1
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Najera D, Espinosa Martinez G, Fout AR. Synthesis and Characterization of Palladium Pincer Bis(carbene) CCC Complexes. Organometallics 2023; 42:832-837. [PMID: 38357387 PMCID: PMC10863395 DOI: 10.1021/acs.organomet.3c00114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2023] [Indexed: 02/16/2024]
Abstract
The metalation of the DIPPCCC (DIPPCCC = bis(diisopropylphenyl-imidazol-2-ylidene)phenyl) ligand platform with Pd was achieved under mild conditions by reacting [H3(DIPPCCC)]Cl2 with Pd(OAc)2 at room temperature in the presence of 3.1 equiv of LiN(SiMe3)2. The resulting complexes (DIPPCCC)PdX (X = Cl or Br) were oxidized by two-electron oxidants PhICl2, Br2, and BTMABr3. All the complexes were crystallographically characterized, and analysis of structural parameters around the ligand scaffold show no evidence of a ligand-centered radical, rendering the metal center in the oxidized species, (DIPPCCC)PdX3 (X = Cl or Br), a formal PdIV oxidation state. Unlike their NiIV analogues, these PdIV complexes are stable to air and moisture. The addition of styrene to (DIPPCCC)PdBr3 resulted in the clean reduction of PdIV to PdII, along with the formation of the halogenated alkane. The oxidation to PdIV and subsequent return to PdII upon reduction, as opposed to formation of PdIII species, showcases the accessibility of high-valent palladium DIPPCCC complexes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel
C. Najera
- School
of Chemical Sciences, University of Illinois
at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
| | - Gabriel Espinosa Martinez
- School
of Chemical Sciences, University of Illinois
at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
| | - Alison R. Fout
- Department
of Chemistry, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas 77843, United States
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2
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Fu H, Rong J, Chen Z, Zhou J, Collier T, Liang SH. Positron Emission Tomography (PET) Imaging Tracers for Serotonin Receptors. J Med Chem 2022; 65:10755-10808. [PMID: 35939391 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.2c00633] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine, 5-HT) and 5-HT receptors (5-HTRs) have crucial roles in various neuropsychiatric disorders and neurodegenerative diseases, making them attractive diagnostic and therapeutic targets. Positron emission tomography (PET) is a noninvasive nuclear molecular imaging technique and is an essential tool in clinical diagnosis and drug discovery. In this context, numerous PET ligands have been developed for "visualizing" 5-HTRs in the brain and translated into human use to study disease mechanisms and/or support drug development. Herein, we present a comprehensive repertoire of 5-HTR PET ligands by focusing on their chemotypes and performance in PET imaging studies. Furthermore, this Perspective summarizes recent 5-HTR-focused drug discovery, including biased agonists and allosteric modulators, which would stimulate the development of more potent and subtype-selective 5-HTR PET ligands and thus further our understanding of 5-HTR biology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hualong Fu
- Key Laboratory of Radiopharmaceuticals, Ministry of Education, College of Chemistry, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China
| | - Jian Rong
- Division of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts 02114, United States.,Department of Radiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, United States
| | - Zhen Chen
- Jiangsu Co-Innovation Center of Efficient Processing and Utilization of Forest Resources, International Innovation Center for Forest Chemicals and Materials, College of Chemical Engineering, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210037, China
| | - Jingyin Zhou
- Key Laboratory of Radiopharmaceuticals, Ministry of Education, College of Chemistry, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China
| | - Thomas Collier
- Division of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts 02114, United States.,Department of Radiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, United States
| | - Steven H Liang
- Division of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts 02114, United States.,Department of Radiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, United States
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3
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State of the art of radiochemistry for 11C and 18F PET tracers. Nucl Med Mol Imaging 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-822960-6.00007-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
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4
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Bratteby K, Shalgunov V, Herth MM. Aliphatic 18 F-Radiofluorination: Recent Advances in the Labeling of Base-Sensitive Substrates*. ChemMedChem 2021; 16:2612-2622. [PMID: 34169672 DOI: 10.1002/cmdc.202100303] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Aliphatic fluorine-18 radiolabeling is the most commonly used method to synthesize tracers for PET-imaging. With an increasing demand for 18 F-radiotracers for clinical applications, new labeling strategies aiming to increase radiochemical yields of established tracers or, more importantly, to enable 18 F-labeling of new scaffolds have been developed. In recent years, increased attention has been focused on the direct aliphatic 18 F-fluorination of base-sensitive substrates in this respect. This minireview gives a concise overview of the recent advances within this field and aims to highlight the advantages and limitations of these methods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Klas Bratteby
- Department of Drug Design and Pharmacology Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Jagtvej 160, 2100, Copenhagen, Denmark.,Department of Radiation Physics, Skåne University Hospital, Barngatan 3, 222 42, Lund, Sweden.,Department of Clinical Physiology, Nuclear Medicine & PET Rigshospitalet, Blegdamsvej 9, 2100, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Vladimir Shalgunov
- Department of Drug Design and Pharmacology Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Jagtvej 160, 2100, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Matthias Manfred Herth
- Department of Drug Design and Pharmacology Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Jagtvej 160, 2100, Copenhagen, Denmark.,Department of Clinical Physiology, Nuclear Medicine & PET Rigshospitalet, Blegdamsvej 9, 2100, Copenhagen, Denmark
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5
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Yu HM, Li CY, Liu SW, Yang CH, Chang Y. Copper-mediated nucleophilic radiofluorination of [ 18 F]β-CFT for positron emission tomography imaging of dopamine transporter. J Labelled Comp Radiopharm 2021; 64:228-236. [PMID: 33570188 DOI: 10.1002/jlcr.3905] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2020] [Revised: 01/28/2021] [Accepted: 01/29/2021] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
[18 F]β-CFT is a positron emission tomography (PET) ligand for imaging of dopamine transporter. It was proved to be a sensitive PET marker to detect presynaptic dopaminergic hypofunction in Parkinson's disease. In recent years, copper-mediated 18 F-fluorination of aryl boronic esters has been successful in some molecules containing aromatic groups. In this study, we describe the novel synthetic strategy of [18 F]β-CFT by copper-mediated nucleophilic radiofluorination with pinacol-derived aryl boronic esters upon reaction with [18 F]KF/K222 and Cu (OTf)2 (py)4 . The radiolabeling protocol was optimized with [18 F]fluoride elution method and amount of copper catalyst used. [18 F]β-CFT is obtained from boronic ester precursors in 2.2% to 10.6% non-isolated radiochemical yield (RCY). Purified [18 F]β-CFT with >99% radiochemical purity (RCP) and high molar activity was obtained in validation runs. The radiolabeling procedure is straightforward and can easily be adapted for clinical use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hung-Man Yu
- Isotope Application Division, Institute of Nuclear Energy Research, Taoyuan City, Taiwan
