experiment 2 was the first and only to also demonstrate generalization of avoidance, ie, choosing the novel effortful arm-movements in the absence of pain. These results suggest that uncertainty about the occurrence of pain may delay recovery, due to reduced disconfirmation of threat beliefs when exploring, resulting in persistent avoidance. PERSPECTIVE: This article demonstrates generalization of instrumentally acquired costly pain-related avoidance in healthy people under conditions of uncertainty. The results suggest that targeting pain-related uncertainty may be a useful tool for clinicians adopting a psychological approach to treating excessive pain-related avoidance in chronic pain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eveliina Glogan
- Experimental Health Psychology, Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands; Research Group Health Psychology, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Kristof Vandael
- Experimental Health Psychology, Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands; Laboratory of Biological Psychology, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Rena Gatzounis
- Experimental Health Psychology, Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - Ann Meulders
- Experimental Health Psychology, Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands; Research Group Health Psychology, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium.
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8
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O'Brien WH, Wang S, Varga AV, Xu H, Sims T, Horan K, Lim CX. Predicting personal protective equipment use, trauma symptoms, and physical symptoms in the USA during the early weeks of the COVID-19 lockdown (April 9-18, 2020). JOURNAL OF CONTEXTUAL BEHAVIORAL SCIENCE 2021; 21:37-47. [PMID: 34031641 PMCID: PMC8133802 DOI: 10.1016/j.jcbs.2021.05.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2020] [Revised: 04/08/2021] [Accepted: 05/11/2021] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
The COVID-19 pandemic created a complex psychological environment for Americans. In this study, 450 MTurk workers completed measures of sociodemographic characteristics, perceived risk for COVID-19, general perceived vulnerability to disease, intolerance of uncertainty, and psychological flexibility. These variables were used to predict COVID-19 preventive health behaviors (PPE use), psychological distress, and physical symptoms. The surveys were completed between April 9, 2020 and April 18, 2020 which is a period that corresponded to the first 2-3 weeks of lockdown for most participants. A demographically diverse sample of participants was recruited. A substantial number of participants reported a reduction employment status and 69% were in self-isolation. Participants reported a high degree of perceived vulnerability to COVID-19. PPE mask wearing was variable: 16% "not at all," 20% "some of the time," 42% "a good part of the time," and 26 "most of the time." Using clinical cutoff on the post-trauma scale, 70% of the sample would be considered to have symptoms consistent with PTSD. Physical symptom reporting was also high. Intolerance of uncertainty and psychological inflexibility were significant predictors of psychological distress and physical symptoms. Psychological flexibility moderated the relationship between intolerance of uncertainty and psychological distress/physical symptoms. The relationship between intolerance of uncertainty and psychological distress/physical symptoms was stronger among participants with lower levels of psychological flexibility. These findings indicate psychological flexibility can reduce distress associated with COVID-19. Additionally, these results support the workability of the Unified Flexibility and Mindfulness Model as a framework for studying health behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Shan Wang
- Duke Kunshan University, Suzhou, China
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Pittig A, Boschet JM, Glück VM, Schneider K. Elevated costly avoidance in anxiety disorders: Patients show little downregulation of acquired avoidance in face of competing rewards for approach. Depress Anxiety 2021; 38:361-371. [PMID: 33258530 DOI: 10.1002/da.23119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2020] [Revised: 10/26/2020] [Accepted: 11/14/2020] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Pathological avoidance is a transdiagnostic characteristic of anxiety disorders. Avoidance conditioning re-emerged as a translational model to examine mechanisms and treatment of avoidance. However, its validity for anxiety disorders remains unclear. METHODS This study tested for altered avoidance in patients with anxiety disorders compared to matched controls (n = 40/group) using instrumental conditioning assessing low-cost avoidance (avoiding a single aversive outcome) and costly avoidance (avoidance conflicted with gaining rewards). Autonomic arousal and threat expectancy were assessed as indicators of conditioned fear. Associations with dimensional symptom severity were examined. RESULTS Patients and controls showed frequent low-cost avoidance without group differences. Controls subsequently inhibited avoidance to gain rewards, which was amplified when aversive outcomes discontinued. In contrast, patients failed to reduce avoidance when aversive and positive outcomes competed (elevated costly avoidance) and showed limited reduction when aversive outcomes discontinued (persistent costly avoidance). Interestingly, elevated costly avoidance was not linked to higher conditioned fear in patients. Moreover, individual data revealed a bimodal distribution of costly avoidance: Some patients showed persistent avoidance, others showed little to no avoidance. Persistent versus low avoiders did not differ in other task-related variables, response to gains and losses in absence of threat, sociodemographic data, or clinical characteristics. CONCLUSIONS Findings suggest that anxious psychopathology is associated with a deficit to inhibit avoidance in presence of competing positive outcomes. This offers novel perspectives for research on mechanisms and treatment of anxiety disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andre Pittig
- Department of Psychology (Biological Psychology, Clinical Psychology, and Psychotherapy), University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany.,Center of Mental Health, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Juliane M Boschet
- Department of Psychology (Biological Psychology, Clinical Psychology, and Psychotherapy), University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Valentina M Glück
- Department of Psychology (Biological Psychology, Clinical Psychology, and Psychotherapy), University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Kristina Schneider
- Department of Psychology (Biological Psychology, Clinical Psychology, and Psychotherapy), University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany.,Center of Mental Health, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
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10
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Pittig A, Wong AHK. Incentive-based, instructed, and social observational extinction of avoidance: Fear-opposite actions and their influence on fear extinction. Behav Res Ther 2021; 137:103797. [PMID: 33429135 DOI: 10.1016/j.brat.2020.103797] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2020] [Revised: 12/15/2020] [Accepted: 12/18/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Avoidance is a transdiagnostic symptom of clinical anxiety and its reduction a major focus of cognitive-behavioral treatments. This study examined the instrumental extinction of goal-directed avoidance by means of incentives, verbal instruction, and social observation and their influence on fear extinction. Participants acquired conditioned fear and instrumental avoidance responses (N = 160). In four randomized groups, the reduction of avoidance by incentives for non-avoidance, instructions to refrain from avoidance, and social observation of non-avoidance was compared to no intervention before removing the aversive outcome. Conditioned fear when avoidance became unavailable subsequently was tested. Incentives, instruction, and observation all reduced avoidance better than no intervention, however, with different degrees and influence on conditioned fear. Incentives and instructions strongly reduced avoidance despite high levels of fear (i.e., fear-opposite actions). This initiated fear extinction, thereby reducing conditioned fear when avoidance became unavailable. Social observation directly reduced conditioned fear, presumably because it conveyed additional information about the absence of the aversive outcome. However, observation only moderately reduced avoidance and resulted in higher fear when avoidance became unavailable. The effects of social observation may depend on the nuances of the demonstrator's behavior. The clear effects of incentive and instructions provide support for clinical interventions to reduce avoidance during exposure therapy and can serve as experimental models for their controlled investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andre Pittig
- Department of Psychology (Biological Psychology, Clinical Psychology, and Psychotherapy), University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany; Center of Mental Health, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany.
