Relevance of TNBS-colitis in rats: a methodological study with endoscopic, histologic and Transcriptomic [corrected] characterization and correlation to IBD

[Identification of potential pathogenic genes of intestinal metaplasia based on transcriptomic sequencing and bioinformatics analysis]

OBJECTIVE

To explore the potential pathogenic genes of intestinal metaplasia.

METHODS

Twenty-one patients with intestinal metaplasia admitted to the Department of Gastroenterology at the Second Affiliated Hospital of Anhui University of Chinese Medicine from January, 2022 to June, 2022, and 21 healthy subjects undergoing gastroscopic examination during the same period were enrolled in this study. All the participants underwent gastroscopy and pathological examination, and gastric tissue samples were collected for transcriptome sequencing to screen for differentially expressed genes (DEGs). The biological functions of the DEGs were analyzed using bioinformatics analysis, and qRT-PCR was used to validate the results.

RESULTS

Transcriptomic sequencing identified a total of 1373 DEGs, including 827 upregulated and 546 downregulated ones. The top 6 upregulated genes (AGMAT, CCL25, FABP1, CDX1, SPINK4, and MUC2), ranked based on their significance and average expression level, were selected for validation, and qRT-PCR showed significant upregulation of their mRNAs in the gastric tissues of patients with intestinal metaplasia (P < 0.05).

CONCLUSION

AGMAT, CCL25, FABP1, CDX1, SPINK4, and MUC2 participate in the occurrence and development of intestinal metaplasia, and may serve as potential biomarkers for diagnosing intestinal metaplasia.

Chitin-glucan improves important pathophysiological features of irritable bowel syndrome

BACKGROUND

Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) is one of the most frequent and debilitating conditions leading to gastroenterological referrals. However, recommended treatments remain limited, yielding only limited therapeutic gains. Chitin-glucan (CG) is a novel dietary prebiotic classically used in humans at a dosage of 1.5-3.0 g/d and is considered a safe food ingredient by the European Food Safety Authority. To provide an alternative approach to managing patients with IBS, we performed preclinical molecular, cellular, and animal studies to evaluate the role of chitin-glucan in the main pathophysiological mechanisms involved in IBS.

AIM

To evaluate the roles of CG in visceral analgesia, intestinal inflammation, barrier function, and to develop computational molecular models.

METHODS

Visceral pain was recorded through colorectal distension (CRD) in a model of long-lasting colon hypersensitivity induced by an intra-rectal administration of TNBS [15 milligrams (mg)/kilogram (kg)] in 33 Sprague-Dawley rats. Intracolonic pressure was regularly assessed during the 9 wk-experiment (weeks 0, 3, 5, and 7) in animals receiving CG (n = 14) at a human equivalent dose (HED) of 1.5 g/d or 3.0 g/d and compared to negative control (tap water, n = 11) and positive control (phloroglucinol at 1.5 g/d HED, n = 8) groups. The anti-inflammatory effect of CG was evaluated using clinical and histological scores in 30 C57bl6 male mice with colitis induced by dextran sodium sulfate (DSS) administered in their drinking water during 14 d. HT-29 cells under basal conditions and after stimulation with lipopolysaccharide (LPS) were treated with CG to evaluate changes in pathways related to analgesia (µ-opioid receptor (MOR), cannabinoid receptor 2 (CB2), peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha, inflammation [interleukin (IL)-10, IL-1b, and IL-8] and barrier function [mucin 2-5AC, claudin-2, zonula occludens (ZO)-1, ZO-2] using the real-time PCR method. Molecular modelling of CG, LPS, lipoteichoic acid (LTA), and phospholipomannan (PLM) was developed, and the ability of CG to chelate microbial pathogenic lipids was evaluated by docking and molecular dynamics simulations. Data were expressed as the mean ± SEM.

RESULTS

Daily CG orally-administered to rats or mice was well tolerated without including diarrhea, visceral hypersensitivity, or inflammation, as evaluated at histological and molecular levels. In a model of CRD, CG at a dosage of 3 g/d HED significantly decreased visceral pain perception by 14% after 2 wk of administration (P < 0.01) and reduced inflammation intensity by 50%, resulting in complete regeneration of the colonic mucosa in mice with DSS-induced colitis. To better reproduce the characteristics of visceral pain in patients with IBS, we then measured the therapeutic impact of CG in rats with TNBS-induced inflammation to long-lasting visceral hypersensitivity. CG at a dosage of 1.5 g/d HED decreased visceral pain perception by 20% five weeks after colitis induction (P < 0.01). When the CG dosage was increased to 3.0 g/d HED, this analgesic effect surpassed that of the spasmolytic agent phloroglucinol, manifesting more rapidly within 3 wk and leading to a 50% inhibition of pain perception (P < 0.0001). The underlying molecular mechanisms contributing to these analgesic and anti-inflammatory effects of CG involved, at least in part, a significant induction of MOR, CB2 receptor, and IL-10, as well as a significant decrease in pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-1b and IL-8. CG also significantly upregulated barrier-related genes including muc5AC, claudin-2, and ZO-2. Molecular modelling of CG revealed a new property of the molecule as a chelator of microbial pathogenic lipids, sequestering gram-negative LPS and gram-positive LTA bacterial toxins, as well as PLM in fungi at the lowesr energy conformations.

CONCLUSION

CG decreased visceral perception and intestinal inflammation through master gene regulation and direct binding of microbial products, suggesting that CG may constitute a new therapeutic strategy for patients with IBS or IBS-like symptoms.

Protective effect of sucrose esters from cape gooseberry (Physalis peruviana L.) in TNBS-induced colitis

Phytotherapy is an attractive strategy to treat inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) that could be especially useful in developing countries. We previously demonstrated the intestinal anti-inflammatory effect of the total ethereal extract from the Physalis peruviana (Cape gooseberry) calyces in TNBS-induced colitis. This work investigates the therapeutic potential of Peruviose A and B, two sucrose esters that constitute the major metabolites of its calyces. The effect of the Peruvioses A and B mixture on TNBS-induced colitis was studied after 3 (preventive) and 15-days (therapy set-up) of colitis induction in rats. Colonic inflammation was assessed by measuring macroscopic/histologic damage, MPO activity, and biochemical changes. Additionally, LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 macrophages were treated with test compounds to determine the effect on cytokine imbalance in these cells. Peruvioses mixture ameliorated TNBS-induced colitis in acute (preventive) or established (therapeutic) settings. Although 3-day treatment with compounds did not produce a potent effect, it was sufficient to significantly reduce the extent/severity of tissue damage and the microscopic disturbances. Beneficial effects in the therapy set-up were substantially higher and involved the inhibition of pro-inflammatory enzymes (iNOS, COX-2), cytokines (TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6), as well as epithelial regeneration with restoration of goblet cells numbers and expression of MUC-2 and TFF-3. Consistently, LPS-induced RAW 264.7 cells produced less NO, PGE2, TNF-α, IL-6, and MCP-1. These effects might be related to the inhibition of the NF-κB signaling pathway. Our results suggest that sucrose esters from P. peruviana calyces, non-edible waste from fruit production, might be useful as an alternative IBD treatment.

Anti-oxidant and anti-inflammatory potential of different polymer-based mesalamine delayed-release granules in TNBS-induced ulcerative colitis in wistar rats

Ulcerative colitis (UC) is an inflammatory condition of colon characterized by severe damage to the innermost colon tissues. A number of studies described the use of medication delivery systems based on natural polymers like polysaccharides for the purpose of reaching the colon. In this research, polymer-based mesalamine delayed-release granules (DRGs) were tested for their antioxidant and anti-inflammatory efficacy against UC. Chitosan (C), pectin (P), and pectin-chitosan (PC) mesalamine (M) DRGs were prepared and characterized. Data revealed satisfactory compatibility, flow, packing properties, drug release pattern, and delayed drug release by DRGs. Wistar rats were treated with 2,4,6-trinitrobenzenesulfonic acid (TNBS) (100 mg/kg) via rectal administration. Mesalamine and mesalamine DRGs (50 mg/kg) were administered orally separately for 14 days. Biomarkers of oxidative stress, inflammation, hematological tests, colon profile, and histopathology were performed. The findings demonstrated the good efficacy of the polysaccharides in delivering mesalamine to colon. Mesalamine and mesalamine DRGs based on various polymers showed significant antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects in rats with UC. Mesalamine granules significantly attenuated colon lipid peroxidation, nitrites, myeloperoxidase activity, and interleukin-1β levels, and improved anti-oxidants (GSH, SOD). Data showed upregulation of Nrf2 activity by mesalamine granules with CM-DRGs showing maximum effect. Mesalamine and different polymer-based mesalamine DRGs significantly attenuated TNBS-induced decline in body weight, ulcer severity, and colon damage. CM-DRGs showed the most pronounced ameliorative effect on colon and hematology parameters via anti-oxidant and anti-inflammatory activities. Chitosan can be used as a carrier for oral colon delivery of mesalamine in DRG formulation for enhanced therapeutic efficacy in UC.

Study of the roles of caspase-3 and nuclear factor kappa B in myenteric neurons in a P2X7 receptor knockout mouse model of ulcerative colitis

BACKGROUND

The literature indicates that the enteric nervous system is affected in inflammatory bowel diseases (IBDs) and that the P2X7 receptor triggers neuronal death. However, the mechanism by which enteric neurons are lost in IBDs is unknown.

AIM

To study the role of the caspase-3 and nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) pathways in myenteric neurons in a P2X7 receptor knockout (KO) mouse model of IBDs.