| | - Ching-Yun Li
- Chemistry Division, Institute of Nuclear Energy Research, Taoyuan City, Taiwan
| | - Shiu-Wen Liu
- Chemistry Division, Institute of Nuclear Energy Research, Taoyuan City, Taiwan
| | - Chun-Hung Yang
- Isotope Application Division, Institute of Nuclear Energy Research, Taoyuan City, Taiwan
| | - Yu Chang
- Chemistry Division, Institute of Nuclear Energy Research, Taoyuan City, Taiwan
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6
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Cesarec S, Robson JA, Carroll LS, Aboagye EO, Spivey AC. Direct incorporation of [ 18F] into Aliphatic Systems: A promising Mn-catalysed Labelling Technique for PET Imaging. Curr Radiopharm 2021; 14:101-106. [PMID: 32895047 DOI: 10.2174/1874471013666200907115026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2020] [Revised: 08/04/2020] [Accepted: 08/05/2020] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND One of the challenges in positron emission tomography (PET) is labelling complex aliphatic molecules. OBJECTIVE This study aimed to develop a method of metal-catalysed radiofluorination that is site-selective and works in moderate to good yields under facile conditions. METHODS Herein, we report on the optimisation of an aliphatic C-H to C-18F bond transformation catalysed by a Mn(porphyrin) complex. RESULTS The successful oxidation of 11 aliphatic molecules, including progesterone, is reported. Radiochemical Incorporations (RCIs) up to 69% were achieved within 60 min without the need for pre-activation or special equipment. CONCLUSION The method features mild conditions (60 °C) and promises to constitute a valuable approach to labelling of biomolecules and drug substances.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara Cesarec
- Comprehensive Cancer Imaging Centre, Department of Surgery and Cancer, Imperial College London, Hammersmith Campus, Du Cane Road, London W12 0NN, United Kingdom
| | - Jonathan A Robson
- Comprehensive Cancer Imaging Centre, Department of Surgery and Cancer, Imperial College London, Hammersmith Campus, Du Cane Road, London W12 0NN, United Kingdom
| | - Laurence S Carroll
- Comprehensive Cancer Imaging Centre, Department of Surgery and Cancer, Imperial College London, Hammersmith Campus, Du Cane Road, London W12 0NN, United Kingdom
| | - Eric O Aboagye
- Comprehensive Cancer Imaging Centre, Department of Surgery and Cancer, Imperial College London, Hammersmith Campus, Du Cane Road, London W12 0NN, United Kingdom
| | - Alan C Spivey
- Department of Chemistry, Molecular Sciences Research Hub (MSRH), White City Campus, 80 Wood Lane, London W12 0BZ, United Kingdom
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7
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Zhu Y, Chen L, Hou W, Li Y. Recent Progress in Nucleophilic Fluoride Mediated Fluorine-18 Labeling of Arenes and Heteroarenes. CHINESE J ORG CHEM 2021. [DOI: 10.6023/cjoc202010030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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8
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandre M. Sorlin
- Department of Chemistry, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa 52242, United States
| | - Fuad O. Usman
- Department of Chemistry, Wayne State University, Detroit, Michigan 48202, United States
| | - Connor K. English
- Department of Chemistry, Wayne State University, Detroit, Michigan 48202, United States
| | - Hien M. Nguyen
- Department of Chemistry, Wayne State University, Detroit, Michigan 48202, United States
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9
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Zlatopolskiy BD, Zischler J, Krapf P, Richarz R, Lauchner K, Neumaier B. Minimalist approach meets green chemistry: Synthesis of 18 F- labeled (hetero)aromatics in pure ethanol. J Labelled Comp Radiopharm 2020; 62:404-410. [PMID: 31162691 DOI: 10.1002/jlcr.3776] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2019] [Accepted: 05/27/2019] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
The application of toxic solvents and additives is inevitable for most of the described protocols for 18 F-labeling. Herein, a novel "green" procedure for nucleophilic aromatic radiofluorination of highly activated (hetero)aromatic substrates in pure EtOH is described. Using this method a series of 18 F-labeled (hetero)arenes have been synthesized in radiochemical yields (RCYs) of up to 97%.
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Affiliation(s)
- Boris D Zlatopolskiy
- Institute of Neuroscience and Medicine, INM-5: Nuclear Chemistry, Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH, Jülich, Germany.,Institute of Radiochemistry and Experimental Molecular Imaging, University Clinic Cologne, Cologne, Germany.,Max Planck Institute for Metabolism Research, Cologne, Germany
| | - Johannes Zischler
- Institute of Neuroscience and Medicine, INM-5: Nuclear Chemistry, Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH, Jülich, Germany.,Institute of Radiochemistry and Experimental Molecular Imaging, University Clinic Cologne, Cologne, Germany
| | - Philipp Krapf
- Institute of Neuroscience and Medicine, INM-5: Nuclear Chemistry, Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH, Jülich, Germany.,Institute of Radiochemistry and Experimental Molecular Imaging, University Clinic Cologne, Cologne, Germany
| | - Raphael Richarz
- Institute of Neuroscience and Medicine, INM-5: Nuclear Chemistry, Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH, Jülich, Germany.,Institute of Radiochemistry and Experimental Molecular Imaging, University Clinic Cologne, Cologne, Germany
| | - Katharina Lauchner
- Institute of Neuroscience and Medicine, INM-5: Nuclear Chemistry, Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH, Jülich, Germany.,Institute of Radiochemistry and Experimental Molecular Imaging, University Clinic Cologne, Cologne, Germany
| | - Bernd Neumaier
- Institute of Neuroscience and Medicine, INM-5: Nuclear Chemistry, Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH, Jülich, Germany.,Institute of Radiochemistry and Experimental Molecular Imaging, University Clinic Cologne, Cologne, Germany.,Max Planck Institute for Metabolism Research, Cologne, Germany
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10
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Lahdenpohja SO, Rajala NA, Rajander J, Kirjavainen AK. Fast and efficient copper-mediated 18F-fluorination of arylstannanes, aryl boronic acids, and aryl boronic esters without azeotropic drying. EJNMMI Radiopharm Chem 2019; 4:28. [PMID: 31659523 PMCID: PMC6795642 DOI: 10.1186/s41181-019-0079-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2019] [Accepted: 09/25/2019] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Copper-mediated radiofluorination is a straightforward method to produce a variety of [18F]fluoroarenes and [18F]fluoroheteroarenes. To minimize the number of steps in the production of 18F-labelled radiopharmaceuticals, we have developed a short and efficient azeotropic drying-free 18F-labelling method using copper-mediated fluorination. Our goal was to improve the copper-mediated method to achieve wide substrate scope with good radiochemical yields with short synthesis time. Results Solid phase extraction with Cu (OTf)2 in dimethylacetamide is a suitable activation method for [18F]fluoride. Elution efficiency with Cu (OTf)2 is up to 79% and radiochemical yield (RCY) of a variety of model molecules in the crude reaction mixture has reached over 90%. Clinically relevant molecules, norepinephrine transporter tracer [18F]NS12137 and monoamine transporter tracer [18F]CFT were produced with 16.5% RCY in 98 min and 5.3% RCY in 64 min, respectively. Conclusions Cu (OTf)2 is a suitable elution agent for releasing [18F]fluoride from an anion exchange cartridge. The method is fast and efficient and the Cu-complex is customizable after the release of [18F]fluoride. Alterations in the [18F]fluoride elution techniques did not have a negative effect on the subsequent labelling reactions. We anticipate this improved [18F]fluoride elution technique to supplant the traditional azeotropic drying of [18F]fluoride in the long run and to concurrently enable the variations of the copper-complex.