| | - Alex H K Wong
- Department of Psychology (Biological Psychology, Clinical Psychology, and Psychotherapy), University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
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Absence Makes the Mind Grow Fonder: Reconceptualizing Studies of Safety Learning in Translational Research on Anxiety. COGNITIVE AFFECTIVE & BEHAVIORAL NEUROSCIENCE 2021; 21:1-13. [PMID: 33420710 DOI: 10.3758/s13415-020-00855-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/19/2020] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Overgeneralized fear (OGF), or indiscriminate fear responses to signals of threat and nonthreat, is a well-studied cognitive mechanism in human anxiety. Anxiety-related OGF has been studied primarily through fear-learning paradigms and conceptualized as overly exaggerated learning of cues signaling imminent threat. However, the role of safety learning in OGF has not only received much less empirical attention but has been fundamentally conceptualized as learning about the absence of threat rather than the presence of safety. As a result, the relative contributions of exaggerated fear learning and weakened safety learning to anxiety-related OGF remain poorly understood, as do the potentially unique biological and behavioral underpinnings of safety learning. The present review outlines these gaps by, first, summarizing animal and human research on safety learning related to anxiety and OGF. Second, we outline innovations in methods to tease apart unique biological and behavioral contributions of safety learning to OGF. Lastly, we describe clinical and treatment implications of this framework for translational research relevant to human anxiety.
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12
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Rodríguez-Valverde M, Luciano C, Barnes-Holmes D, Hernández-López M. Transfer of conditioned fear and avoidance: Concurrent measurement of arousal and operant responding. J Exp Anal Behav 2020; 115:204-223. [PMID: 33270247 DOI: 10.1002/jeab.646] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2020] [Revised: 10/23/2020] [Accepted: 10/30/2020] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
A reversal design was employed for the analysis of transfer of fear and avoidance through equivalence classes. Two 5-member equivalence classes (A1-B1-C1-D1-E1 and A2-B2-C2-D2-E2) were established. Then B1 and C1 were paired with shock (CS+) and served as SD s in avoidance training (B2 and C2 were trained as CS-/S∆ s for avoidance). Further avoidance training followed with D1 and E1 (as SD s) and D2 and E2 (as S∆ s), with the first presentation of each of these stimuli serving as the first transfer test. Afterwards, aversive conditioning contingencies were reversed: B2 and D2 were paired with shock and trained as SD s for avoidance, B1 and D1 were presented without shock (CS-/S∆ s). Transfer was tested again with C1, E1, C2 and E2. This reversal was implemented to allow for the within-subject replication of transfer effects upon changes in the function of only a subset of each class's elements. Avoidance (key presses) and conditioned fear (skin conductance and heart rate) were simultaneously measured. Results show a clear transfer effect for avoidance, with between- and within-subject replications. For physiological measures, transfer effects in the first test could only be imputed on the basis of group-based inferential statistical analysis. Evidence for between-subject replication was weaker, with only a limited proportion of participants meeting the individual criterion for transfer.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Dermot Barnes-Holmes
- Ghent Universiteit, Belgium.,University of Ulster, Coleraine, Northern Ireland, UK
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13
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Butavicius M, Parsons K, Lillie M, McCormac A, Pattinson M, Calic D. When believing in technology leads to poor cyber security: Development of a trust in technical controls scale. Comput Secur 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cose.2020.102020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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14
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Krypotos AM, Mertens G, Leer A, Engelhard IM. Induction of conditioned avoidance via mental imagery. Behav Res Ther 2020; 132:103652. [PMID: 32569880 DOI: 10.1016/j.brat.2020.103652] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2019] [Revised: 04/03/2020] [Accepted: 05/21/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
There is a growing interest on how mental imagery may be involved in the onset and maintenance of anxiety-related disorders. Here, we used an experimental design to investigate whether a key symptom across anxiety-related disorders, namely avoidance, can be induced via mental imagery. Healthy participants first learned that one neutral stimulus (A) was associated with a mild electric shock and two other neutral stimuli (B and C) were not. They then learned to cancel the shock when A was presented, by pressing a button on a keyboard ('behavioral avoidance'). Next, they were asked to imagine that stimulus B was followed by the shock (i.e., without actual B or shock presentations; Experiment 1; N = 66) or they were shown B and asked to imagine the shock (i.e., without actual shock presentations; Experiment 2; N = 60). Finally, in the test phase, they were shown each of the three stimuli (without the shock) and given the opportunity to make the avoidance response. Results showed that participants tended to avoid B in the test phase in Experiment 1, even though it had never been presented with the shock but not in Experiment 2. We discuss how the findings may explain the acquisition of avoidance in the presentation of innocuousstimuli across anxiety-related disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Gaëtan Mertens
- Department of Clinical Psychology, Utrecht University, the Netherlands
| | - Arne Leer
- Department of Clinical Psychology, Utrecht University, the Netherlands
| | - Iris M Engelhard
- Department of Clinical Psychology, Utrecht University, the Netherlands
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15
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Peeters G, Bennett M, Donoghue OA, Kennelly S, Kenny RA. Understanding the aetiology of fear of falling from the perspective of a fear-avoidance model – A narrative review. Clin Psychol Rev 2020; 79:101862. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cpr.2020.101862] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2019] [Revised: 05/06/2020] [Accepted: 05/09/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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16
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Bublatzky F, Kavcıoğlu F, Guerra P, Doll S, Junghöfer M. Contextual information resolves uncertainty about ambiguous facial emotions: Behavioral and magnetoencephalographic correlates. Neuroimage 2020; 215:116814. [PMID: 32276073 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2020.116814] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2018] [Revised: 03/17/2020] [Accepted: 04/01/2020] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Environmental conditions bias our perception of other peoples' facial emotions. This becomes quite relevant in potentially threatening situations, when a fellow's facial expression might indicate potential danger. The present study tested the prediction that a threatening environment biases the recognition of facial emotions. To this end, low- and medium-expressive happy and fearful faces (morphed to 10%, 20%, 30%, or 40% emotional) were presented within a context of instructed threat-of-shock or safety. Self-reported data revealed that instructed threat led to a biased recognition of fearful, but not happy facial expressions. Magnetoencephalographic correlates revealed spatio-temporal clusters of neural network activity associated with emotion recognition and contextual threat/safety in early to mid-latency time intervals in the left parietal cortex, bilateral prefrontal cortex, and the left temporal pole regions. Early parietal activity revealed a double dissociation of face-context information as a function of the expressive level of facial emotions: When facial expressions were difficult to recognize (low-expressive), contextual threat enhanced fear processing and contextual safety enhanced processing of subtle happy faces. However, for rather easily recognizable faces (medium-expressive) the left hemisphere (parietal cortex, PFC, and temporal pole) showed enhanced activity to happy faces during contextual threat and fearful faces during safety. Thus, contextual settings reduce the salience threshold and boost early face processing of low-expressive congruent facial emotions, whereas face-context incongruity or mismatch effects drive neural activity of easier recognizable facial emotions. These results elucidate how environmental settings help recognize facial emotions, and the brain mechanisms underlying the recognition of subtle nuances of fear.