METHODS

Forty male wild-type (WT) C57BL/6 and P2X7 receptor KO mice were euthanized 24 h or 4 d after colitis induction by 2,4,6-trinitrobenzene sulfonic acid (colitis group). Mice in the sham groups were injected with vehicle. The mice were divided into eight groups (n = 5): The WT sham 24 h and 4 d groups, the WT colitis 24 h and 4 d groups, the KO sham 24 h and 4 d groups, and the KO colitis 24 h and 4 d groups. The disease activity index (DAI) was analyzed, the distal colon was collected for immunohistochemistry analyses, and immunofluorescence was performed to identify neurons immunoreactive (ir) for calretinin, P2X7 receptor, cleaved caspase-3, total caspase-3, phospho-NF-κB, and total NF-κB. We analyzed the number of calretinin-ir and P2X7 receptor-ir neurons per ganglion, the neuronal profile area (µm²), and corrected total cell fluorescence (CTCF).

RESULTS

Cells double labeled for calretinin and P2X7 receptor, cleaved caspase-3, total caspase-3, phospho-NF-κB, or total NF-κB were observed in the WT colitis 24 h and 4 d groups. The number of calretinin-ir neurons per ganglion was decreased in the WT colitis 24 h and 4 d groups compared to the WT sham 24 h and 4 d groups, respectively (2.10 ± 0.13 vs 3.33 ± 0.17, P < 0.001; 2.92 ± 0.12 vs 3.70 ± 0.11, P < 0.05), but was not significantly different between the KO groups. The calretinin-ir neuronal profile area was increased in the WT colitis 24 h group compared to the WT sham 24 h group (312.60 ± 7.85 vs 278.41 ± 6.65, P < 0.05), and the nuclear profile area was decreased in the WT colitis 4 d group compared to the WT sham 4 d group (104.63 ± 2.49 vs 117.41 ± 1.14, P < 0.01). The number of P2X7 receptor-ir neurons per ganglion was decreased in the WT colitis 24 h and 4 d groups compared to the WT sham 24 h and 4 d groups, respectively (19.49 ± 0.35 vs 22.21 ± 0.18, P < 0.001; 20.35 ± 0.14 vs 22.75 ± 0.51, P < 0.001), and no P2X7 receptor-ir neurons were observed in the KO groups. Myenteric neurons showed ultrastructural changes in the WT colitis 24 h and 4 d groups and in the KO colitis 24 h group. The cleaved caspase-3 CTCF was increased in the WT colitis 24 h and 4 d groups compared to the WT sham 24 h and 4 d groups, respectively (485949 ± 14140 vs 371371 ± 16426, P < 0.001; 480381 ± 11336 vs 378365 ± 4053, P < 0.001), but was not significantly different between the KO groups. The total caspase-3 CTCF, phospho-NF-κB CTCF, and total NF-κB CTCF were not significantly different among the groups. The DAI was recovered in the KO groups. Furthermore, we demonstrated that the absence of the P2X7 receptor attenuated inflammatory infiltration, tissue damage, collagen deposition, and the decrease in the number of goblet cells in the distal colon.

CONCLUSION

Ulcerative colitis affects myenteric neurons in WT mice but has a weaker effect in P2X7 receptor KO mice, and neuronal death may be associated with P2X7 receptor-mediated caspase-3 activation. The P2X7 receptor can be a therapeutic target for IBDs.

Study of tumor necrosis factor receptor in the inflammatory bowel disease

Ulcerative colitis (UC) and Crohn’s disease (CD) are part of Inflammatory Bowel Diseases (IBD) and have pathophysiological processes such as bowel necrosis and enteric neurons and enteric glial cells. In addition, the main inflammatory mediator is related to the tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α). TNF-α is a me-diator of the intestinal inflammatory processes, thus being one of the main cytokines involved in the pathogenesis of IBD, however, its levels, when measured, are present in the serum of patients with IBD. In addition, TNF-α plays an important role in promoting inflammation, such as the production of interleukins (IL), for instance IL-1β and IL-6. There are two receptors for TNF as following: The tumor necrosis factor 1 receptor (TNFR1); and the tumor necrosis factor 2 receptor (TNFR2). They are involved in the pathogenesis of IBD and their receptors have been detected in IBD and their expression is correlated with disease activity. The soluble TNF form binds to the TNFR1 receptor with, and its activation results in a signaling cascade effects such as apoptosis, cell proliferation and cytokine secretion. In contrast, the transmembrane TNF form can bind both to TNFR1 and TNFR2. Recent studies have suggested that TNF-α is one of the main pro-inflammatory cytokines involved in the pathogenesis of IBD, since TNF levels are present in the serum of both patients with UC and CD. Intravenous and subcutaneous biologics targeting TNF-α have revolutionized the treatment of IBD, thus becoming the best available agents to induce and maintain IBD remission. The application of antibodies aimed at neutralizing TNF-α in patients with IBD that induce a satisfactory clinical response in up to 60% of patients, and also induced long-term maintenance of disease remission in most patients. It has been suggested that anti-TNF-α agents inactivate the pro-inflammatory cytokine TNF-α by direct neutralization, i.e., resulting in suppression of inflammation. However, anti-TNF-α antibodies perform more complex functions than a simple blockade.

SPINK4 promotes colorectal cancer cell proliferation and inhibits ferroptosis

BACKGROUND

Little is known about the role of serine peptidase inhibitor Kazal type 4 (SPINK4) in colorectal cancer (CRC) and ferroptosis. Therefore, this study aimed to determine the effect of SPINK4 on CRC pathogenesis and ferroptosis.

METHODS

SPINK4 expression was analyzed in public datasets and examined using immunohistochemistry. The biological function of SPINK4 in CRC cell lines and its effect on ferroptosis were tested. An immunofluorescence assay was performed to determine the location of SPINK4 in cells, and mouse models were established to determine the effects of SPINK4 in vivo.

RESULTS

CRC datasets and clinical samples analysis revealed that SPINK4 mRNA and protein levels were significantly reduced in CRC tissues compared to control tissues (P < 0.05). Two CRC cell lines (HCT116 and LoVo) were selected, and the in vitro and in vivo experiments showed that overexpression of SPINK4 greatly promotes the proliferation and metastasis of CRC cells and tumor growth (P < 0.05). The immunofluorescence assay indicated that SPINK4 is mainly located in the nucleoplasm and nucleus of CRC cells. Furthermore, SPINK4 expression was reduced after cell ferroptosis induced by Erastin, and overexpression of SPINK4 greatly inhibited ferroptosis in CRC cells. The results of mouse model further demonstrated that SPINK4 overexpression inhibited CRC cell ferroptosis and facilitated tumor growth.

CONCLUSIONS

SPINK4 was decreased in CRC tissues and promoted cell proliferation and metastasis; overexpression of SPINK4 inhibited CRC cell ferroptosis.

Dietary intervention with avocado (Persea americana Mill.) ameliorates intestinal inflammation induced by TNBS in rats

Nutritional interventions have been shown to be an interesting approach for the treatment of chronic diseases, including inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). Persea americana Mill. (avocado), is a potential food to be used for the prevention or treatment of intestinal inflammation, due to its nutritional value and pharmacological effects. In this study we evaluated if the dietary intervention with avocado fruit pulp could as an intestinal anti-inflammatory diet using a trinitrobenzenesulfonic acid (TNBS) model of intestinal inflammation in rats. For this purpose, 5, 10 or 20% of avocado fruit pulp was incorporated in the diet of rats, for 21 days before and 7 days after TNBS-induced intestinal inflammation. Dietary intervention with avocado fruit pulp (20%) decreased the extension of colonic lesions (1.38 ± 0.99 vs. 2.67 ± 0.76 cm), weight/length colon ratio (151.03 ± 31.45 vs. 197.39 ± 49.48 cm), inhibited myeloperoxidase activity (891.2 ± 243.2 vs 1603 ± 158.2 U/g), reduced tumor necrosis factor-α (53.94 ± 6.45 vs. 114.9 ± 6.21 pg/mg), interleukin-1β (583.6 ± 106.2 vs. 1259 ± 81.68 pg/mg) and interferon gamma (27.95 ± 2.97 vs. 47.79 ± 3.51 pg/mg) levels and prevented colonic glutathione depletion (2585 ± 77.2 vs 1778 ± 167.2 nmol/g). The consumption of enriched diet with 20% avocado pulp by 28 days did not promote any alterations in the biochemical or behavioral parameters evaluated. Avocado showed intestinal anti-inflammatory activity, modulating immune response, and acting as antioxidant. The dietary intervention with avocado was safe, suggesting its potential as a complementary treatment in intestinal inflammation.

Selection of a novel strain of Christensenella minuta as a future biotherapy for Crohn’s disease

Microbiome-based therapies for inflammatory bowel diseases offer a novel and promising therapeutic approach. The human commensal bacteria of the species Christensenella minuta (C. minuta) have been reported consistently missing in patients affected by Crohn’s disease (CD) and have been documented to induce anti-inflammatory effects in human epithelial cells, supporting their potential as a novel biotherapy. This work aimed at selecting the most promising strain of C. minuta for future development as a clinical candidate for CD therapy. Here, we describe a complete screening process combining in vitro and in vivo assays to conduct a rational selection of a live strain of C. minuta with strong immunomodulatory properties. Starting from a collection of 32 strains, a panel of in vitro screening assays was used to narrow it down to five preclinical candidates that were further screened in vivo in an acute TNBS-induced rat colitis model. The most promising candidate was validated in vivo in two mouse models of colitis. The validated clinical candidate strain, C. minuta DSM 33715, was then fully characterized. Hence, applying a rationally designed screening algorithm, a novel strain of C. minuta was successfully identified as the most promising clinical candidate for CD.