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Affiliation(s)
- Salla Orvokki Lahdenpohja
- Radiopharmaceutical Chemistry Laboratory, Turku PET Centre, University of Turku, Kiinamyllynkatu 4-8, 20520, Turku, Finland
| | - Noora Annika Rajala
- Radiopharmaceutical Chemistry Laboratory, Turku PET Centre, University of Turku, Kiinamyllynkatu 4-8, 20520, Turku, Finland
| | - Johan Rajander
- Accelerator Laboratory, Turku PET Centre, Åbo Akademi University, Porthaninkatu 3, 20500, Turku, Finland
| | - Anna Kaarina Kirjavainen
- Radiopharmaceutical Chemistry Laboratory, Turku PET Centre, University of Turku, Kiinamyllynkatu 4-8, 20520, Turku, Finland.
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11
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Kim J, Kim YJ, Londhe AM, Pae AN, Choo H, Kim HJ, Min SJ. Synthesis and Biological Evaluation of Disubstituted Pyrimidines as Selective 5-HT 2C Agonists. Molecules 2019; 24:molecules24183234. [PMID: 31491978 PMCID: PMC6767204 DOI: 10.3390/molecules24183234] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2019] [Revised: 08/31/2019] [Accepted: 09/03/2019] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Here, we describe the synthesis of disubstituted pyrimidine derivatives and their biological evaluation as selective 5-HT2C agonists. To improve selectivity for 5-HT2C over other subtypes, we synthesized two series of disubstituted pyrimidines with fluorophenylalkoxy groups at either the 5-position or 4-position and varying cyclic amines at the 2-position. The in vitro cell-based assay and binding assay identified compounds 10a and 10f as potent 5-HT2C agonists. Further studies on selectivity to 5-HT subtypes and drug-like properties indicated that 2,4-disubstituted pyrimidine 10a showed a highly agonistic effect on the 5-HT2C receptor, with excellent selectivity, as well as exceptional drug-like properties, including high plasma and microsomal stability, along with low CYP inhibition. Thus, pyrimidine 10a could be considered a viable lead compound as a 5-HT2C selective agonist.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juhyeon Kim
- Center for Neuro-Medicine, Korea Institute of Science and Technology (KIST), Seoul 02792, Korea
- Department of Chemistry, Korea University, Seoul 02841, Korea
| | - Yoon Jung Kim
- Department of Applied Chemistry, Hanyang University, Ansan, Gyeonggi-do 15588, Korea
| | - Ashwini M Londhe
- Division of Bio-Medical Science & Technology, KIST School, Korea University of Science and Technology, Seoul 02792, Korea
- Convergence Research Center for Diagnosis, Treatment and Care System of Dementia, Korea Institute of Science and Technology, Seoul 02792, Korea
| | - Ae Nim Pae
- Division of Bio-Medical Science & Technology, KIST School, Korea University of Science and Technology, Seoul 02792, Korea
- Convergence Research Center for Diagnosis, Treatment and Care System of Dementia, Korea Institute of Science and Technology, Seoul 02792, Korea
| | - Hyunah Choo
- Center for Neuro-Medicine, Korea Institute of Science and Technology (KIST), Seoul 02792, Korea
- Division of Bio-Medical Science & Technology, KIST School, Korea University of Science and Technology, Seoul 02792, Korea
| | - Hak Joong Kim
- Department of Chemistry, Korea University, Seoul 02841, Korea
| | - Sun-Joon Min
- Department of Applied Chemistry, Hanyang University, Ansan, Gyeonggi-do 15588, Korea.
- Department of Chemical & Molecular Engineering, Hanyang University, Ansan, Gyeonggi-do 15588, Korea.
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12
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Orlovskaya VV, Modemann DJ, Kuznetsova OF, Fedorova OS, Urusova EA, Kolks N, Neumaier B, Krasikova RN, Zlatopolskiy BD. Alcohol-Supported Cu-Mediated 18F-Fluorination of Iodonium Salts under "Minimalist" Conditions. Molecules 2019; 24:molecules24173197. [PMID: 31484375 PMCID: PMC6749259 DOI: 10.3390/molecules24173197] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2019] [Revised: 08/29/2019] [Accepted: 09/02/2019] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
In the era of personalized precision medicine, positron emission tomography (PET) and related hybrid methods like PET/CT and PET/MRI gain recognition as indispensable tools of clinical diagnostics. A broader implementation of these imaging modalities in clinical routine is closely dependent on the increased availability of established and emerging PET-tracers, which in turn could be accessible by the development of simple, reliable, and efficient radiolabeling procedures. A further requirement is a cGMP production of imaging probes in automated synthesis modules. Herein, a novel protocol for the efficient preparation of 18F-labeled aromatics via Cu-mediated radiofluorination of (aryl)(mesityl)iodonium salts without the need of evaporation steps is described. Labeled aromatics were prepared in high radiochemical yields simply by heating of iodonium [18F]fluorides with the Cu-mediator in methanolic DMF. The iodonium [18F]fluorides were prepared by direct elution of 18F- from an anion exchange resin with solutions of the corresponding precursors in MeOH/DMF. The practicality of the novel method was confirmed by the racemization-free production of radiolabeled fluorophenylalanines, including hitherto unknown 3-[18F]FPhe, in 22-69% isolated radiochemical yields as well as its direct implementation into a remote-controlled synthesis unit.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Daniel J Modemann
- Institute of Neuroscience and Medicine, INM-5: Nuclear Chemistry, Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH, 52425 Jülich, Germany.
| | - Olga F Kuznetsova
- N.P.Bechtereva Institute of the Human Brain, 197376 St.-Petersburg, Russia.
| | - Olga S Fedorova
- N.P.Bechtereva Institute of the Human Brain, 197376 St.-Petersburg, Russia.
| | - Elizaveta A Urusova
- Institute of Neuroscience and Medicine, INM-5: Nuclear Chemistry, Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH, 52425 Jülich, Germany.
- Institute of Radiochemistry and Experimental Molecular Imaging, University Clinic Cologne, 50937 Cologne, Germany.
| | - Niklas Kolks
- Institute of Neuroscience and Medicine, INM-5: Nuclear Chemistry, Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH, 52425 Jülich, Germany.