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Affiliation(s)
- Florian Bublatzky
- Department of Psychosomatic Medicine and Psychotherapy, Central Institute of Mental Health Mannheim, Medical Faculty Mannheim/Heidelberg University, Germany.
| | - Fatih Kavcıoğlu
- Chair of Biological Psychology, Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, University of Würzburg, Germany
| | - Pedro Guerra
- Department of Personality, University of Granada, Spain
| | - Sarah Doll
- Institute for Biomagnetism and Biosignalanalysis, University Hospital Münster, Münster, Germany
| | - Markus Junghöfer
- Institute for Biomagnetism and Biosignalanalysis, University Hospital Münster, Münster, Germany; Otto Creutzfeldt Center for Cognitive and Behavioral Neuroscience, University of Münster, Germany
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17
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Costly avoidance triggered by categorical fear generalization. Behav Res Ther 2020; 129:103606. [PMID: 32224325 DOI: 10.1016/j.brat.2020.103606] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2019] [Revised: 02/18/2020] [Accepted: 03/13/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Fear generalization refers to the spread of acquired fear to novel stimuli that resemble the original fear-related stimulus. Preliminary evidence suggests that excessive fear generalization is a pathogenic feature of anxiety disorders, however, it remains unclear how fear generalization affects pathological avoidance. The current study thus aimed to examine the link between categorical fear generalization and costly avoidance. By combining a fear acquisition training phase and an avoidance test, the current findings showed that acquired fear spreads to novel stimuli that belonged to the same category of the original fear-related stimuli, but not to those that belonged to the fear-irrelevant categories. Importantly, participants avoided these fear-related novel stimuli despite costs. The current findings indicate that categorical fear generalization triggers costly avoidance. In terms of clinical implication, a decrease in costly avoidance aligned with a decrease in US expectancies. This emphasizes that behavioral approach may initiate extinction learning.
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18
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Gandarela L, Boldrin LS, Debert P. Transfer of the Avoidance Function in Equivalence Classes Using Loss of Points as the Aversive Stimulus. PSYCHOLOGICAL RECORD 2020. [DOI: 10.1007/s40732-019-00365-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
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Glogan E, Gatzounis R, Meulders M, Meulders A. Generalization of instrumentally acquired pain-related avoidance to novel but similar movements using a robotic arm-reaching paradigm. Behav Res Ther 2020; 124:103525. [DOI: 10.1016/j.brat.2019.103525] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2019] [Revised: 10/01/2019] [Accepted: 11/19/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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Smith BM, Smith GS, Dymond S. Relapse of anxiety-related fear and avoidance: Conceptual analysis of treatment with acceptance and commitment therapy. J Exp Anal Behav 2019; 113:87-104. [PMID: 31875982 DOI: 10.1002/jeab.573] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2019] [Revised: 12/02/2019] [Accepted: 12/03/2019] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Excessive fear and avoidance in relatively safe situations can lead to a narrowing of one's behavioral repertoire and less engagement with valued aspects of living. Ultimately, these processes can reach clinical levels, as seen in anxiety, trauma, and obsessive-compulsive disorders. Research on the basic behavioral processes underlying successful treatment with exposure therapy is growing, yet little is known about the mechanisms contributing to clinical relapse. Until recently, these mechanisms have largely been conceptualized in terms of Pavlovian return of fear, with relatively little research into operant processes. In the current paper, we briefly review translational research in anxiety disorders and the connections between fear and avoidance, focusing on recent work in the acquisition, extinction, and relapse of avoidance behavior and the generalization of this learning through arbitrary symbolic relations. We then introduce one possible treatment approach to mitigating clinical relapse, acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT), and provide a conceptual analysis for why ACT may be especially well-situated to address this issue. Finally, we end with potential directions for future research on treatment and relapse of anxiety disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Gregory S Smith
- Applied Behavior Analysis Department, The Chicago School of Professional Psychology
| | - Simon Dymond
- Department of Psychology, Swansea University.,Department of Psychology, Reykjavík University
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Donati MR, Masuda A, Schaefer LW, Cohen LL, Tone EB, Parrott DJ. Laboratory analogue investigation of defusion and reappraisal strategies in the context of symbolically generalized avoidance. J Exp Anal Behav 2019; 112:225-241. [DOI: 10.1002/jeab.550] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2018] [Revised: 08/07/2019] [Accepted: 09/14/2019] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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Reichenberger J, Pfaller M, Forster D, Gerczuk J, Shiban Y, Mühlberger A. Men Scare Me More: Gender Differences in Social Fear Conditioning in Virtual Reality. Front Psychol 2019; 10:1617. [PMID: 31417443 PMCID: PMC6657456 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01617] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2019] [Accepted: 06/26/2019] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Women nearly twice as often develop social anxiety disorder (SAD) compared to men. The reason for this difference is still being debated. The present study investigates gender differences and the effect of male versus female agents in low (LSA) and high socially anxious (HSA) participants regarding the acquisition and extinction of social fear in virtual reality (VR). In a social fear conditioning (SFC) paradigm, 60 participants actively approached several agents, some of which were paired with an aversive unconditioned stimulus (US) consisting of a verbal rejection and spitting simulated by an aversive air blast (CS+), or without an US (CS-). Primary outcome variables were defined for each of the 4 levels of emotional reactions including experience (fear ratings), psychophysiology (fear-potentiated startle), behavior (avoidance), and cognition (recognition task). Secondary outcome variables were personality traits, contingency ratings, heart rate (HR), and skin conductance response (SCR). As hypothesized, fear ratings for CS+ increased significantly during acquisition and the differentiation between CS+ and CS- vanished during extinction. Additionally, women reported higher fear compared to men. Furthermore, a clear difference in the fear-potentiated startle response between male CS+ and CS- at the end of acquisition indicates successful SFC to male agents in both groups. Concerning behavior, results exhibited successful SFC in both groups and a general larger distance to agents in HSA than LSA participants. Furthermore, HSA women maintained a larger distance to male compared to female agents. No such differences were found for HSA men. Regarding recognition, participants responded with higher sensitivity to agent than object stimuli, suggesting a higher ability to distinguish the target from the distractor for social cues, which were on focus during SFC. Regarding the secondary physiological outcome variables, we detected an activation in HR response during acquisition, but there were no differences between stimuli or groups. Moreover, we observed a gender but no CS+/CS- differences in SCR. SFC was successfully induced and extinguished according to the primary outcome variables. VR is an interesting tool to measure emotional learning processes on different outcome levels with enhanced ecological validity. Future research should further investigate social fear learning mechanisms for developing more efficient treatments of SAD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonas Reichenberger