In vivo assessment of inflammatory bowel disease in rats with ultrahigh-resolution colonoscopic OCT

A technology capable of high-resolution, label-free imaging of subtle pathology in vivo during colonoscopy is imperative for the early detection of disease and the performance of accurate biopsies. While colonoscopic OCT has been developed to visualize colonic microstructures beyond the mucosal surface, its clinical potential remains limited by sub-optimal resolution (∼6.5 µm in tissue), inadequate imaging contrast, and a lack of high-resolution OCT criteria for lesion detection. In this study, we developed an ultrahigh-resolution (UHR) colonoscopic OCT and evaluated its ability to volumetrically visualize and identify the pathological features of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) in a rat model. Owing to its improved resolution (∼1.7 µm in tissue) and enhanced contrast, UHR colonoscopic OCT can accurately delineate fine colonic microstructures and identify the pathophysiological characteristics of IBD in vivo. By using a quantitative optical attenuation map, UHR colonoscopic OCT is able to differentiate diseased tissue (such as crypt distortion and microabscess) from normal colonic mucosa over a large field of view in vivo. Our results suggest the clinical potential of UHR colonoscopic OCT for in vivo assessment of IBD pathology.

Molecular Targets to Alleviate Enteric Neuropathy and Gastrointestinal Dysfunction

Enteric neuropathy underlies long-term gastrointestinal (GI) dysfunction associated with several pathological conditions. Our previous studies have demonstrated that structural and functional changes in the enteric nervous system (ENS) result in persistent alterations of intestinal functions long after the acute insult. These changes lead to aberrant immune response and chronic dysregulation of the epithelial barrier. Damage to the ENS is prognostic of disease progression and plays an important role in the recurrence of clinical manifestations. This suggests that the ENS is a viable therapeutic target to alleviate chronic intestinal dysfunction. Our recent studies in preclinical animal models have progressed into the development of novel therapeutic strategies for the treatment of enteric neuropathy in various chronic GI disorders. We have tested the anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective efficacy of novel compounds targeting specific molecular pathways. Ex vivo studies in human tissues freshly collected after resection surgeries provide an understanding of the molecular mechanisms involved in enteric neuropathy. In vivo treatments in animal models provide data on the efficacy and the mechanisms of actions of the novel compounds and their combinations with clinically used therapies. These novel findings provide avenues for the development of safe, cost-effective, and highly efficacious treatments of GI disorders.

Flavocoxid halts both intestinal and extraintestinal alterations in acetic acid-induced colitis in rats

Ulcerative colitis (UC) is an idiopathic chronic inflammatory disorder mainly affecting the colon and rectum. The present investigation was undertaken to evaluate the potential protective effect of flavocoxid, a dual COX and LOX inhibitor, in colitis model in rats. UC was induced by instillation of 2 ml of 4% acetic acid (AA) into the colon using a pediatric catheter in rats, and flavocoxid (10 and 20 mg·kg^-1) was given once daily for 7 days before induction of colitis. Rats were sacrificed; sera were collected; colons and livers were isolated and then analyzed by biochemical, macroscopic, and histopathological examination. Pretreatment with flavocoxid (10 and 20 mg·kg^-1) significantly reduced serum levels of alanine transaminase (ALT) (43.7 ± 7 and 76.2 ± 7.3 vs. 288.7 ± 31.4 in AA group) and aspartate transaminase (AST) (179.5 ± 22.2 and 200.5 ± 14 vs. 392.7 ± 35.6 in AA group) (p>0.05). Also, it decreased malondialdehyde (MDA) and nitric oxide (NOx) levels in both colonic and hepatic tissues. Moreover, flavocoxid effectively elevated colonic and hepatic reduced glutathione (GSH) level and superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity when compared to AA group (p>0.05). Additionally, flavocoxid significantly decreased levels of tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) (878.2 ± 13.4 and 560.1 ± 2.9 vs. 1378.1 ± 31 in AA group) in colonic tissues and (701 ± 6.9 and 442.5 ± 8.2 vs. 1501 ± 9.4 in AA group) in hepatic tissues, nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κBp65) (493.8 ± 6.8 and 368.7 ± 3.1 vs. 659.2 ± 9.4 in AA group) in colonic tissues and (358 ± 5.1 and 163.5 ± 7.8 vs. 732.5 ± 4.5 in AA group) in hepatic tissues, myeloperoxidase (MPO) (15.7 ± 0.3 and 13 ± 0.2 vs. 20.9 ± 0.5 in AA group) in colonic tissues and (20.4 ± 0.3 and 16.3 ± 0.3 vs. 23.9 ± 1.2 in AA group) in hepatic tissues, and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) (12.5 ± 0.3 and 10 ± 0.2 vs. 16 ± 0.1 in AA group) in colonic tissues and (14.1 ± 0.04 and 11.5 ± 0.08 vs. 17.8 ± 0.1 in AA group) in hepatic tissues (p>0.05). Furthermore, it down-regulated Bax and caspase-3 expression in colonic and hepatic tissues upon comparison with AA group. Collectively, flavocoxid conferred a protective impact against acetic acid-induced colitis in rats via attenuating oxidative stress, inflammation, and apoptosis.

Magnetic resonance colonography assessment of acute trinitrobenzene sulfonic acid colitis in pre-pubertal rats

Pre-pubertal murine models of acute colitis are lacking. Magnetic resonance colonography (MRC) is a promising minimally invasive tool to assess colitis. We aimed to: 1/ Adapt a model of acute experimental colitis to pre-pubertal rats and determine whether MRC characteristics correlate with histological inflammation. 2/ Test this model by administering a diet supplemented in transforming growth factor β2 to reverse inflammation. Twenty-four rats were randomized at weaning to one of 3 groups: Trinitrobenzene Sulfonic Acid (TNBS) group (n = 8) fed a standard diet, that received an intra-rectal 60 mg/kg dose of TNBS-ethanol; Control group (n = 8) fed standard diet, that received a dose of intra-rectal PBS; TNBS+MODULEN group (n = 8) that received a dose of TNBS and were exclusively fed MODULEN-IBD^® after induction of colitis. One week after induction of colitis, rats were assessed by MRC, colon histopathology and inflammation markers (Interleukin 1β, Tumor necrosis factor α, Nitric Oxide Synthase 2 and Cyclooxygenase 2). TNBS induced typical features of acute colitis on histopathology and MRC (increased colon wall thickness, increased colon intensity on T2-weighted images, target sign, ulcers). Treatment with MODULEN-IBD^® did not reduce signs of colitis on MRC. Inflammatory marker expression did not differ among study groups.

Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) Exacerbates Inflammatory Bowel Disease in Adolescent and Adult Female Rats

Inflammatory Bowel Disease (IBD) is a life-long disorder that often begins between the ages of 15 and 30. Anecdotal reports suggest cannabinoids may be an effective treatment. This study sought to determine whether home cage wheel running is an effective method to assess IBD, and whether Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), the primary psychoactive compound in cannabis, can restore wheel running depressed by IBD. Adolescent and adult female Sprague-Dawley rats were individually housed in a cage with a running wheel. Rats were injected with trinitrobenzene sulphonic acid (TNBS) into the rectum to induce IBD-like symptoms. One day later, both vehicle and TNBS treated rats were injected with a low dose of THC (0.32 mg/kg, s.c.) or vehicle. Administration of TNBS depressed wheel running in adolescent and adult rats. No antinociceptive effect of THC was evident when administered 1 day after TNBS. In fact, administration of THC prolonged TNBS-induced depression of wheel running for over 5 days in adolescent and adult rats. These results show that home cage wheel running is depressed by TNBS-induced IBD, making it a useful tool to evaluate the behavioral consequences of IBD, and that administration of THC, instead of producing antinociception, exacerbates TNBS-induced IBD. PERSPECTIVE: This article advances research on inflammatory bowel disease in two important ways: 1) Home cage wheel running is a new and sensitive tool to assess the behavioral consequences of IBD in adolescent and adult rats; and 2) Administration of the cannabinoid THC exacerbates the negative behavioral effects of IBD.

Effects of olives and their constituents on the expression of ulcerative colitis: a systematic review of randomised controlled trials

Extra virgin olive oil is often associated with anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties. Its effects on inflammatory conditions such as ulcerative colitis (UC), however, have yet to be defined. As such, we aimed to conduct a systematic review and meta-analysis of studies investigating olive-based interventions in UC. A comprehensive database search for randomised controlled trials was performed between 9 July 2018 and 16 August 2018. Studies identified from search alerts were included up to 22 June 2020. Both individuals living with UC at any disease stage and murine models of UC were included in this review. No human trials meeting the eligibility criteria were identified, while nineteen animal studies comprised 849 murine models of UC were included in this review. Pooling of the data could not be performed due to heterogeneous outcomes; however, general trends favouring olive-based interventions were identified. Milder disease expression including weight maintenance, reduced rectal bleeding and well-formed stools favouring olive-based interventions was statistically significant in 16/19 studies, with moderate-to-large effect sizes (-0·66 (95 % CI -1·56, 0·24) to -12·70 (95 % CI -16·8, -8·7)). Olive-based interventions did not prevent the development of colitis-like pathologies in any study. In conclusion, effects of olive-based interventions on murine models of UC appear promising, with milder disease outcomes favouring the intervention in most trials and effect sizes suggesting potential clinical relevance. However, the lack of published randomised controlled human trials warrants further investigation to determine if these effects would translate to individuals living with UC.