- Institute of Radiochemistry and Experimental Molecular Imaging, University Clinic Cologne, 50937 Cologne, Germany.
| | - Bernd Neumaier
- Institute of Neuroscience and Medicine, INM-5: Nuclear Chemistry, Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH, 52425 Jülich, Germany.
- Institute of Radiochemistry and Experimental Molecular Imaging, University Clinic Cologne, 50937 Cologne, Germany.
- Max Planck Institute for Metabolism Research, 50931 Cologne, Germany.
| | - Raisa N Krasikova
- N.P.Bechtereva Institute of the Human Brain, 197376 St.-Petersburg, Russia.
- St.-Petersburg State University, 199034 St.-Petersburg, Russia.
| | - Boris D Zlatopolskiy
- Institute of Neuroscience and Medicine, INM-5: Nuclear Chemistry, Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH, 52425 Jülich, Germany.
- Institute of Radiochemistry and Experimental Molecular Imaging, University Clinic Cologne, 50937 Cologne, Germany.
- Max Planck Institute for Metabolism Research, 50931 Cologne, Germany.
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13
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Lahdenpohja S, Keller T, Rajander J, Kirjavainen AK. Radiosynthesis of the norepinephrine transporter tracer [ 18 F]NS12137 via copper-mediated 18 F-labelling. J Labelled Comp Radiopharm 2019; 62:259-264. [PMID: 30843249 PMCID: PMC6619244 DOI: 10.1002/jlcr.3717] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2018] [Revised: 02/18/2019] [Accepted: 02/25/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
[18F]NS12137 (exo‐3‐[(6‐[18F]fluoro‐2‐pyridyl)oxy]8‐azabicyclo[3.2.1]octane) is a highly selective norepinephrine transporter (NET) tracer. NETs are responsible for the reuptake of norepinephrine and dopamine and are linked to several neurodegenerative and neuropsychiatric disorders. The aim of this study was to develop a copper‐mediated 18F‐fluorination method for the production of [18F]NS12137 with straightforward synthesis conditions and high radiochemical yield and molar activity. [18F]NS12137 was produced in two steps. Radiofluorination of [18F]NS12137 was performed via a copper‐mediated pathway starting with a stannane precursor and using [18F]F− as the source of the fluorine‐18 isotope. Deprotection was performed via acid hydrolysis. The radiofluorination reaction was nearly quantitative as was the deprotection based on HPLC analysis. The radiochemical yield of the synthesis was 15.1 ± 0.5%. Molar activity of [18F]NS12137 was up to 300 GBq/μmol. The synthesis procedure is straightforward and can easily be automated and adapted for clinical production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Salla Lahdenpohja
- Radiopharmaceutical Chemistry Laboratory, Turku PET Centre, University of Turku, Turku, Finland
| | - Thomas Keller
- Radiopharmaceutical Chemistry Laboratory, Turku PET Centre, University of Turku, Turku, Finland
| | - Johan Rajander
- Accelerator Laboratory, Turku PET Centre, Åbo Akademi University, Turku, Finland
| | - Anna K Kirjavainen
- Radiopharmaceutical Chemistry Laboratory, Turku PET Centre, University of Turku, Turku, Finland
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14
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Deng X, Rong J, Wang L, Vasdev N, Zhang L, Josephson L, Liang SH. Chemistry for Positron Emission Tomography: Recent Advances in 11 C-, 18 F-, 13 N-, and 15 O-Labeling Reactions. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2019; 58:2580-2605. [PMID: 30054961 PMCID: PMC6405341 DOI: 10.1002/anie.201805501] [Citation(s) in RCA: 195] [Impact Index Per Article: 39.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2018] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Positron emission tomography (PET) is a molecular imaging technology that provides quantitative information about function and metabolism in biological processes in vivo for disease diagnosis and therapy assessment. The broad application and rapid advances of PET has led to an increased demand for new radiochemical methods to synthesize highly specific molecules bearing positron-emitting radionuclides. This Review provides an overview of commonly used labeling reactions through examples of clinically relevant PET tracers and highlights the most recent developments and breakthroughs over the past decade, with a focus on 11 C, 18 F, 13 N, and 15 O.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoyun Deng
- Division of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging, Massachusetts General Hospital & Department of Radiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02114, USA
| | - Jian Rong
- Division of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging, Massachusetts General Hospital & Department of Radiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02114, USA
| | - Lu Wang
- Division of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging, Massachusetts General Hospital & Department of Radiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02114, USA
| | - Neil Vasdev
- Division of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging, Massachusetts General Hospital & Department of Radiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02114, USA
| | - Lei Zhang
- Medicine Design, Pfizer Inc., Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA
| | - Lee Josephson
- Division of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging, Massachusetts General Hospital & Department of Radiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02114, USA
| | - Steven H Liang
- Division of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging, Massachusetts General Hospital & Department of Radiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02114, USA
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15
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Zhang X, Basuli F, Swenson RE. An azeotropic drying-free approach for copper-mediated radiofluorination without addition of base. J Labelled Comp Radiopharm 2019; 62:139-145. [PMID: 30644121 DOI: 10.1002/jlcr.3705] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2018] [Revised: 12/12/2018] [Accepted: 01/04/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Copper-mediated radiofluorination provides a quick and versatile approach for 18 F-labeling of arenes and heteroarenes. However, this method is known to be base sensitive, which has been a barrier for preparative scale radiosynthesis. In this report, we provide an approach for copper-mediated radiofluorination without azeotropic drying or adding a base. [18 F]Fluoride trapped on a PS-HCO3 Sep-Pak was quantitatively eluted with a solution of 4-dimethylaminopyridinium trifluoromethanesulfonate (DMAP·OTf) in anhydrous N,N-dimethylformamide (DMF). The eluted solution was directly used for copper-mediated radiofluorination. Twelve boronic ester substrates were tested, yielding fluorinated products in 27% to 83% radiochemical yield based on HPLC analysis. This approach was successfully applied to the radiosynthesis of [18 F]flumazenil, a well-known positron emission tomography (PET) tracer for imaging central benzodiazepine receptors, with a radiochemical yield of 47%. This highly efficient protocol significantly augments the powerful copper-mediated radiofluorination approach.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiang Zhang
- Imaging Probe Development Center, National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, Maryland
| | - Falguni Basuli
- Imaging Probe Development Center, National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, Maryland
| | - Rolf E Swenson
- Imaging Probe Development Center, National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, Maryland
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16
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Pérez-Gómez M, Azizollahi H, Franzoni I, Larin EM, Lautens M, García-López JA. Tandem Remote Csp3–H Activation/Csp3–Csp3 Cleavage in Unstrained Aliphatic Chains Assisted by Palladium(II). Organometallics 2019. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.organomet.8b00920] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Marta Pérez-Gómez
- Grupo de Química Organometálica, Departamento de Química Inorgánica, Universidad de Murcia, Murcia 30100, Spain
| | - Hamid Azizollahi
- Grupo de Química Organometálica, Departamento de Química Inorgánica, Universidad de Murcia, Murcia 30100, Spain
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, 91775-1436 Mashhad, Iran
| | - Ivan Franzoni