- Department of Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, Institute of Psychology, University of Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany
| | - Michael Pfaller
- Department of Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, Institute of Psychology, University of Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany
| | - Diana Forster
- Department of Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, Institute of Psychology, University of Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany
| | - Jennifer Gerczuk
- Department of Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, Institute of Psychology, University of Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany
| | - Youssef Shiban
- Department of Clinical Psychology, Institute of Psychology, Private University of Applied Science Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Andreas Mühlberger
- Department of Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, Institute of Psychology, University of Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany
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Kleider-Offutt HM. Afraid of one afraid of all: When threat associations spread across face-types. The Journal of General Psychology 2019; 146:93-110. [PMID: 30663512 DOI: 10.1080/00221309.2018.1540397] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Fear can be acquired for objects not inherently associated with threat (e.g. birds), and this threat may generalize from prototypical to peripheral category members (e.g. crows vs. penguins). When categorizing people, pervasive stereotypes link Black men to assumed violence and criminality. Faces with Afrocentric features (prototypical) are more often associated with threat and criminality than non-Afrocentric (peripheral) faces regardless of whether the individual is Black or White. In this study, using a priming paradigm, threat associations related to negative racial stereotypes were tested as a vehicle for spreading fear across face-type categories. Results showed more negative than positive judgments for White face targets but only when the prime was primarily non-Afrocentric (i.e. Eurocentric). Black face targets were judged more negatively than positively regardless of prime. This suggests some cognitive processes related to threat generalizations of objects extend to complex social categories.
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Lei Y, Wang J, Dou H, Qiu Y, Li H. Influence of typicality in category-based fear generalization: Diverging evidence from the P2 and N400 effect. Int J Psychophysiol 2019; 135:12-20. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2018.11.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2018] [Revised: 11/05/2018] [Accepted: 11/12/2018] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
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25
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van Vliet CM, Meulders A, Vancleef LM, Vlaeyen JW. The Opportunity to Avoid Pain May Paradoxically Increase Fear. THE JOURNAL OF PAIN 2018; 19:1222-1230. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jpain.2018.05.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2017] [Revised: 04/30/2018] [Accepted: 05/04/2018] [Indexed: 10/16/2022]
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26
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Mertens G, Boddez Y, Sevenster D, Engelhard IM, De Houwer J. A review on the effects of verbal instructions in human fear conditioning: Empirical findings, theoretical considerations, and future directions. Biol Psychol 2018; 137:49-64. [DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsycho.2018.07.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2017] [Revised: 07/05/2018] [Accepted: 07/06/2018] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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Dymond S, Bennett M, Boyle S, Roche B, Schlund M. Related to Anxiety: Arbitrarily Applicable Relational Responding and Experimental Psychopathology Research on Fear and Avoidance. Perspect Behav Sci 2018; 41:189-213. [PMID: 32004365 PMCID: PMC6701705 DOI: 10.1007/s40614-017-0133-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Humans have an unparalleled ability to engage in arbitrarily applicable relational responding (AARR). One of the consequences of this ability to spontaneously combine and relate events from the past, present, and future may, in fact, be a propensity to suffer. For instance, maladaptive fear and avoidance of remote or derived threats may actually perpetuate anxiety. In this narrative review, we consider contemporary AARR research on fear and avoidance as it relates to anxiety. We first describe laboratory-based research on the emergent spread of fear- and avoidance-eliciting functions in humans. Next, we consider the validity of AARR research on fear and avoidance and address the therapeutic implications of the work. Finally, we outline challenges and opportunities for a greater synthesis between behavior analysis research on AARR and experimental psychopathology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simon Dymond
- Experimental Psychopathology Lab, Department of Psychology, Swansea University, Singleton Campus, Swansea, SA2 8PP UK
- Department of Psychology, Reykjavík University, Menntavegur 1, Nauthólsvík, 101 Reykjavík, Iceland
| | - Marc Bennett
- Trinity College Institute of Neuroscience, Trinity College Dublin, Lloyd Building, Dublin 2, Ireland
| | - Sean Boyle
- Department of Psychology, Maynooth University, Maynooth, Co. Kildare Ireland
| | - Bryan Roche
- Department of Psychology, Maynooth University, Maynooth, Co. Kildare Ireland
| | - Michael Schlund
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh, Loeffler Building, Room 316, 121 Meyran Avenue, Pittsburgh, PA 15213 USA
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28
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Cognitive Defusion in Acceptance and Commitment Therapy: What Are the Basic Processes of Change? PSYCHOLOGICAL RECORD 2018. [DOI: 10.1007/s40732-017-0254-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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29
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Lindström B, Haaker J, Olsson A. A common neural network differentially mediates direct and social fear learning. Neuroimage 2017; 167:121-129. [PMID: 29170069 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2017.11.039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2017] [Revised: 10/27/2017] [Accepted: 11/18/2017] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Across species, fears often spread between individuals through social learning. Yet, little is known about the neural and computational mechanisms underlying social learning. Addressing this question, we compared social and direct (Pavlovian) fear learning showing that they showed indistinguishable behavioral effects, and involved the same cross-modal (self/other) aversive learning network, centered on the amygdala, the anterior insula (AI), and the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC). Crucially, the information flow within this network differed between social and direct fear learning. Dynamic causal modeling combined with reinforcement learning modeling revealed that the amygdala and AI provided input to this network during direct and social learning, respectively. Furthermore, the AI gated learning signals based on surprise (associability), which were conveyed to the ACC, in both learning modalities. Our findings provide insights into the mechanisms underlying social fear learning, with implications for understanding common psychological dysfunctions, such as phobias and other anxiety disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Björn Lindström
- Section for Psychology, Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Sweden; Laboratory for Social and Neural Systems Research, Department of Economics, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland.