2,4,6-trinitrobenzenesulfonic acid-induced colitis in Rattus norgevicus: a categorization proposal

Reproducibility in animal research is crucial for its reliance and translational relevance. The 2,4,6-trinitrobenzene sulfonic acid (TNBS)-induced model of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is widely used but inconsistently and incompletely characterized throughout the literature. This hinders comparisons between studies and influences the low rate of translation of effective preclinical molecules. The purpose of this study was to categorize TNBS-induced colitis, based on macroscopic and microscopic scoring systems, and to identify basic routine parameters that could anticipate those categories. We retrospectively analysed male Wistar Rattus norvegicus (n=28 for the control group and n=87 for the TNBS group) and categorized TNBS-induced colitis in three phenotypes: Mild, Moderate and Severe colitis, as for human IBD. Also, we showed that the time course of food intake and fecal excretion (but not body weight, fluid intake or welfare scores) could foresee those categories. So, routine evaluation of food intake and fecal excretion may guide researchers in planning their experiments, selecting the animals with the severity of colitis that better matches their aims, or applying early humane endpoints to animals that will not be used in the experiments. In conclusion, categorizing TNBS-induced colitis enhances the reproducibility of data gathered with this experimental model and strengths its translational relevance.

Anti-Inflammatory Activity of Oat Beta-Glucans in a Crohn's Disease Model: Time- and Molar Mass-Dependent Effects

BACKGROUND

The incidence of Crohn's disease (CD) is increasing worldwide, and it has currently become a serious public health issue in society. The treatment of CD continues throughout a patient's lifetime, and therefore, it is necessary to develop new, effective treatment methods, including dietotherapy. The present study aimed to determine the effects of consumption of oat beta-glucans with different molar mass on colon inflammation (colitis) in the early stages of 2,4,6-trinitrobenzene sulfonic acid (TNBS)-induced CD in an animal model.

METHODS

Sprague-Dawley rats (control and TNBS-induced CD) were divided into three dietary groups and fed for 3 days (reflecting acute inflammation) or 7 days (reflecting remission) with a feed containing 1% low (βGl) or high (βGh) molar mass oat beta-glucan or a feed without this polysaccharide. The level of colon inflammatory markers and the expression of cytokines and their receptor genes were measured by ELISA and RT-PCR methods, respectively.

RESULTS

Acute inflammation or remission (3 or 7 days after TNBS administration, respectively) stages of experimentally induced CD were characterized by an increase in the level of inflammatory markers (IL-1, IL-6, IL-10, IL-12, TNF-α, CRP, MPO, COX, and PGE2) and the disruption of some cytokine signaling pathways as well as macro- and microscopic changes of colon tissue. The consumption of oat beta-glucans reduced the level of inflammatory markers and recovered the signaling pathways and histological changes, with stronger effects of βGl after 7 days of colitis.

CONCLUSIONS

Dietary oat beta-glucans can reduce colitis at the molecular and organ level and accelerate CD remission.

Protocol Improvement for RNA Extraction From Compromised Frozen Specimens Generated in Austere Conditions: A Path Forward to Transcriptomics-Pathology Systems Integration

At the heart of the phenome-to-genome approach is high throughput assays, which are liable to produce false results. This risk can be mitigated by minimizing the sample bias, specifically, recycling the same tissue specimen for both phenotypic and genotypic investigations. Therefore, our aim is to suggest a methodology of obtaining robust results from frozen specimens of compromised quality, particularly if the sample is produced in conditions with limited resources. For example, generating samples at the International Space Station (ISS) is challenging because the time and laboratory footprint allotted to a project can get expensive. In an effort to be economical with available resources, snap-frozen euthanized mice are the straightforward solution; however, this method increases the risk of temperature abuse during the thawing process at the beginning of the tissue collection. We found that prolonged immersion of snap frozen mouse carcass in 10% neutral buffered formalin at 4°C yielded minimal microscopic signs of ice crystallization and delivered tissues with histomorphology that is optimal for hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) staining and fixation on glass slides. We further optimized a method to sequester the tissue specimen from the H&E slides using an incubator shaker. Using this method, we were able to recover an optimal amount of RNA that could be used for downstream transcriptomics assays. Overall, we demonstrated a protocol that enables us to maximize scientific values from tissues collected in austere condition. Furthermore, our protocol can suggest an improvement in the spatial resolution of transcriptomic assays.

Effects of erythropoietin on bacterial translocation in a rat model of experimental colitis

Objectives

In this experimental study, it was aimed to assess the effects of erythropoietin (EPO) on bacterial translocation in a rat model of colitis.

Material and Methods

The rats were randomly assigned into control, colitis and EPO-treated groups (n= 8 in each group). Saline solution (NS) was administered to control rats via rectal route. A trinitrobenzene sulfonic acid and ethanol mixture (TNBS-E) was used to induce colitis in the experiment groups. No treatment was administered to colitis group after induction. Starting at one day after induction of colitis with TNBS-E, EPO (1000 IU/kg) was administered subcutaneously for three days to the rats in the EPO-treated group. Colonic inflammation was assessed by gross and microscopic examination on day five. Blood samples were obtained to evaluate bacterial translocation while hepatic, mesenteric tissue samples and mesenteric lymph node (MLN) samples were collected for tissue culture. Tissue myeloperoxidase (MPO) levels, and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF- α) and endotoxin levels in the sera were studied.

Results

Significant gross and microscopic differences were found in the comparison between colitis and EPO-treated groups (p <0.05). MPO level was significantly lower when compared to the colitis group (p <0.05). Serum TNF-α and plasma endotoxin levels were significantly lower in the EPO-treated group than the colitis group (p <0.05). Bacterial translocation was lower in the liver, spleen, MLNs and systemic blood in the EPO-treated group when compared to the colitis group (p <0.05).

Conclusion

In TNBS-E-induced rat model of colitis, EPO significantly decreased inflammation and bacterial translocation based on histopathological, biochemical and microbiological parameters.

Grape peel powder promotes intestinal barrier homeostasis in acute TNBS-colitis: A major role for dietary fiber and fiber-bound polyphenols

Inflammatory bowel diseases are characterized by impaired intestinal barrier function. This study aimed to evaluate the effects of grape peel powder (GPP) and its bioactive rich-fractions on the barrier function and colonic injury in a model of colitis induced by 2,4,6 trinitrobenzene sulfonic acid (TNBS). Wistar rats received diets supplemented with either GPP (8%), extractable polyphenols (EP), non-extractable polyphenols-rich fraction (NEP-F), or polyphenols-poor, fiber-rich fraction (F) from grapes at amounts equivalent to the GPP group during 15 days before and for 7 days after colitis induction. NEP-F has decreased the extension of colonic lesion but the other grape peel bioactive fractions did not protect against macroscopic or microscopic colonic damage, EP diet increased macroscopic colonic damage. GPP, EP, and NEP-F reduced claudin-2 mRNA expression, whereas GPP and F fraction increased occludin and ZO-1 mRNA expression. All experimental diets reduced the colitis-triggered increase of MMP-9 mRNA expression. Colitis reduced by 30% the production of cecal short-chain fatty acids (SCFA). GPP and NEP-F completely protected against this effect, whereas F fraction was ineffective. Only GPP and NEP-F were able to decrease the upregulation of GRP94 mRNA triggered by colitis. Dietary fiber seems to reestablish the intestinal barrier function, whereas fiber-bound phenolics were able to restore cecal metabolism to produce beneficial metabolites like SCFA and to reduce the activation of the unfolded protein response.

Association and diagnostic value of serum SPINK4 in colorectal cancer

The role of serum serine peptidase inhibitor, Kazal type 4 (SPINK4), in colorectal cancer (CRC) is largely unknown. This study aimed to explore the association and diagnostic value of serum SPINK4 in CRC. A total of 70 preoperative CRC patients, 30 postoperative CRC patients, 30 gastric cancer patients, and 30 healthy controls were enrolled. Using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays, we found that the serum SPINK4 level was significantly increased in preoperative CRC compared with postoperative CRC patients, gastric cancer patients, and healthy controls (p < 0.05). The serum SPINK4 level was remarkably elevated in colon cancer compared with rectal cancer and was enhanced in the M1 stage compared with the M0 stage (p < 0.05). The area under the receiver operating characteristic curve of serum SPINK4 level in the diagnosis of CRC was 0.9186, with a sensitivity and specificity of 0.886 and 0.900, respectively, and a cut-off value of 2.065. There was no significant difference between high and low expression of serum SPINK4 regarding the overall survival time and disease-free survival (p > 0.05). This study demonstrated that the serum SPINK4 level increased in CRC and was associated with the location and distant metastasis of CRC. It had a high diagnostic value in CRC but was not associated with the survival of CRC patients.