- Davenport Research Laboratories, Department of Chemistry, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3H6, Canada
| | - Egor M. Larin
- Davenport Research Laboratories, Department of Chemistry, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3H6, Canada
| | - Mark Lautens
- Davenport Research Laboratories, Department of Chemistry, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3H6, Canada
| | - José-Antonio García-López
- Grupo de Química Organometálica, Departamento de Química Inorgánica, Universidad de Murcia, Murcia 30100, Spain
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17
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Deng X, Rong J, Wang L, Vasdev N, Zhang L, Josephson L, Liang SH. Chemie der Positronenemissionstomographie: Aktuelle Fortschritte bei
11
C‐,
18
F‐,
13
N‐ und
15
O‐Markierungsreaktionen. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2019. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.201805501] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoyun Deng
- Division of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular ImagingMassachusetts General Hospital & Department of RadiologyHarvard Medical School Boston MA 02114 USA
| | - Jian Rong
- Division of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular ImagingMassachusetts General Hospital & Department of RadiologyHarvard Medical School Boston MA 02114 USA
| | - Lu Wang
- Division of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular ImagingMassachusetts General Hospital & Department of RadiologyHarvard Medical School Boston MA 02114 USA
| | - Neil Vasdev
- Division of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular ImagingMassachusetts General Hospital & Department of RadiologyHarvard Medical School Boston MA 02114 USA
| | - Lei Zhang
- Medicine DesignPfizer Inc. Cambridge MA 02139 USA
| | - Lee Josephson
- Division of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular ImagingMassachusetts General Hospital & Department of RadiologyHarvard Medical School Boston MA 02114 USA
| | - Steven H. Liang
- Division of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular ImagingMassachusetts General Hospital & Department of RadiologyHarvard Medical School Boston MA 02114 USA
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18
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Antuganov D, Zykov M, Timofeev V, Timofeeva K, Antuganova Y, Orlovskaya V, Fedorova O, Krasikova R. Copper-Mediated Radiofluorination of Aryl Pinacolboronate Esters: A Straightforward Protocol by Using Pyridinium Sulfonates. European J Org Chem 2018. [DOI: 10.1002/ejoc.201801514] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Dmitrii Antuganov
- PET Centre; National Almazov Medical Research Centre; 2 Akkuratova street 197341 St. Petersburg Russia
| | - Michail Zykov
- PET Centre; National Almazov Medical Research Centre; 2 Akkuratova street 197341 St. Petersburg Russia
| | - Vasilii Timofeev
- PET Centre; National Almazov Medical Research Centre; 2 Akkuratova street 197341 St. Petersburg Russia
| | - Ksenija Timofeeva
- PET Centre; National Almazov Medical Research Centre; 2 Akkuratova street 197341 St. Petersburg Russia
| | - Yulija Antuganova
- PET Centre; National Almazov Medical Research Centre; 2 Akkuratova street 197341 St. Petersburg Russia
| | - Victoriya Orlovskaya
- N.P. Bechtereva Institute of Human Brain; Laboratory of Radiochemisty; Russian Academy of Science; 9 Ak. Pavlova st. 197376 St. Petersburg Russia
| | - Olga Fedorova
- N.P. Bechtereva Institute of Human Brain; Laboratory of Radiochemisty; Russian Academy of Science; 9 Ak. Pavlova st. 197376 St. Petersburg Russia
| | - Raisa Krasikova
- N.P. Bechtereva Institute of Human Brain; Laboratory of Radiochemisty; Russian Academy of Science; 9 Ak. Pavlova st. 197376 St. Petersburg Russia
- Institute of Chemistry; Laboratory of Radiochemisty; St.-Petersburg State University; Universitetskaya Emb., 13B 199034 St. Petersburg Russia
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19
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Mixdorf JC, Sorlin AM, Dick DW, Nguyen HM. Iridium-Catalyzed Radiosynthesis of Branched Allylic [18F]Fluorides. Org Lett 2018; 21:60-64. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.orglett.8b03496] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jason C. Mixdorf
- Department of Chemistry, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa 52242, United States
| | - Alexandre M. Sorlin
- Department of Chemistry, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa 52242, United States
| | - David W. Dick
- University of Iowa Hospitals and Clinics, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa 52242, United States
| | - Hien M. Nguyen
- Department of Chemistry, Wayne State University, Detroit, Michigan 48202, United States
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20
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Chao PH, Lazari M, Hanet S, Narayanam MK, Murphy JM, van Dam RM. Automated concentration of [ 18F]fluoride into microliter volumes. Appl Radiat Isot 2018; 141:138-148. [PMID: 30243135 PMCID: PMC6502507 DOI: 10.1016/j.apradiso.2018.06.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2018] [Revised: 06/07/2018] [Accepted: 06/20/2018] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Concentration of [18F]fluoride has been mentioned in literature, however, reports have lacked details about system designs, operation, and performance. Here, we describe in detail a compact, fast, fully-automated concentration system based on a micro-sized strong anion exchange cartridge. The concentration of radionuclides enables scaled-up microfluidic synthesis. Our system can also be used to provide highly concentrated [18F]fluoride with minimal water content. We demonstrate how the concentrator can produce varying concentrations of [18F]fluoride for the macroscale synthesis of N-boc-5-[18F]fluoroindole without an azeotropic drying process, while enabling high starting radioactivity. By appropriate choice of solid-phase resin, flow conditions, and eluent solution, we believe this approach can be extended beyond [18F]fluoride to other radionuclides.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philip H Chao
- Department of Bioengineering, Henry Samueli School of Engineering, UCLA, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA; Crump Institute for Molecular Imaging, David Geffen School of Medicine, UCLA, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA; Department of Molecular and Medical Pharmacology, David Geffen School of Medicine, UCLA, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
| | - Mark Lazari
- Department of Bioengineering, Henry Samueli School of Engineering, UCLA, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA; Crump Institute for Molecular Imaging, David Geffen School of Medicine, UCLA, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA; Department of Molecular and Medical Pharmacology, David Geffen School of Medicine, UCLA, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
| | - Sebastian Hanet
- Crump Institute for Molecular Imaging, David Geffen School of Medicine, UCLA, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA; Department of Molecular and Medical Pharmacology, David Geffen School of Medicine, UCLA, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
| | - Maruthi Kumar Narayanam
- Crump Institute for Molecular Imaging, David Geffen School of Medicine, UCLA, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA; Department of Molecular and Medical Pharmacology, David Geffen School of Medicine, UCLA, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
| | - Jennifer M Murphy
- Crump Institute for Molecular Imaging, David Geffen School of Medicine, UCLA, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA; Department of Molecular and Medical Pharmacology, David Geffen School of Medicine, UCLA, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
| | - R Michael van Dam
- Department of Bioengineering, Henry Samueli School of Engineering, UCLA, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA; Crump Institute for Molecular Imaging, David Geffen School of Medicine, UCLA, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA; Department of Molecular and Medical Pharmacology, David Geffen School of Medicine, UCLA, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
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21