| | - Jan Haaker
- Section for Psychology, Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Sweden; Department of Systems Neuroscience, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Germany
| | - Andreas Olsson
- Section for Psychology, Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Sweden
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Lommen MJJ, Duta M, Vanbrabant K, de Jong R, Juechems K, Ehlers A. Training discrimination diminishes maladaptive avoidance of innocuous stimuli in a fear conditioning paradigm. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0184485. [PMID: 29023466 PMCID: PMC5638232 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0184485] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2017] [Accepted: 08/24/2017] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Anxiety disorders are the most common mental disorder worldwide. Although anxiety disorders differ in the nature of feared objects or situations, they share a common mechanism by which fear generalizes to related but innocuous objects, eliciting avoidance of objects and situations that pose no objective risk. This overgeneralization appears to be a crucial mechanism in the persistence of anxiety psychopathology. In this study we test whether an intervention that promotes discrimination learning reduces generalization of fear, in particular, harm expectancy and avoidance compared to an irrelevant (control) training. Healthy participants (N = 80) were randomly allocated to a training condition. Using a fear conditioning paradigm, participants first learned visual danger and safety signals (set 1). Baseline level of stimulus generalization was tested with ambiguous stimuli on a spectrum between the danger and safety signals. There were no differences between the training groups. Participants then received the stimulus discrimination training or a control training. After training, participants learned a new set of danger and safety signals (set 2), and the level of harm expectancy generalization and behavioural avoidance of ambiguous stimuli was tested. Although the training groups did not differ in fear generalization on a cognitive level (harm expectancy), the results showed a different pattern of avoidance of ambiguous stimuli, with the discrimination training group showing less avoidance of stimuli that resembled the safety signals. These results support the potential of interventions that promote discrimination learning in the treatment of anxiety disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miriam J. J. Lommen
- Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
- Oxford Cognitive Health NIHR Clinical Research Facility, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Mihaela Duta
- Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Koen Vanbrabant
- Center for the Psychology of Learning and Experimental Psychopathology, University of Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Rachel de Jong
- Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
- Oxford Cognitive Health NIHR Clinical Research Facility, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Keno Juechems
- Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Anke Ehlers
- Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
- Oxford Cognitive Health NIHR Clinical Research Facility, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
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31
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Bublatzky F, Alpers GW, Pittig A. From avoidance to approach: The influence of threat-of-shock on reward-based decision making. Behav Res Ther 2017; 96:47-56. [DOI: 10.1016/j.brat.2017.01.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2016] [Revised: 01/02/2017] [Accepted: 01/06/2017] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
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32
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Xia W, Dymond S, Lloyd K, Vervliet B. Partial reinforcement of avoidance and resistance to extinction in humans. Behav Res Ther 2017; 96:79-89. [DOI: 10.1016/j.brat.2017.04.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2016] [Revised: 04/05/2017] [Accepted: 04/07/2017] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
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33
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Critchfield TS, Reed DD. The Fuzzy Concept of Applied Behavior Analysis Research. THE BEHAVIOR ANALYST 2017; 40:123-159. [PMID: 31976938 PMCID: PMC6701210 DOI: 10.1007/s40614-017-0093-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
A seven-dimension framework, introduced by Baer, Wolf, and Risley in an iconic 1968 article, has become the de facto gold standard for identifying "good" work in applied behavior analysis. We examine the framework's historical context and show how its overarching attention to social relevance first arose and then subsequently fueled the growth of applied behavior analysis. Ironically, however, in contemporary use, the framework serves as a bottleneck that prevents many socially important problems from receiving adequate attention in applied behavior analysis research. The core problem lies in viewing the framework as a conjoint set in which "good" research must reflect all seven dimensions at equally high levels of integrity. We advocate a bigger-tent version of applied behavior analysis research in which, to use Baer and colleagues' own words, "The label applied is determined not by the procedures used but by the interest society shows in the problem being studied." Because the Baer-Wolf-Risley article expressly endorses the conjoint-set perspective and devalues work that falls outside the seven-dimension framework, pitching the big tent may require moving beyond that article as a primary frame of reference for defining what ABA should be.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Derek D. Reed
- Department of Applied Behavioral Science, University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS 66045 USA
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34
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Tyndall I, Papworth R, Roche B, Bennett M. Differential Effects of Word-Repetition Rate on Cognitive Defusion of Believability and Discomfort of Negative Self-Referential Thoughts Postintervention and at One-Month Follow-Up. PSYCHOLOGICAL RECORD 2017. [DOI: 10.1007/s40732-017-0227-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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35
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Raymond JG, Steele JD, Seriès P. Modeling Trait Anxiety: From Computational Processes to Personality. Front Psychiatry 2017; 8:1. [PMID: 28167920 PMCID: PMC5253387 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2017.00001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2016] [Accepted: 01/03/2017] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Computational methods are increasingly being applied to the study of psychiatric disorders. Often, this involves fitting models to the behavior of individuals with subclinical character traits that are known vulnerability factors for the development of psychiatric conditions. Anxiety disorders can be examined with reference to the behavior of individuals high in "trait" anxiety, which is a known vulnerability factor for the development of anxiety and mood disorders. However, it is not clear how this self-report measure relates to neural and behavioral processes captured by computational models. This paper reviews emerging computational approaches to the study of trait anxiety, specifying how interacting processes susceptible to analysis using computational models could drive a tendency to experience frequent anxious states and promote vulnerability to the development of clinical disorders. Existing computational studies are described in the light of this perspective and appropriate targets for future studies are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- James G. Raymond
- Institute for Adaptive and Neural Computation, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - J. Douglas Steele
- School of Medicine (Neuroscience), Ninewells Hospital and Medical School, University of Dundee, Dundee, UK
| | - Peggy Seriès
- Institute for Adaptive and Neural Computation, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
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36
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Shiban Y, Diemer J, Müller J, Brütting-Schick J, Pauli P, Mühlberger A. Diaphragmatic breathing during virtual reality exposure therapy for aviophobia: functional coping strategy or avoidance behavior? a pilot study. BMC Psychiatry 2017; 17:29. [PMID: 28100203 PMCID: PMC5242013 DOI: 10.1186/s12888-016-1181-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2016] [Accepted: 12/30/2016] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Although there is solid evidence for the efficacy of in vivo and virtual reality (VR) exposure therapy for a specific phobia, there is a significant debate over whether techniques promoting distraction or relaxation have impairing or enhancing effects on treatment outcome. In the present pilot study, we investigated the effect of diaphragmatic breathing (DB) as a relaxation technique during VR exposure treatment. METHOD Twenty-nine patients with aviophobia were randomly assigned to VR exposure treatment either with or without diaphragmatic breathing (six cycles per minute). Subjective fear ratings, heart rate and skin conductance were assessed as indicators of fear during both the exposure and the test session one week later. RESULTS The group that experienced VR exposure combined with diaphragmatic breathing showed a higher tendency to effectively overcome the fear of flying. Psychophysiological measures of fear decreased and self-efficacy increased in both groups with no significant difference between the groups. CONCLUSIONS Our findings indicate that diaphragmatic breathing during VR exposure does not interfere with the treatment outcome and may even enhance treatment effects of VR exposure therapy for aviophobic patients. TRIAL REGISTRATION Retrospectively registered. ClinicalTrials.gov NCT02990208 . Registered 07 December 2016.