The potential probiotic Lactobacillus rhamnosus CNCM I-3690 strain protects the intestinal barrier by stimulating both mucus production and cytoprotective response

The gut barrier plays an important role in human health. When barrier function is impaired, altered permeability and barrier dysfunction can occur, leading to inflammatory bowel diseases, irritable bowel syndrome or obesity. Several bacteria, including pathogens and commensals, have been found to directly or indirectly modulate intestinal barrier function. The use of probiotic strains could be an important landmark in the management of gut dysfunction with a clear impact on the general population. Previously, we found that Lactobacillus rhamnosus CNCM I-3690 can protect intestinal barrier functions in mice inflammation model. Here, we investigated its mechanism of action. Our results show that CNCM I-3690 can (i) physically maintain modulated goblet cells and the mucus layer and (ii) counteract changes in local and systemic lymphocytes. Furthermore, mice colonic transcriptome analysis revealed that CNCM I-3690 enhances the expression of genes related to healthy gut permeability: motility and absorption, cell proliferation; and protective functions by inhibiting endogenous proteases. Finally, SpaFED pili are clearly important effectors since an L. rhamnosus ΔspaF mutant failed to provide the same benefits as the wild type strain. Taken together, our data suggest that CNCM I-3690 restores impaired intestinal barrier functions via anti-inflammatory and cytoprotective responses.

Olmesartan ameliorates chemically-induced ulcerative colitis in rats via modulating NFκB and Nrf-2/HO-1 signaling crosstalk

Alteration in the expression pattern of Nrf-2 and NFκB has been reported in ulcerative colitis (UC) in which functional crosstalk between these two critical pathways has been suggested. The ameliorative potential of the AT1R blocker olmesartan (OLM) on oxidative stress and inflammatory cytokines has received considerable attention in recent years. Acetic acid (AA)-induced UC demonstrates close resemblance to human UC regarding histopathological features and cytokine profile and is associated with local intense immune response, oxidative stress and release of inflammatory cytokines. Therefore, The effect of OLM (1, 5 and 10 mg/kg) administered orally to rats subjected to intra-rectal instillation of 2 ml of 3% AA in saline solution is investigated. The study revealed that OLM ameliorated colon injury and inflammatory signs as visualized by histopathological examination. Levels of colon IL-6, TNF-α, IL-1β, TGF-β, and serum CRP were down-regulated, while the level of colon IL-10 was up-regulated. In a dose-dependent manner, OLM suppressed AA-induced neutrophils accumulation and improved colon anti-oxidant defense machinery. Also, OLM repressed the Bax:BCL-2 ratio and caspase3 expression. The mechanism of these protective effects was found to lay behind its ability to down-regulate gene expression and inhibit phosphorylation and nuclear translocation of p65 subunits. On the other hand, OLM up-regulated gene expression of Nrf-2 and HO-1. In conclusion, our data show that OLM is an Nrf2 activator, NFkB inhibitor and apoptosis inhibitor in an experimental model of ulcerative colitis. Overall, the study indicates that OLM shows promise as a potential therapy for the treatment of human inflammatory bowel diseases.

Treatment with Obestatin-A Ghrelin Gene-Encoded Peptide-Reduces the Severity of Experimental Colitis Evoked by Trinitrobenzene Sulfonic Acid

Obestatin is a 23-amino acid peptide derived from proghrelin, a common prohormone for ghrelin and obestatin. Previous studies showed that obestatin exhibited some protective and therapeutic effects in the gut. The aim of our presented study was to examine the effect of treatment with obestatin on trinitrobenzene sulfonic acid (TNBS)-induced colitis. In rats anesthetized with ketamine, colitis was induced through intrarectal administration of 25 mg of 2,4,6-trinitrobenzene sulfonic acid (TNBS). Obestatin was administered intraperitoneally at doses of 4, 8, or 16 nmol/kg, twice per day for four consecutive days. The first dose of obestatin was given one day before the induction of colitis, and the last one was given two days after administration of TNBS. Fourteen days after the induction of colitis, rats were anesthetized again with ketamine, and the severity of colitis was determined. The administration of obestatin had no effect on the parameters tested in rats without the induction of colitis. In rats with colitis, administration of obestatin at doses of 8 or 16 nmol/kg reduced the area of colonic damage, and improved mucosal blood flow in the colon. These effects were accompanied by a reduction in the colitis-evoked increase in the level of blood leukocytes, and mucosal concentration of pro-inflammatory interleukin-1β. Moreover, obestatin administered at doses of 8 or 16 nmol/kg reduced histological signs of colonic damage. The administration of obestatin at a dose of 4 nmol/kg failed to significantly affect the parameters tested. Overall, treatment with obestatin reduced the severity of TNBS-induced colitis in rats. This effect was associated with an improvement in mucosal blood flow in the colon, and a decrease in local and systemic inflammatory processes.

Evaluating [11C]PBR28 PET for Monitoring Gut and Brain Inflammation in a Rat Model of Chemically Induced Colitis

Purpose

Ulcerative colitis (UC) is a chronic inflammatory disease of the colon that affects an increasing number of patients. High comorbidity is observed between UC and other diseases in which inflammation may be involved, including brain diseases such as cognitive impairment, mental disorders, anxiety, and depression. To investigate the increased occurrence of these brain diseases in patients with UC, non-invasive methods for monitoring peripheral and central inflammation could be applied. Therefore, the goal of this study is to assess the feasibility of monitoring gut and brain inflammation in a rat model of chemically induced colitis by positron emission tomography (PET) with [¹¹C]PBR28, a tracer targeting the translocator protein (TSPO), which is upregulated when microglia and macrophages are activated.

Procedures

Colitis was induced in rats by intra-rectal injection of 2,4,6-trinitrobenzenesulfonic acid (TNBS). Rats with colitis and healthy control animals were subjected to [¹¹C]PBR28 PET of the abdomen followed by ex vivo biodistribution in order to assess whether inflammation in the gut could be detected. Another group of rats with colitis underwent repetitive [¹¹C]PBR28 PET imaging of the brain to investigate the development of neuroinflammation.

Results

Eleven days after TNBS injection, ex vivo biodistribution studies demonstrated increased [¹¹C]PBR28 uptake in the inflamed cecum and colon of rats with colitis as compared to healthy controls, whereas PET imaging did not show any difference between groups at any time. Similarly, repetitive PET imaging of the brain did not reveal any neuroinflammation induced by the TNBS administration in the colon. In contrast, significantly increased [¹¹C]PBR28 uptake in cerebellum could be detected in ex vivo biodistribution studies on day 11.

Conclusion

Inflammation in both the gut and the brain of rats with chemically induced colitis was observed by ex vivo biodistribution. However, these effects could not be detected by [¹¹C]PBR28 PET imaging in our colitis model, which is likely due to spill-over effects and insufficient resolution of the PET camera.

Multiple Functions of D-α-Tocopherol Polyethylene Glycol 1000 Succinate (TPGS) as Curcumin Nanoparticle Stabilizer: In Vivo Kinetic Profile and Anti-Ulcerative Colitis Analysis in Animal Model

This study was conducted to evaluate the potential benefit of particle reduction down to nanoscale on curcumin, a unique natural active compound facing therapeutic problems due to low solubility and permeability. In addition, the presence of TPGS as a surfactant for multiple functions on curcumin nanoparticle was addressed. Observation was focused on bioavailability enhancement after oral administration and local anti-inflammatory improvement after rectal dosing. Nanonization of curcumin was performed using an up-scalable top down method. Specific animal models were used to study the in vivo kinetic profile and the biological activity of curcumin nanoparticle, compared with curcumin powder. d-α-tocopherol polyethylene glycol 1000 succinate (TPGS)-stabilized curcumin nanoparticle was prepared through homogenization with high pressure of the 1500 bar. An in vivo study was performed after oral administration of the preparations to male healthy Wistar rats, to monitor the plasma kinetic profile of curcumin. The biological activity study was conducted after rectal administration of the preparations in Wistar rats induced by 2,4,6-trinitrobenzene sulfonic acid to develop ulcerative colitis. The curcumin nanoparticle with a size of approximately 200 nm was successfully produced and revealed a better in vivo kinetic profile over the larger size of curcumin mixed with TPGS, with bioavailability (AUC0-∞) that was accounted for seven-fold. In addition, the TPGS-stabilized curcumin nanoparticle demonstrated a superior local anti-inflammatory effect in ulcerative colitis, indicated by the shifting of observed parameters close to the healthy status. The tremendously improved anti-inflammatory effect of the TPGS-stabilized curcumin nanoparticle was found with a very low dose. Reducing the particle size of curcumin down to ~200 nm with the presence of TPGS seems to be a promising approach to improving the therapeutic value of curcumin.

Recombinant proteins of helminths with immunoregulatory properties and their possible therapeutic use

The inverse relationship between helminth infections and the development of immune-mediated diseases is a cornerstone of the hygiene hypothesis and studies were carried out to elucidate the mechanisms by which helminth-derived molecules can suppress immunological disorders. These studies have fostered the idea that parasitic worms may be used as a promising therapeutic alternative for prevention and treatment of immune-mediated diseases. We discuss the current approaches for identification of helminth proteins with potential immunoregulatory properties, including the strategies based on high-throughput technologies. We also explore the methodological approaches and expression systems used for production of the recombinant forms of more than 20 helminth immunomodulatory proteins, besides their performances when evaluated as immunotherapeutic molecules to treat different immune-mediated conditions, including asthma and inflammatory bowel diseases. Finally, we discuss the perspectives of using these parasite-derived recombinant molecules as tools for future immunotherapy and immunoprophylaxis of human inflammatory diseases.

Sijunzi Decoction attenuates 2, 4, 6-trinitrobenzene sulfonic acid (TNBS)-induced colitis in rats and ameliorates TNBS-induced claudin-2 damage via NF-κB pathway in Caco2 cells

BACKGROUND

SijunziDecoction (SJZD) is a traditional Chinese medicine prescription used to treat the diseases of gastrointestinal tract since ancient times. The objective of this study was to investigate the protective effects of SJZD on TNBS-induced colitis in rats and TNBS-damaged Caco2 cells.