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Corbo R, Dutton JL. Weiss’ Reagents: A synthetically useful class of iodine(III) coordination compounds. Coord Chem Rev 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ccr.2017.10.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
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22
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Jakobsson JE, Grønnevik G, Rafique W, Hartvig K, Riss PJ. Formamide as an Unconventional Amine Protecting Group for PET Radiochemistry. European J Org Chem 2018. [DOI: 10.1002/ejoc.201800554] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jimmy Erik Jakobsson
- Realomics Strategic Research Initiative; Department of Chemistry; Faculty for Mathematics and Natural Sciences; University of Oslo; Oslo Norway
| | - Gaute Grønnevik
- Realomics Strategic Research Initiative; Department of Chemistry; Faculty for Mathematics and Natural Sciences; University of Oslo; Oslo Norway
- Department of Chemistry; Norwegian Medical Cyclotron AS; Nydalen Oslo Norway
| | - Waqas Rafique
- Realomics Strategic Research Initiative; Department of Chemistry; Faculty for Mathematics and Natural Sciences; University of Oslo; Oslo Norway
| | - Karoline Hartvig
- Realomics Strategic Research Initiative; Department of Chemistry; Faculty for Mathematics and Natural Sciences; University of Oslo; Oslo Norway
| | - Patrick Johannes Riss
- Realomics Strategic Research Initiative; Department of Chemistry; Faculty for Mathematics and Natural Sciences; University of Oslo; Oslo Norway
- Department of Chemistry; Norwegian Medical Cyclotron AS; Nydalen Oslo Norway
- Department of Surgery and Neuroscience; OUS-Rikshospitalet HF; Oslo Norway
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23
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Abstract
The process of discovering and developing a new pharmaceutical is a long, difficult, and risky process that requires numerous resources. Molecular imaging techniques such as PET have recently become a useful tool for making decisions along a drug candidate's development timeline. PET is a translational, noninvasive imaging technique that provides quantitative information about a potential drug candidate and its target at the molecular level. Using this technique provides decisional information to ensure that the right drug candidate is being chosen, for the right target, at the right dose within the right patient population. This review will focus on small molecule PET tracers and how they are used within the drug discovery process. PET provides key information about a drug candidate's pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic properties in both preclinical and clinical studies. PET is being used in all phases of the drug discovery and development process, and the goal of these studies are to accelerate the process in which drugs are developed.
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Affiliation(s)
- David J Donnelly
- Bristol-Myers Squibb Pharmaceutical Research and Development, Princeton, NJ.
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24
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Yang H, Dormer PG, Rivera NR, Hoover AJ. Palladium(II)-Mediated C-H Tritiation of Complex Pharmaceuticals. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2018; 57:1883-1887. [PMID: 29314462 DOI: 10.1002/anie.201711364] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2017] [Revised: 12/13/2017] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Tritium-labeled molecules are critical tools for elucidating the binding and metabolic properties of bioactive compounds, particularly during pharmaceutical discovery. Direct tritiation of inert C-H bonds with T2 gas is an ideal approach for tritium labeling, but significant gaps remain for direct tritiation of structurally complex molecules with diverse functional groups. Here we report the first application of palladium(II) C-H activation chemistry for tritiation with T2 gas. This practical transformation exhibits novel substrate scope and greater functional group tolerance compared to previous state of the art tritiation methods, and has been applied to directly tritiate 9 complex pharmaceuticals and an unprotected dipeptide. The isolated tritium-labeled products exhibit >15 Ci mmol-1 specific activity, exceeding the typical requirements for application in studies of molecular interaction and metabolism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haifeng Yang
- Department of Process Research & Development, MRL, Merck Sharp & Dohme Corp., Rahway, NJ, 07065, USA
| | - Peter G Dormer
- Department of Process Research & Development, MRL, Merck Sharp & Dohme Corp., Rahway, NJ, 07065, USA
| | - Nelo R Rivera
- Department of Process Research & Development, MRL, Merck Sharp & Dohme Corp., Rahway, NJ, 07065, USA
| | - Andrew J Hoover
- Department of Process Research & Development, MRL, Merck Sharp & Dohme Corp., Rahway, NJ, 07065, USA
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25
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Yang H, Dormer PG, Rivera NR, Hoover AJ. Palladium(II)-Mediated C−H Tritiation of Complex Pharmaceuticals. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2018. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.201711364] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Haifeng Yang
- Department of Process Research & Development, MRL; Merck Sharp & Dohme Corp.; Rahway NJ 07065 USA
| | - Peter G. Dormer
- Department of Process Research & Development, MRL; Merck Sharp & Dohme Corp.; Rahway NJ 07065 USA
| | - Nelo R. Rivera
- Department of Process Research & Development, MRL; Merck Sharp & Dohme Corp.; Rahway NJ 07065 USA
| | - Andrew J. Hoover
- Department of Process Research & Development, MRL; Merck Sharp & Dohme Corp.; Rahway NJ 07065 USA
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26
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Narayanam MK, Ma G, Champagne PA, Houk KN, Murphy JM. Synthesis of [ 18 F]Fluoroarenes by Nucleophilic Radiofluorination of N-Arylsydnones. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2017; 56:13006-13010. [PMID: 28834065 PMCID: PMC5674999 DOI: 10.1002/anie.201707274] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2017] [Revised: 08/17/2017] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
A practical method for radiofluorination of anilines with [18 F]fluoride via N-arylsydnone intermediates is described. These precursors are stable, easy to handle and facilitate direct and regioselective 18 F-labeling to prepare [18 F]fluoroarenes. The value of this methodology is further highlighted by successful application to prepare an 18 F-labeled neuropeptide.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maruthi Kumar Narayanam
- Department of Molecular and Medical Pharmacology and Crump Institute for Molecular Imaging, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, 90095, USA
| | - Gaoyuan Ma
- Department of Molecular and Medical Pharmacology and Crump Institute for Molecular Imaging, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, 90095, USA
| | - Pier Alexandre Champagne
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, and Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, 90095, USA
| | - Kendall N Houk
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, and Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, 90095, USA
| | - Jennifer M Murphy
- Department of Molecular and Medical Pharmacology and Crump Institute for Molecular Imaging, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, 90095, USA
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27
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Beyzavi MH, Mandal D, Strebl MG, Neumann CN, D’Amato EM, Chen J, Hooker JM, Ritter T. 18F-Deoxyfluorination of Phenols via Ru π-Complexes. ACS CENTRAL SCIENCE 2017; 3:944-948. [PMID: 28979935 PMCID: PMC5621004 DOI: 10.1021/acscentsci.7b00195] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2017] [Indexed: 05/14/2023]
Abstract
The deficiency of robust and practical methods for 18F-radiofluorination is a bottleneck for positron emission tomography (PET) tracer development. Here, we report the first transition-metal-assisted 18F-deoxyfluorination of phenols. The transformation benefits from readily available phenols as starting materials, tolerance of moisture and ambient atmosphere, large substrate scope, and translatability to generate doses appropriate for PET imaging.