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Affiliation(s)
- Youssef Shiban
- Department of Psychology (Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy), University of Regensburg, Universitätsstraße 31, 93053 Regensburg, Germany
| | - Julia Diemer
- Department of Psychology (Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy), University of Regensburg, Universitätsstraße 31, 93053 Regensburg, Germany
| | - Jana Müller
- Department of Psychology (Biological Psychology, Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy), University of Würzburg, Marcusstraße 9-11, 97070 Würzburg, Germany
| | - Johanna Brütting-Schick
- Department of Psychology (Biological Psychology, Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy), University of Würzburg, Marcusstraße 9-11, 97070 Würzburg, Germany
| | - Paul Pauli
- Department of Psychology (Biological Psychology, Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy), University of Würzburg, Marcusstraße 9-11, 97070 Würzburg, Germany
| | - Andreas Mühlberger
- Department of Psychology (Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy), University of Regensburg, Universitätsstraße 31, 93053 Regensburg, Germany
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37
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A contextual behavioral approach to the study of (persecutory) delusions. JOURNAL OF CONTEXTUAL BEHAVIORAL SCIENCE 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jcbs.2016.09.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
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Cameron G, Roche B, Schlund MW, Dymond S. Learned, instructed and observed pathways to fear and avoidance. J Behav Ther Exp Psychiatry 2016; 50:106-12. [PMID: 26143446 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbtep.2015.06.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2014] [Revised: 04/17/2015] [Accepted: 06/16/2015] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES Conditioned fear may emerge in the absence of directly experienced conditioned stimulus (CS)--unconditioned stimulus (US) pairings. Here, we compared three pathways by which avoidance of the US may be acquired both directly (i.e., through trial-and-error instrumental learning) and indirectly (i.e., via verbal instructions and social observation). METHODS Following fear conditioning in which CS+ was paired with shock and CS- was unpaired, three separate groups of participants learned by direct experience (Instrumental-learning), were instructed about (Instructed-learning), or observed (Observational-learning) a demonstrator performing an avoidance response that canceled upcoming US (shock) presentations. Groups were then tested in extinction with presentations of the directly experienced CS+ and CS-, and either a novel CS (Instrumental and observational groups) or an instructed CS (instructed-group). RESULTS Similar to instrumental learning, results demonstrate that avoidance may be acquired via instructions and social observation in the absence of directly learning that an avoidance response prevents the US. Retrospective US expectancy ratings were modulated by the assumed presence or absence of avoidance. Overall, these findings suggest that instrumental-, instructed-, and observational-learning pathways to avoidance in humans are similar. LIMITATIONS Alternative experimental designs would permit direct comparison between the pathways for stimuli with no prior experience of fear conditioning, and trial-by-trial US expectancy ratings would help track the modulation of fear by avoidance pathway. CONCLUSIONS Instrumental-, instructed-, and observational-learning pathways of avoidance are similar. Findings may have implications for understanding the etiology of clinical avoidance in anxiety.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gemma Cameron
- Department of Psychology, Swansea University, Swansea, SA2 8PP, United Kingdom.
| | - Bryan Roche
- Department of Psychology, National University of Ireland, Maynooth, Co. Kildare, Ireland
| | - Michael W Schlund
- Department of Behavior Analysis, University of North Texas, Denton, TX, P.O. Box 310919, USA
| | - Simon Dymond
- Department of Psychology, Swansea University, Swansea, SA2 8PP, United Kingdom; Department of Psychology, Reykjavík University, Menntavegur 1, Nauthólsvík, 101 Reykjavík, Iceland
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40
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Fear Generalization in Humans: Systematic Review and Implications for Anxiety Disorder Research. Behav Ther 2015; 46:561-82. [PMID: 26459838 DOI: 10.1016/j.beth.2014.10.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 286] [Impact Index Per Article: 31.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2014] [Revised: 10/01/2014] [Accepted: 10/05/2014] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Fear generalization, in which conditioned fear responses generalize or spread to related stimuli, is a defining feature of anxiety disorders. The behavioral consequences of maladaptive fear generalization are that aversive experiences with one stimulus or event may lead one to regard other cues or situations as potential threats that should be avoided, despite variations in physical form. Theoretical and empirical interest in the generalization of conditioned learning dates to the earliest research on classical conditioning in nonhumans. Recently, there has been renewed focus on fear generalization in humans due in part to its explanatory power in characterizing disorders of fear and anxiety. Here, we review existing behavioral and neuroimaging empirical research on the perceptual and non-perceptual (conceptual and symbolic) generalization of fear and avoidance in healthy humans and patients with anxiety disorders. The clinical implications of this research for understanding the etiology and treatment of anxiety is considered and directions for future research described.
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Bennett M, Vervoort E, Boddez Y, Hermans D, Baeyens F. Perceptual and conceptual similarities facilitate the generalization of instructed fear. J Behav Ther Exp Psychiatry 2015; 48:149-55. [PMID: 25863485 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbtep.2015.03.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2014] [Revised: 03/15/2015] [Accepted: 03/23/2015] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES Learned fear can generalize to neutral events due their perceptual and conceptual similarity with threat relevant stimuli. This study simultaneously examined these forms of generalization to model the expansion of fear in anxiety disorders. METHODS First, artificial categories involving sounds, nonsense words and animal-like objects were established. Next, the words from one category were paired with threatening information while the words from the other category were paired with safety information. Lastly, we examined if fear generalized to (i) the conceptually related animal-like objects and (ii) other animal like-objects that were perceptually similar. This was measured using behavioral avoidance, US expectancy ratings and self-reported stimulus valence. RESULTS Animal-like objects conceptually connected to the aversive words evoked heightened fear. Perceptual variants of these animal-like objects also elicit fear. LIMITATIONS Future research would benefit from the use of online-US expectancy ratings and physiological measures of fear. CONCLUSIONS Investigating the role of both perceptual and conceptual fear generalization is important to better understand the etiology of anxiety disorders symptoms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marc Bennett
- Centre for Learning and Experimental Psychopathology, Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, University of Leuven, Tiensestraat 102 - Box 3712, 3000 Leuven, Belgium.