METHODS

The rat colitis model was induced by 2, 4, 6-trinitrobenzene sulfonic acid (TNBS). SJZD (2.8 5.6, 11.2 g/kg) or salazosulfapyridine (SASP) (0.4 g/kg) was administrated orally in rats for 7 days. DAI, pathological scores and the expression of claudin-2 were evaluated. Then we explored the effect and mechanism of SijunziDecoction Serum (SJZDS) onTNBS-damaged Caco2 cells to figure out intestinal barrier protective effect and mechanism of SJZD.

RESULTS

SJZD significantly ameliorated the severity of TNBS-induced colitis and downregulated the level of claudin-2 in colonic tissues. SJZDS promoted proliferation and inhibited apoptosis ofTNBS-damaged Caco2 cells. In Caco2 cell monolayers, we provided mechanistic evidence that SJZDS-induced increased TEER and decreased permeability after TNBS damage, which were mediated through claudin-2 and NF-κB pathway, including the upregulation of claudin-2, decreased activity of NF-κB p65, reduced level of NF-κB p65 and MLCK.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results indicated that SJZD possesses protective effect of intestinal barrier towards TNBS-induced colitis in rats and TNBS-damaged Caco2 cells in vitro. SJZDis a potential protective agent of intestinal barrier that deserves further investigation.

The TNBS-induced colitis animal model: An overview

Background

Despite recent advances the pathogenesis of Crohn's disease remains incompletely understood. A variety of animal models have been utilized in an effort to provide further insights and develop more therapeutic options. In order to simulate, to an extent, the pathogenesis and the clinical course of the disease, TNBS induced colitis is often used. Various approaches for inducing TNBS -colitis have been described in the literature.

Methods/results

In this review, we sought to present the animal model of TNBS induced colitis and outline the pathogenesis, pathophysiology, clinical course and pathological characteristics of the model. Furthermore, we describe the differences among those protocols regarding types of animals and colitis induction.

Data sources

The MEDLINE database was thoroughly searched using the keywords: TNBS, colitis, Crohn's disease, animal model. Two investigators independently reviewed the abstracts and appropriate articles were included in this review. Additional articles were gathered and evaluated.

Conclusion

The aim of this study was to thoroughly present an updated review of the TNBS-induced colitis protocols that are implemented by researchers.

•

We sought to present the animal model of TNBS induced colitis and outline the pathogenesis, pathophysiology, clinical course and pathological characteristics of the model.

•

Furthermore, we describe the differences among those protocols regarding types of animals and colitis induction.

•

The MEDLINE database was thoroughly searched using the keywords: TNBS, colitis, Crohn's disease, animal model.

•

Two investigators independently reviewed the abstracts and appropriate articles were included in this review.

•

The aim of this study was to thoroughly present an updated review of the TNBS-induced colitis protocols that are implemented by researchers.

Visceral Hypersensitivity Is Provoked by 2,4,6-Trinitrobenzene Sulfonic Acid-Induced Ileitis in Rats

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Crohn's Disease (CD), a chronic Inflammatory Bowel Disease, can occur in any part of the gastrointestinal tract, but most frequently in the ileum. Visceral hypersensitivity contributes for development of chronic abdominal pain in this disease. Currently, the understanding of the mechanism underlying hypersensitivity of Crohn's ileitis has been hindered by a lack of specific animal model. The present study is undertaken to investigate the visceral hypersensitivity provoked by 2,4,6-trinitrobenzene sulfonic (TNBS)-induced ileitis rats.

METHODS

Male Sprague-Dawley rats were anaesthetized and laparotomized for intraileal injection of TNBS (0.6 ml, 80 mg/kg body weight in 30% ethanol, n = 48), an equal volume of 30% Ethanol (n = 24), and Saline (n = 24), respectively. Visceral hypersensitivity was assessed by visceromotor responses (VMR) to 20, 40, 60, 80, and 100 mmHg colorectal distension pressure (CRD) at day 1, 3, 7, 14, 21, and 28. Immediately after CRD test, the rats were euthanized for collecting the terminal ileal segment for histopathological examinations and ELISA of myleoperoxidase and cytokines (TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6), and dorsal root ganglia (T11) for determination of calcitonin gene-related peptide by immunohistochemistry, respectively.

RESULTS

Among all groups, TNBS-treatment showed transmural inflammation initially at 3 days, reached maximum at 7 days and persisted up to 21 days. The rats with ileitis exhibited (P < 0.05) VMR to CRD at day 7 to day 21. The calcitonin gene-related peptide-immunoreactive positive cells increased (P < 0.05) in dorsal root ganglia at day 7 to 21, which was persistently consistent with visceral hypersensitivity in TNBS-treated rats.

CONCLUSION

TNBS injection into the ileum induced transmural ileitis including granuloma and visceral hypersensitivity. As this model mimics clinical manifestations of CD, it may provide a road map to probe the pathogenesis of gut inflammation and visceral hypersensitivity, as well as for establishing the therapeutic protocol for Crohn's ileitis.

Sacral nerve stimulation enhances early intestinal mucosal repair following mucosal injury in a pig model

KEY POINTS

Reducing intestinal epithelial barrier (IEB) dysfunctions is recognized as being of major therapeutic interest for various intestinal disorders. Sacral nerve stimulation (SNS) is known to reduce IEB permeability. Here, we report in a pig model that SNS enhances morphological and functional recovery of IEB following mucosal injury induced via 2,4,6-trinitrobenzenesulfonic acid. These effects are associated with an increased expression of tight junction proteins such as ZO-1 and FAK. These results establish that SNS enhances intestinal barrier repair in acute mucosal injury. They further set the scientific basis for future use of SNS as a complementary or alternative therapeutic option for the treatment of gut disorders with IEB dysfunctions such as inflammatory bowel diseases or irritable bowel syndrome.

ABSTRACT

Intestinal epithelial barrier (IEB) dysfunctions, such as increased permeability or altered healing, are central to intestinal disorders. Sacral nerve stimulation (SNS) is known to reduce IEB permeability, but its ability to modulate IEB repair remains unknown. This study aimed to characterize the impact of SNS on mucosal repair following 2,4,6-trinitrobenzenesulfonic acid (TNBS)-induced lesions. Six pigs were stimulated by SNS 3 h prior to and 3 h after TNBS enema, while sham animals (n = 8) were not stimulated. The impact of SNS on mucosal changes was evaluated by combining in vivo imaging, histological and functional methods. Biochemical and transcriptomic approaches were used to analyse the IEB and mucosal inflammatory response. We observed that SNS enhanced the recovery from TNBS-induced increase in transcellular permeability. At 24 h, TNBS-induced alterations of mucosal morphology were significantly less in SNS compared with sham animals. SNS reduced TNBS-induced changes in ZO-1 expression and its epithelial pericellular distribution, and also increased pFAK/FAK expression compared with sham. Interestingly, SNS increased the mucosal density of neutrophils, which was correlated with an increase in trypsin and TGF-β1 levels compared with sham. Finally, SNS prevented the TNBS-induced increases in IL-1β and IL-4 over time that were observed with sham treatment. In conclusion, our results show that SNS enhances mucosal repair following injury. This study highlights novel mechanisms of action of SNS and identifies SNS as a new therapy for diseases with IEB repair disorders.

Intestinal anti-inflammatory activity of the seeds of Raphanus sativus L. in experimental ulcerative colitis models

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Water extract of Raphanus sativus L. (RSL) seeds was traditionally used to treat digestive inflammatory complaints in Korean culture. RSL seeds exerted antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-septic functions, suggesting their pharmacological potential for the treatment of inflammatory pathologies associated with oxidative stress such as inflammatory bowel disease.

AIM OF THIS STUDY

We evaluated the intestinal anti-inflammatory effects of RSL seed water extract (RWE) in experimental rat models of trinitrobenzenesulphonic acid (TNBS)- or dextran sodium sulfate (DSS)-induced colitis.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

RWE was characterized by determining the content of sinapic acid as a reference material and then assayed in the DSS and TNBS models of rat colitis. Male Sprague-Dawley rats were divided into 10 groups (n=7/group): non-colitic control, DSS or TNBS control, DSS colitis groups treated with RWE (100mg/kg) or mesalazine (25mg/kg), and TNBS colitis groups treated with various doses (10, 40, 70, and 100mg/kg) of RWE or mesalazine (25mg/kg). RWE or mesalazine treatment started the same day of colitis induction and rats were sacrificed 24h after the last treatment followed by histological and biochemical analyses.

RESULTS

Oral administration with RWE suppressed intestinal inflammatory damages in both DSS- and TNBS-induced colitic rats. The treatment with 100mg/kg RWE recovered intestinal damages caused by TNBS or DSS to levels similar to that of mesalazine, decreasing the activity of myeloperoxidase activity and the secretion of tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α and interleukin (IL)-1β. RWE treatment inhibited malondialdehyde production and glutathione reduction in colon of colitis rats. The administration of RWE at dose of 100mg/kg also suppressed the TNBS- or DSS-stimulated expression of TNF-α, IL-1β, monocyte chemotactic protein-1, inducible nitric oxide, and intercellular adhesion molecule-1. Furthermore, RWE inhibited p38 kinase and DNA-nuclear factor-κB binding activities, both of which were stimulated in the colitic rats.

CONCLUSIONS

The current findings show that RWE ameliorates intestinal oxidative and inflammatory damages in DSS and TNBS models of rat colitis, suggesting its beneficial use for the treatment of intestinal inflammatory disorders.