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Affiliation(s)
- M. Hassan Beyzavi
- Department
of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Harvard
University, 12 Oxford
Street, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, United States
- Athinoula
A. Martinos Center for Biomedical Imaging, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Charlestown, Massachusetts 02129, United States
| | - Debashis Mandal
- Department
of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Harvard
University, 12 Oxford
Street, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, United States
| | - Martin G. Strebl
- Department
of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Harvard
University, 12 Oxford
Street, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, United States
- Athinoula
A. Martinos Center for Biomedical Imaging, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Charlestown, Massachusetts 02129, United States
| | - Constanze N. Neumann
- Department
of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Harvard
University, 12 Oxford
Street, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, United States
| | - Erica M. D’Amato
- Department
of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Harvard
University, 12 Oxford
Street, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, United States
| | - Junting Chen
- Max-Planck-Institut
für Kohlenforschung, Kaiser-Wilhelm-Platz 1, D-45470 Mülheim an der Ruhr, Germany
| | - Jacob M. Hooker
- Athinoula
A. Martinos Center for Biomedical Imaging, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Charlestown, Massachusetts 02129, United States
- Division
of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging, Department of Radiology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts 02144, United States
| | - Tobias Ritter
- Department
of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Harvard
University, 12 Oxford
Street, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, United States
- Division
of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging, Department of Radiology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts 02144, United States
- Max-Planck-Institut
für Kohlenforschung, Kaiser-Wilhelm-Platz 1, D-45470 Mülheim an der Ruhr, Germany
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28
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Narayanam MK, Ma G, Champagne PA, Houk KN, Murphy JM. Synthesis of [18F]Fluoroarenes by Nucleophilic Radiofluorination ofN-Arylsydnones. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2017. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.201707274] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Maruthi Kumar Narayanam
- Department of Molecular and Medical Pharmacology and Crump Institute for Molecular Imaging; David Geffen School of Medicine; University of California, Los Angeles; Los Angeles CA 90095 USA
| | - Gaoyuan Ma
- Department of Molecular and Medical Pharmacology and Crump Institute for Molecular Imaging; David Geffen School of Medicine; University of California, Los Angeles; Los Angeles CA 90095 USA
| | - Pier Alexandre Champagne
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, and Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering; University of California, Los Angeles; Los Angeles CA 90095 USA
| | - Kendall N. Houk
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, and Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering; University of California, Los Angeles; Los Angeles CA 90095 USA
| | - Jennifer M. Murphy
- Department of Molecular and Medical Pharmacology and Crump Institute for Molecular Imaging; David Geffen School of Medicine; University of California, Los Angeles; Los Angeles CA 90095 USA
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29
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Taylor NJ, Emer E, Preshlock S, Schedler M, Tredwell M, Verhoog S, Mercier J, Genicot C, Gouverneur V. Derisking the Cu-Mediated 18F-Fluorination of Heterocyclic Positron Emission Tomography Radioligands. J Am Chem Soc 2017; 139:8267-8276. [PMID: 28548849 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.7b03131] [Citation(s) in RCA: 138] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Molecules labeled with fluorine-18 (18F) are used in positron emission tomography to visualize, characterize and measure biological processes in the body. Despite recent advances in the incorporation of 18F onto arenes, the development of general and efficient approaches to label radioligands necessary for drug discovery programs remains a significant task. This full account describes a derisking approach toward the radiosynthesis of heterocyclic positron emission tomography (PET) radioligands using the copper-mediated 18F-fluorination of aryl boron reagents with 18F-fluoride as a model reaction. This approach is based on a study examining how the presence of heterocycles commonly used in drug development affects the efficiency of 18F-fluorination for a representative aryl boron reagent, and on the labeling of more than 50 (hetero)aryl boronic esters. This set of data allows for the application of this derisking strategy to the successful radiosynthesis of seven structurally complex pharmaceutically relevant heterocycle-containing molecules.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas J Taylor
- University of Oxford , Chemistry Research Laboratory, 12 Mansfield Road, Oxford OX1 3TA, U.K
| | - Enrico Emer
- University of Oxford , Chemistry Research Laboratory, 12 Mansfield Road, Oxford OX1 3TA, U.K
| | - Sean Preshlock
- University of Oxford , Chemistry Research Laboratory, 12 Mansfield Road, Oxford OX1 3TA, U.K
| | - Michael Schedler
- University of Oxford , Chemistry Research Laboratory, 12 Mansfield Road, Oxford OX1 3TA, U.K
| | - Matthew Tredwell
- University of Oxford , Chemistry Research Laboratory, 12 Mansfield Road, Oxford OX1 3TA, U.K
| | - Stefan Verhoog
- University of Oxford , Chemistry Research Laboratory, 12 Mansfield Road, Oxford OX1 3TA, U.K
| | - Joel Mercier
- UCB Biopharma SPRL , 1420 Braine-L'Alleud, Belgium
| | | | - Véronique Gouverneur
- University of Oxford , Chemistry Research Laboratory, 12 Mansfield Road, Oxford OX1 3TA, U.K
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30
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Abstract
In the current issue of ACS Chemical Neuroscience, Kim et al. report on the early characterization of 4-(3-[18F] fluorophenethoxy)pyrimidine (18F-FPP) as a new positron emission tomography radiotracer for imaging brain 5-HT2C receptors ( Kim, J., et al. ( 2017 ) A potential PET radiotracer for the 5-HT2c receptor: Synthesis and in vivo evaluation of 4-(3-[18F]Fluorophenethoxy)pyrimidine. ACS Chem. Neurosci. , DOI 10.1021/acschemneuro.6b00445 ). At the present time, the tracer properties of 18F-FPP have only been reported in rats. If 18F-FPP is indeed shown to be suitable as a 5-HT2C receptor PET tracer in humans, it will very likely have an important impact both in the development of any new chemical entities (NCEs) targeted to 5-HT2C receptors, as well as a tool to advance understanding of 5-HT2C receptor function both in normal and abnormal brain states.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guy A. Higgins