| | - Ellen Vervoort
- Centre for Learning and Experimental Psychopathology, Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, University of Leuven, Tiensestraat 102 - Box 3712, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Yannick Boddez
- Centre for Learning and Experimental Psychopathology, Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, University of Leuven, Tiensestraat 102 - Box 3712, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Dirk Hermans
- Centre for Learning and Experimental Psychopathology, Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, University of Leuven, Tiensestraat 102 - Box 3712, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Frank Baeyens
- Centre for Learning and Experimental Psychopathology, Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, University of Leuven, Tiensestraat 102 - Box 3712, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
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Krypotos AM, Effting M, Kindt M, Beckers T. Avoidance learning: a review of theoretical models and recent developments. Front Behav Neurosci 2015; 9:189. [PMID: 26257618 PMCID: PMC4508580 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2015.00189] [Citation(s) in RCA: 186] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2015] [Accepted: 07/06/2015] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Avoidance is a key characteristic of adaptive and maladaptive fear. Here, we review past and contemporary theories of avoidance learning. Based on the theories, experimental findings and clinical observations reviewed, we distill key principles of how adaptive and maladaptive avoidance behavior is acquired and maintained. We highlight clinical implications of avoidance learning theories and describe intervention strategies that could reduce maladaptive avoidance and prevent its return. We end with a brief overview of recent developments and avenues for further research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Angelos-Miltiadis Krypotos
- Department of Clinical Psychology, University of AmsterdamAmsterdam, Netherlands
- Amsterdam Brain and Cognition, University of AmsterdamAmsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Marieke Effting
- Department of Clinical Psychology, University of AmsterdamAmsterdam, Netherlands
- Amsterdam Brain and Cognition, University of AmsterdamAmsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Merel Kindt
- Department of Clinical Psychology, University of AmsterdamAmsterdam, Netherlands
- Amsterdam Brain and Cognition, University of AmsterdamAmsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Tom Beckers
- Department of Clinical Psychology, University of AmsterdamAmsterdam, Netherlands
- Amsterdam Brain and Cognition, University of AmsterdamAmsterdam, Netherlands
- Department of Psychology, KU LeuvenLeuven, Belgium
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Stewart I. The fruits of a functional approach for psychological science. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PSYCHOLOGY 2015; 51:15-27. [DOI: 10.1002/ijop.12184] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2014] [Revised: 04/27/2015] [Accepted: 05/11/2015] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Ian Stewart
- School of Psychology; National University of Ireland; Galway Ireland
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Cameron G, Schlund MW, Dymond S. Generalization of socially transmitted and instructed avoidance. Front Behav Neurosci 2015; 9:159. [PMID: 26150773 PMCID: PMC4471372 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2015.00159] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2015] [Accepted: 06/01/2015] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Excessive avoidance behavior, in which an instrumental action prevents an upcoming aversive event, is a defining feature of anxiety disorders. Left unchecked, both fear and avoidance of potentially threatening stimuli may generalize to perceptually related stimuli and situations. The behavioral consequences of generalization mean that aversive learning experiences with specific threats may lead to the inference that classes of related stimuli are threatening, potentially dangerous, and need to be avoided, despite differences in physical form. Little is known however about avoidance generalization in humans and the learning pathways by which it may be transmitted. In the present study, we compared two pathways to avoidance—instructions and social observation—on subsequent generalization of avoidance behavior, fear expectancy and physiological arousal. Participants first learned that one cue was a danger cue (conditioned stimulus, CS+) and another was a safety cue (CS−). Groups were then either instructed that a simple avoidance response in the presence of the CS+ cancelled upcoming shock (instructed-learning group) or observed a short movie showing a demonstrator performing the avoidance response to prevent shock (observational-learning group). During generalization testing, danger and safety cues were presented along with generalization stimuli that parametrically varied in perceptual similarity to the CS+. Reinstatement of fear and avoidance was also tested. Findings demonstrate, for the first time, generalization of socially transmitted and instructed avoidance: both groups showed comparable generalization gradients in fear expectancy, avoidance behavior and arousal. Return of fear was evident, suggesting that generalized avoidance remains persistent following extinction testing. The utility of the present paradigm for research on avoidance generalization is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gemma Cameron
- Experimental Psychopathology Laboratory, Department of Psychology, Swansea University Swansea, UK
| | - Michael W Schlund
- Department of Behavior Analysis, University of North Texas Denton, TX, USA
| | - Simon Dymond
- Experimental Psychopathology Laboratory, Department of Psychology, Swansea University Swansea, UK
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Schlund MW, Brewer AT, Richman DM, Magee SK, Dymond S. Not so bad: avoidance and aversive discounting modulate threat appraisal in anterior cingulate and medial prefrontal cortex. Front Behav Neurosci 2015; 9:142. [PMID: 26113813 PMCID: PMC4461832 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2015.00142] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2015] [Accepted: 05/15/2015] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
The dorsal anterior cingulate (adACC) and dorsal medial prefrontal cortex (dmPFC) play a central role in the discrimination and appraisal of threatening stimuli. Yet, little is known about what specific features of threatening situations recruit these regions and how avoidance may modulate appraisal and activation through prevention of aversive events. In this investigation, 30 healthy adults underwent functional neuroimaging while completing an avoidance task in which responses to an Avoidable CS+ threat prevented delivery of an aversive stimulus, but not to an Unavoidable CS+ threat. Extinction testing was also completed where CSs were presented without aversive stimulus delivery and an opportunity to avoid. The Avoidable CS+ relative to the Unavoidable CS+ was associated with reductions in ratings of negative valence, fear, and US expectancy and activation. Greater regional activation was consistently observed to the Unavoidable CS+ during avoidance, which declined during extinction. Individuals exhibiting greater aversive discounting—that is, those more avoidant of immediate monetary loss compared to a larger delayed loss—also displayed greater activation to the Unavoidable CS+, highlighting aversive discounting as a significant individual difference variable. These are the first results linking adACC/dmPFC reactivity to avoidance-based reductions of aversive events and modulation of activation by individual differences in aversive discounting.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael W Schlund
- Barrett Translational Behavioral and Neurobehavioral Laboratory, Department of Behavior Analysis, University of North Texas Denton, TX, USA
| | - Adam T Brewer
- Department of Psychology and Liberal Arts, Florida Institute of Technology Melbourne, FL, USA
| | - David M Richman
- Department of Educational Psychology and Leadership, Texas Tech University Lubbock, TX, USA
| | - Sandy K Magee
- Barrett Translational Behavioral and Neurobehavioral Laboratory, Department of Behavior Analysis, University of North Texas Denton, TX, USA
| | - Simon Dymond
- Experimental Psychopathology Laboratory, Department of Psychology, Swansea University Swansea, UK