Salvianolic Acid B Restored Impaired Barrier Function via Downregulation of MLCK by microRNA-1 in Rat Colitis Model

Salvianolic acid B (Sal B) is isolated from the traditional Chinese medical herb Salvia miltiorrhiza and is reported to have a wide range of therapeutic benefits. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of Sal B on epithelial barrier dysfunction in rat colitis and to uncover related mechanisms. Rat colitis model was established by intracolonic administration of 2, 4, 6-trinitrobenzene sulfonic acid (TNBS). The intestinal barrier function was evaluated by measuring the serum recovery of fluorescein isothiocyanate-4 kD dextran in vivo and transepithelial electrical resistance in vitro respectively. The protein expression related to intestinal barrier function was studied using western blotting. The effects of Sal B on inflammatory responses, oxidative damage and colitis recurrence were also studied in this study. The intestinal barrier dysfunction in colitis was reversed by Sal B, accompanied with the decrease of tight junction proteins, and the effect could be blocked by microRNA-1(miR-1) inhibition. The inflammatory responses, oxidative damage and colitis recurrence were also decreased by Sal B. The colitis symptoms and recurrences were ameliorated by Sal B, and restoration of impaired barrier function via downregulation of MLCK by miR-1 maybe involved in this effect. This study provides some novel insights into both of the pathological mechanisms and treatment alternatives of inflammatory bowel disease.

Probiotic yeast Kluyveromyces marxianus CIDCA 8154 shows anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidative stress properties in in vivo models

Inflammatory bowel diseases (IBDs) are complex affections with increasing incidence worldwide. Multiple factors are involved in the development and maintenance of the symptoms including enhanced oxidative stress in intestinal mucosa. The conventional therapeutic approaches for IBDs are based on the use anti-inflammatory drugs with important collateral effects and partial efficacy. In the present work we tested the anti-inflammatory capacity of Kluyveromyces marxianus CIDCA 8154 in different models. In vitro, we showed that the pretreatment of epithelial cells with the yeast reduce the levels of intracellular reactive oxygen species. Furthermore, in a murine model of trinitro benzene sulfonic acid-induced colitis, yeast-treated animals showed a reduced histopathological score (P<0.05) and lower levels of circulating interleukin 6 (P<0.05). The capacity to modulate oxidative stress in vivo was assessed using a Caenorhabditis elegans model. The yeast was able to protect the nematodes from oxidative stress by modulating the SKN-1 transcription factor trough the DAF-2 pathway. These results indicate that K. marxianus CIDCA 8154 could control the intestinal inflammation and cellular oxidative stress. Deciphering the mechanisms of action of different probiotics might be useful for the rational formulation of polymicrobial products containing microorganisms targeting different anti-inflammatory pathways.

Animal models to study acute and chronic intestinal inflammation in mammals

Acute and chronic inflammatory diseases of the intestine impart a significant and negative impact on the health and well-being of human and non-human mammalian animals. Understanding the underlying mechanisms of inflammatory disease is mandatory to develop effective treatment and prevention strategies. As inflammatory disease etiologies are multifactorial, the use of appropriate animal models and associated metrics of disease are essential. In this regard, animal models used alone or in combination to study acute and chronic inflammatory disease of the mammalian intestine paired with commonly used inflammation-inducing agents are reviewed. This includes both chemical and biological incitants of inflammation, and both non-mammalian (i.e. nematodes, insects, and fish) and mammalian (i.e. rodents, rabbits, pigs, ruminants, dogs, and non-human primates) models of intestinal inflammation including germ-free, gnotobiotic, as well as surgical, and genetically modified animals. Importantly, chemical and biological incitants induce inflammation via a multitude of mechanisms, and intestinal inflammation and injury can vary greatly according to the incitant and animal model used, allowing studies to ascertain both long-term and short-term effects of inflammation. Thus, researchers and clinicians should be aware of the relative strengths and limitations of the various animal models used to study acute and chronic inflammatory diseases of the mammalian intestine, and the scope and relevance of outcomes achievable based on this knowledge. The ability to induce inflammation to mimic common human diseases is an important factor of a successful animal model, however other mechanisms of disease such as the amount of infective agent to induce disease, invasion mechanisms, and the effect various physiologic changes can have on inducing damage are also important features. In many cases, the use of multiple animal models in combination with both chemical and biological incitants is necessary to answer the specific question being addressed regarding intestinal disease. Some incitants can induce acute responses in certain animal models while others can be used to induce chronic responses; this review aims to illustrate the strengths and weaknesses in each animal model and to guide the choice of an appropriate acute or chronic incitant to facilitate intestinal disease.

Cape Gooseberry [Physalis peruviana L.] Calyces Ameliorate TNBS Acid-induced Colitis in Rats

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Physalis peruviana [cape gooseberry] is highly appreciated for its commercial value. The Colombian ecotype is in great demand in the international market, particularly for the unique morphological characteristics of the calyx, which has extended use as a traditional herbal remedy in Colombia because of its anti-inflammatory properties. In this work, the anti-inflammatory activity of the total ethereal extract of Physalis peruviana calyces was evaluated in preventive and therapeutic protocols in a TNBS acid-induced colitis rat model.

METHODS

Colitis was induced by intrarectal administration of TNBS. An evaluation of macroscopic and histopathological parameters in colonic tissue was performed, along with the determination of myeloperoxidase enzyme activity, cytokine levels and gene expression. Additionally, effects on nitric oxide release by lipopolysaccharide [LPS]-stimulated RAW264.7 macrophages and the scavenging activity of DPPH and ABTS free radicals were determined.

RESULTS

The treatment with the Physalis peruviana extract produced a significant improvement in the colonic tissue at both macroscopic and histological levels. IL-1β and TNF-α production was reduced by the extract in both experimental approaches. The groups treated with Physalis peruviana showed a tendency to MUC2 up-regulation and down-regulation of COX-2, iNOS, NLRP3, IL-1β, IL-6 and IL-10 expression. Nitric oxide release in RAW264.7 macrophages was significantly inhibited.

CONCLUSIONS

The Physalis peruviana extract showed intestinal anti-inflammatory activity in the TNBS-induced colitis model, placing this species' calyx, a natural derivative, as a promising source of metabolites that could be used in treatment for inflammatory bowel disease.

The guanylate cyclase-C signaling pathway is down-regulated in inflammatory bowel disease

OBJECTIVE

Activation of membrane receptor guanylate cyclase-C (GC-C) is implicated in gastrointestinal fluid and electrolyte balance, preservation of intestinal barrier integrity, anti-trophic effects and inhibition of pain sensation. To evaluate GC-C signaling, we examined the regulation of GC-C (GUCY2C/Gucy2c) and its endogenous ligands guanylin (GN/GUCA2A/Guca2a) and uroguanylin (UGN/GUCA2B/Guca2b) in colonic Crohn's disease (CD), ulcerative colitis (UC) and in rats with 2,4,6-Trinitrobenzene sulphonic acid (TNBS) colitis. Correlation analyses between expression of GUCA2A and GUCY2C and expression of inflammatory cytokines (IL1A, IL1B, TNFA and IFNG) were conducted. Additionally, expression of transcription factors for GUCA2A and GUCY2C, and the GC-C signaling pathway, were examined.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Biopsies from active UC/CD, un-inflamed UC/CD and healthy controls, and inflamed and healthy rat colon were investigated with gene expression microarray, immunohistochemistry (IHC) and in situ hybridization (ISH).

RESULTS

GUCA2A/Guca2a, GUCA2B, GUCY2C/Gucy2c, transcription factors, as well as several cyclic guanosine-3',5'-monophosphate downstream mediators were all significantly down-regulated in both inflamed colonic inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) mucosa and TNBS colitis. Expression of GUCA2A and GUCY2C negatively correlated to expression of inflammatory cytokines. IHC and ISH confirmed microarray results for GUCA2A/Guca2a and GUCY2C/Gucy2c in inflamed samples. We identified a highly significant positive correlation between the expression of the transcription factor caudal type homeobox 2 (CDX2) and the expression of the downstream target gene GUCY2C.

CONCLUSIONS

GUCA2A, GUCA2B and GUCY2C as well as several steps of the GC-C signaling pathway are down-regulated in IBD. This may have implications in IBD pathogenesis.

Quality of methods reporting in animal models of colitis

BACKGROUND

Current understanding of the onset of inflammatory bowel diseases relies heavily on data derived from animal models of colitis. However, the omission of information concerning the method used makes the interpretation of studies difficult or impossible. We assessed the current quality of methods reporting in 4 animal models of colitis that are used to inform clinical research into inflammatory bowel disease: dextran sulfate sodium, interleukin-10, CD45RB T cell transfer, and 2,4,6-trinitrobenzene sulfonic acid (TNBS).

METHODS

We performed a systematic review based on PRISMA guidelines, using a PubMed search (2000-2014) to obtain publications that used a microarray to describe gene expression in colitic tissue. Methods reporting quality was scored against a checklist of essential and desirable criteria.

RESULTS

Fifty-eight articles were identified and included in this review (29 dextran sulfate sodium, 15 interleukin-10, 5 T cell transfer, and 16 TNBS; some articles use more than 1 colitis model). A mean of 81.7% (SD = ±7.038) of criteria were reported across all models. Only 1 of the 58 articles reported all essential criteria on our checklist. Animal age, gender, housing conditions, and mortality/morbidity were all poorly reported.