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Bennett MP, Meulders A, Baeyens F, Vlaeyen JWS. Words putting pain in motion: the generalization of pain-related fear within an artificial stimulus category. Front Psychol 2015; 6:520. [PMID: 25983704 PMCID: PMC4415322 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00520] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2014] [Accepted: 04/13/2015] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Patients with chronic pain are often fearful of movements that never featured in painful episodes. This study examined whether a neutral movement's conceptual relationship with pain-relevant stimuli could precipitate pain-related fear; a process known as symbolic generalization. As a secondary objective, we also compared experiential and verbal fear learning in the generalization of pain-related fear. We conducted an experimental study with 80 healthy participants who were recruited through an online experimental management system (M age = 23.04 years, SD = 6.80 years). First, two artificial categories were established wherein nonsense words and joystick arm movements were equivalent. Using a between-groups design, nonsense words from one category were paired with either an electrocutaneous stimulus (pain-US) or threatening information, while nonsense words from the other category were paired with no pain-US or safety information. During a final testing phase, participants were prompted to perform specific joystick arm movements that were never followed by a pain-US, although they were informed that it could occur. The results showed that movements equivalent to the pain-relevant nonsense words evoked heightened pain-related fear as measured by pain-US expectancy, fear of pain, and unpleasantness ratings. Also, experience with the pain-US evinced stronger acquisition and generalization compared to experience with threatening information. The clinical importance and theoretical implications of these findings are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marc P. Bennett
- Centre for Psychology of Learning and Experimental Psychopathology, Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, University of LeuvenLeuven, Belgium
- Center for Excellence on Generalization Research in Health and Psychopathology, Faculty of Psychology and Educational Science, University of LeuvenLeuven, Belgium
| | - Ann Meulders
- Center for Excellence on Generalization Research in Health and Psychopathology, Faculty of Psychology and Educational Science, University of LeuvenLeuven, Belgium
- Research Group on Health Psychology, Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, University of LeuvenLeuven, Belgium
| | - Frank Baeyens
- Centre for Psychology of Learning and Experimental Psychopathology, Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, University of LeuvenLeuven, Belgium
- Center for Excellence on Generalization Research in Health and Psychopathology, Faculty of Psychology and Educational Science, University of LeuvenLeuven, Belgium
| | - Johan W. S. Vlaeyen
- Center for Excellence on Generalization Research in Health and Psychopathology, Faculty of Psychology and Educational Science, University of LeuvenLeuven, Belgium
- Research Group on Health Psychology, Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, University of LeuvenLeuven, Belgium
- Department of Clinical Psychological Science, Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht UniversityMaastricht, Netherlands
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Viviani D, Haegler P, Jenck F, Steiner MA. Orexin neuropeptides contribute to the development and persistence of generalized avoidance behavior in the rat. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2015; 232:1383-93. [PMID: 25319964 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-014-3769-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2014] [Accepted: 10/07/2014] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE Avoidance of contexts directly associated with fearful experiences represents an adaptive behavioral survival strategy. Over-interpretation of contextual cues leading to generalized avoidance of situations that are only remotely similar to the original fear context represents a pathologic process that contributes to anxiety disorders. Orexin neuropeptides modulate anxiety-like behavioral and physiological responses. OBJECTIVE The objective of this paper was to investigate the impact of pharmacological orexin receptor blockade on generalized avoidance behavior. METHODS Rats received a single electric foot-shock in the dark side of a two-compartment shuttle box followed by situational context reminders. After shock, rats were treated chronically (3 weeks) with the orexin receptor antagonist almorexant or with the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor sertraline, used as positive anxiolytic control. In week 3, avoidance behavior was measured under conditions of high (dark-light (DL)-box) and low (elevated plus maze (EPM)) similarity to the original shock context. Avoidance behavior was re-assessed 5 and 17 weeks after treatment termination. RESULTS Avoidance in the DL box (contextual fear memory) remained unaffected by any treatment and lasted 20 weeks post-shock exposure. Avoidance in the EPM (neophobic fear generalization) was partially attenuated during treatment with almorexant and sertraline at week 3. Following 5 and 17 weeks of drug washout, avoidance in the EPM was significantly reduced in almorexant- but not in sertraline-treated rats. Almorexant also reduced persistent avoidance in the EPM upon treatment initiation 3 weeks after shock exposure. CONCLUSION Chronic orexin receptor blockade in rats reduces both the development and persistence of generalized avoidance in situations with low similarity to the initial shock context.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniele Viviani
- Department of CNS-Pharmacology, Actelion Pharmaceuticals Ltd, Gewerbestrasse 16, 4123, Allschwil, Switzerland
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Guinther PM, Dougher MJ. The clinical relevance of stimulus equivalence and relational frame theory in influencing the behavior of verbally competent adults. Curr Opin Psychol 2015. [DOI: 10.1016/j.copsyc.2015.01.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
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Hazrati MK, Miskovic V, Príncipe JC, Keil A. Functional Connectivity in Frequency-Tagged Cortical Networks During Active Harm Avoidance. Brain Connect 2015; 5:292-302. [PMID: 25557925 DOI: 10.1089/brain.2014.0307] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Many behavioral and cognitive processes are grounded in widespread and dynamic communication between brain regions. Thus, the quantification of functional connectivity with high temporal resolution is highly desirable for capturing in vivo brain function. However, many of the commonly used measures of functional connectivity capture only linear signal dependence and are based entirely on relatively simple quantitative measures such as mean and variance. In this study, the authors used a recently developed algorithm, the generalized measure of association (GMA), to quantify dynamic changes in cortical connectivity using steady-state visual evoked potentials (ssVEPs) measured in the context of a conditioned behavioral avoidance task. GMA uses a nonparametric estimator of statistical dependence based on ranks that are efficient and capable of providing temporal precision roughly corresponding to the timing of cognitive acts (∼ 100-200 msec). Participants viewed simple gratings predicting the presence/absence of an aversive loud noise, co-occurring with peripheral cues indicating whether the loud noise could be avoided by means of a key press (active) or not (passive). For active compared with passive trials, heightened connectivity between visual and central areas was observed in time segments preceding and surrounding the avoidance cue. Viewing of the threat stimuli also led to greater initial connectivity between occipital and central regions, followed by heightened local coupling among visual regions surrounding the motor response. Local neural coupling within extended visual regions was sustained throughout major parts of the viewing epoch. These findings are discussed in a framework of flexible synchronization between cortical networks as a function of experience and active sensorimotor coupling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mehrnaz Khodam Hazrati
- 1 Computational NeuroEngineering Laboratory, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Florida , Gainesville, Florida
| | - Vladimir Miskovic
- 2 Department of Psychology, State University of New York at Binghamton , Binghamton, New York
| | - José C Príncipe
- 1 Computational NeuroEngineering Laboratory, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Florida , Gainesville, Florida
| | - Andreas Keil
- 3 Center for the Study of Emotion and Attention, University of Florida , Gainesville, Florida.,4 Department of Psychology, University of Florida , Gainesville, Florida
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