CONCLUSIONS

Failure to include all essential criteria is a cause for concern; this failure can have large impact on the quality and replicability of published colitis experiments. We recommend adoption of our checklist as a requirement for publication to improve the quality, comparability, and standardization of colitis studies and will make interpretation and translation of data to human disease more reliable.

Reducing colorectal anastomotic leakage with tissue adhesive in experimental inflammatory bowel disease

BACKGROUND

Anastomotic leakage after gastrointestinal surgery remains a challenging clinical problem. This study aimed to investigate the effectiveness of TissuCol (fibrin glue), Histoacryl Flex (n-butyl-2-cyanoacrylate), and Duraseal (polyethylene glycol) on colorectal anastomotic healing during experimental colitis.

METHODS

We first performed colectomy 7 days after 10 mg trinitrobenzene sulfonic acid (TNBS)-induced colitis to validate a rat TNBS-colitis-colectomy model. Subsequently, this TNBS-colitis-colectomy model was used in 73 Wistar rats that were stratified into a colitis group (CG, no adhesive), a TissuCol group (TG), a Histoacryl group (HG), and a Duraseal group (DG). Anastomotic sealant was applied with one adhesive after constructing an end-to-end hand-sewn anastomosis. Clinical manifestations, anastomotic bursting pressure, and immunohistochemistry of macrophage type-one (M1) and type-two (M2) was performed on postoperative day (POD)3 or POD7.

RESULTS

TNBS-caused mucosal and submucosal colon damage and compromised anastomotic healing (i.e., abscess formation and low anastomotic bursting pressure). On POD3, higher severity of abscesses was seen in CG. Average anastomotic bursting pressure was 53.2 ± 35.5 mm Hg in CG, which was significantly lower than HG (134.4 ± 27.5 mm Hg) and DG (95.1 ± 54.3 mm Hg) but not TG (83.4 ± 46.7 mm Hg). Furthermore, a significantly higher M2/M1 index was found in HG. On POD7, abscesses were only seen in CG (6/9) but not in other groups; HG had the lowest severity of adhesion.

CONCLUSIONS

We describe the first surgical IBD model by performing colectomy in rats with TNBS-induced colitis, which causes intra-abdominal abscess formation and compromises anastomotic healing. Anastomotic sealing with Histoacryl Flex prevents these complications in this model. Alternative activation of macrophages seems to be involved in its influence on anastomotic healing.

Intestinal organoids: a model of intestinal fibrosis for evaluating anti-fibrotic drugs

BACKGROUND & AIMS

Intestinal fibrosis is a critical complication of Crohn's disease (CD). Current in vitro models of intestinal fibrosis cannot model the complex intestinal architecture, while in vivo rodent models do not fully recapitulate human disease and have limited utility for large-scale screening. Here, we exploit recent advances in stem cell derived human intestinal organoids (HIOs) as a new human model of fibrosis in CD.

METHODS

Human pluripotent stem cells were differentiated into HIOs. We identified myofibroblasts, the key effector cells of fibrosis, by immunofluorescence staining for alpha-smooth muscle actin (αSMA), vimentin, and desmin. We examined the fibrogenic response of HIOs by treatment with transforming growth factor beta (TGFβ) in the presence or absence of the anti-fibrotic drug spironolactone. Fibrotic response was assayed by expression of fibrogenic genes (COL1A1 (collagen, type I, alpha 1), ACTA2 (alpha smooth muscle actin), FN1 (fibronectin 1), MYLK (myosin light chain kinase), and MKL1 (megakaryoblastic leukemia (translocation) 1)) and proteins (αSMA).

RESULTS

Immunofluorescent staining of organoids identified a population of myofibroblasts within the HIO mesenchyme. TGFβ stimulation of HIOs produced a dose-dependent pro-fibrotic response. Spironolactone treatment blocked the fibrogenic response of HIOs to TGFβ.

CONCLUSIONS

HIOs contain myofibroblasts and respond to a pro-fibrotic stimulus in a manner that is consistent with isolated human myofibroblasts. HIOs are a promising model system that might bridge the gap between current in vitro and in vivo models of intestinal fibrosis in IBD.

Induction of murine TNBS colitis is strictly controlled by a modified method using continuous inhalation anesthesia with sevoflurane

BACKGROUND

Trinitrobenzenesulfonic acid (TNBS)-induced colitis is one of the most widely used experimental colitis models. However, there is no standard procedure for inducing colitis by TNBS because it is difficult to achieve a uniform distribution of colitis. We have developed a modified method of murine TNBS-induced colitis that involves inhalation anesthesia with sevoflurane combined with both single and repeated TNBS administrations.

AIMS

To compare the usefulness of our newly developed method for inducing murine TNBS-induced colitis with that of conventional intraperitoneal anesthesia.

METHODS

TNBS in ethanol was administered to C57BL/6J mice held in an inverted vertical position either under continuous inhalation anesthesia with sevoflurane, in accordance with our newly developed method, or by intraperitoneal injection with 2.5 % avertin, in accordance with the conventional procedure. Body weight change, cytokine profile, and histological findings were examined during the course of colitis.

RESULTS

The dispersion of anesthesia time, TNBS retention time, and nadir weight during the course of colitis was decreased using the newly developed method compared with the conventional procedure. Optimization of the modified TNBS-induced colitis, as evidenced by the predominant expression of Th1 and Th17 cytokines on day 7, was attained by the injection of 2.25 mg TNBS in 55 % ethanol. Regulation of the TNBS retention time using inhalation anesthesia with sevoflurane allowed strict control of the disease severity of TNBS-induced colitis. Using the modified method we were also able to develop a chronic TNBS-induced colitis model by repeated TNBS administration without excessive mortality of the mice.

CONCLUSIONS

Our modified method for murine TNBS-induced colitis using continuous inhalation anesthesia with sevoflurane provides a better experimental colitis model following both single and repeated TNBS administrations.

Animal models of inflammatory bowel disease: a review

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) represents a group of idiopathic chronic inflammatory intestinal conditions associated with various areas of the GI tract, including two types of inflammatory conditions, i.e., ulcerative colitis (UC) and Crohn's disease (CD). Both UC and CD are chronic inflammatory disorders of the intestine; in UC, inflammation starts in the rectum and generally extends proximally in a continuous manner through the entire colon. Bloody diarrhea, presence of blood and mucus mixed with stool, accompanied by lower abdominal cramping, are the characteristic symptoms of the disease. While in CD, inflammatory condition may affect any part of the GI tract from mouth to anus. It mainly causes abdominal pain, diarrhea, vomiting and weight loss. Although the basic etiology of IBD is unknown, there are several factors that may contribute to the pathogenesis of this disease, such as dysregulation of immune system or commensal bacteria, oxidative stress and inflammatory mediators. In order to understand these different etiological factors, a number of experimental models are available in the scientific research, including chemical-induced, spontaneous, genetically engineered and transgenic models. These models represent a major source of information about biological systems and are clinically relevant to the human IBD. Since there is less collective data available in one single article discussing about all these models, in this review an effort is made to study the outline of pathophysiology and various types of animal models used in the research study of IBD and other disease-related complications.

Immunopathological characterization of selected mouse models of inflammatory bowel disease: Comparison to human disease

Inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD) are chronic, relapsing conditions of multifactorial etiology. The two primary diseases of IBD are Crohn's disease (CD) and ulcerative colitis (UC). Both entities are hypothesized to occur in genetically susceptible individuals due to microbial alterations and environmental contributions. The exact etiopathogenesis, however, is not known for either disease. A variety of mouse models of CD and UC have been developed to investigate the pathogenesis of these diseases and evaluate treatment modalities. Broadly speaking, the mouse models can be divided into 4 categories: genetically engineered, immune manipulated, spontaneous and erosive/chemically induced. No one mouse model completely recapitulates the immunopathology of CD or UC, however each model possesses particular similarities to human IBD and offers advantageous for specific details of IBD pathogenesis. Here we discuss the more commonly used models in each category and critically evaluate how the immunopathology induced compares to CD or UC, as well as the advantages and disadvantages associated with each model.

Amelioration of severe TNBS induced colitis by novel AP-1 and NF- κ B inhibitors in rats

AP-1 and NF-κB inhibitors, namely, DTCM-G and DHMEQ, were investigated in male Wistar rats with severe colitis, induced by TNBS. The animals were randomized into 3 groups. The control group received 0.5 mL of 0.5% of the vehicle i.p., the DTCM-G group received 22.5 mg/kg body weight DTCM-G in 0.5% i.p., and the DHMEQ group received 15 mg/kg body weight DHMEQ i.p., all twice daily for 5 days. The body weight losses and mortality rates were significantly higher in the control group than those in DTCM-G-treated and DHMEQ-treated groups. The endoscopic inflammation scores in the control, DTCM-G-treated, and DHMEQ-treated groups were 6.3 ± 0.7, 1.0 ± 0.3, and 0.7 ± 0.3, respectively (P = 0.004 and 0.02, resp.). The inflammation scores as assessed by the macroscopic appearance were 4.3 ± 0.8, 0.7 ± 0.3, and 1.2 ± 0.4 in the control, DTCM-G-treated, and DHMEQ-treated groups, respectively (P = 0.01 and 0.009, resp.). The histopathological inflammation scores were 6.4 ± 0.7, 2.0 ± 1.0, and 2.2 ± 0.6 in the control, DTCM-G-treated, and DHMEQ-treated groups, respectively (P = 0.03 and 0.01, resp.). It was concluded that DTCM-G and DHMEQ exhibit strong anti-inflammatory and anticancer activities with no apparent toxicity, which make them excellent drug candidates for clinical use in inflammatory bowel diseases.