- InterVivo Solutions Inc., 120 Carlton Street, Toronto, ON M5A
4K2, Canada
- Department of Pharmacology & Toxicology, University of Toronto, 1 King’s College Circle, Toronto, ON M5S 1A8, Canada
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31
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Kim J, Moon BS, Lee BC, Lee HY, Kim HJ, Choo H, Pae AN, Cho YS, Min SJ. A Potential PET Radiotracer for the 5-HT2C Receptor: Synthesis and in Vivo Evaluation of 4-(3-[18F]fluorophenethoxy)pyrimidine. ACS Chem Neurosci 2017; 8:996-1003. [DOI: 10.1021/acschemneuro.6b00445] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Juhyeon Kim
- Center for Neuro-Medicine, Korea Institute of Science and Technology (KIST), 5 Hwarangno 14-gil, Seongbuk-gu, Seoul 02792, Republic of Korea
- Department of Chemistry, Korea University, Seoul 02841, Republic of Korea
| | - Byung Seok Moon
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, Seoul National University Bundang Hospital, Seongnam 13620, Republic of Korea
| | - Byung Chul Lee
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, Seoul National University Bundang Hospital, Seongnam 13620, Republic of Korea
| | - Ho-Young Lee
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, Seoul National University Bundang Hospital, Seongnam 13620, Republic of Korea
| | - Hak-Joong Kim
- Department of Chemistry, Korea University, Seoul 02841, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyunah Choo
- Center for Neuro-Medicine, Korea Institute of Science and Technology (KIST), 5 Hwarangno 14-gil, Seongbuk-gu, Seoul 02792, Republic of Korea
- Department of Biological Chemistry, Korea University of Science and Technology (UST), 217 Gajungro, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon 34113, Republic of Korea
| | - Ae Nim Pae
- Department of Biological Chemistry, Korea University of Science and Technology (UST), 217 Gajungro, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon 34113, Republic of Korea
- Convergence Research Center for Diagnosis,
Treatment and Care System of Dementia, KIST, Seoul 02792, Republic of Korea
| | - Yong Seo Cho
- Center for Neuro-Medicine, Korea Institute of Science and Technology (KIST), 5 Hwarangno 14-gil, Seongbuk-gu, Seoul 02792, Republic of Korea
- Department of Biological Chemistry, Korea University of Science and Technology (UST), 217 Gajungro, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon 34113, Republic of Korea
| | - Sun-Joon Min
- Department of Chemical & Molecular Engineering/Applied Chemistry, Hanyang University, Ansan, Gyeonggi-do 15588, Republic of Korea
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Zischler J, Kolks N, Modemann D, Neumaier B, Zlatopolskiy BD. Alcohol-Enhanced Cu-Mediated Radiofluorination. Chemistry 2017; 23:3251-3256. [DOI: 10.1002/chem.201604633] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2016] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Johannes Zischler
- Institute of Neuroscience and Medicine, INM-5: Nuclear Chemistry; Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH; 52425 Jülich Germany
- Institute of Radiochemistry and Experimental Molecular Imaging; University Clinic Cologne; Kerpener Str. 62 50937 Cologne Germany
- Max Planck Institute for Metabolism Research; Gleueler Str. 50 50931 Cologne Germany
| | - Niklas Kolks
- Institute of Radiochemistry and Experimental Molecular Imaging; University Clinic Cologne; Kerpener Str. 62 50937 Cologne Germany
| | - Daniel Modemann
- Institute of Neuroscience and Medicine, INM-5: Nuclear Chemistry; Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH; 52425 Jülich Germany
| | - Bernd Neumaier
- Institute of Neuroscience and Medicine, INM-5: Nuclear Chemistry; Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH; 52425 Jülich Germany
- Institute of Radiochemistry and Experimental Molecular Imaging; University Clinic Cologne; Kerpener Str. 62 50937 Cologne Germany
- Max Planck Institute for Metabolism Research; Gleueler Str. 50 50931 Cologne Germany
| | - Boris D. Zlatopolskiy
- Institute of Radiochemistry and Experimental Molecular Imaging; University Clinic Cologne; Kerpener Str. 62 50937 Cologne Germany
- Max Planck Institute for Metabolism Research; Gleueler Str. 50 50931 Cologne Germany
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van der Born D, Pees A, Poot AJ, Orru RVA, Windhorst AD, Vugts DJ. Fluorine-18 labelled building blocks for PET tracer synthesis. Chem Soc Rev 2017; 46:4709-4773. [DOI: 10.1039/c6cs00492j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 113] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
This review presents a comprehensive overview of the synthesis and application of fluorine-18 labelled building blocks since 2010.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dion van der Born
- Department of Radiology & Nuclear Medicine
- VU University Medical Center
- 1081 HV Amsterdam
- The Netherlands
| | - Anna Pees
- Department of Radiology & Nuclear Medicine
- VU University Medical Center
- 1081 HV Amsterdam
- The Netherlands
| | - Alex J. Poot
- Department of Radiology & Nuclear Medicine
- VU University Medical Center
- 1081 HV Amsterdam
- The Netherlands
| | - Romano V. A. Orru
- Department of Chemistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences and Amsterdam Institute for Molecules
- Medicines & Systems (AIMMS)
- VU University Amsterdam
- Amsterdam
- The Netherlands
| | - Albert D. Windhorst
- Department of Radiology & Nuclear Medicine
- VU University Medical Center
- 1081 HV Amsterdam
- The Netherlands
| | - Danielle J. Vugts
- Department of Radiology & Nuclear Medicine
- VU University Medical Center
- 1081 HV Amsterdam
- The Netherlands
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Carbonnel E, Besset T, Poisson T, Labar D, Pannecoucke X, Jubault P. 18F-Fluoroform: a 18F-trifluoromethylating agent for the synthesis of SCF218F-aromatic derivatives. Chem Commun (Camb) 2017; 53:5706-5709. [DOI: 10.1039/c7cc02652h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
A new protocol for the synthesis of SCF218F-aromatic derivatives from 18F-fluoroform is described.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Tatiana Besset
- Normandie Univ
- COBRA
- UMR 6014 et FR 3038
- Univ. Rouen
- INSA Rouen
| | - Thomas Poisson
- Normandie Univ
- COBRA
- UMR 6014 et FR 3038
- Univ. Rouen
- INSA Rouen
| | - Daniel Labar
- Pole of Molecular Imaging
- Radiotherapy and Oncology (MIRO) Institute of Experimental and Clinical Research (IREC) Université Catholique de Louvain
- 1200-Brussels
- Belgium
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Li S, Schmitz A, Lee H, Mach RH. Automation of the Radiosynthesis of Six Different 18F-labeled radiotracers on the AllinOne. EJNMMI Radiopharm Chem 2016; 1:15. [PMID: 29564391 PMCID: PMC5843816 DOI: 10.1186/s41181-016-0018-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2016] [Accepted: 09/22/2016] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Fast implementation of positron emission tomography (PET) into clinical and preclinical studies highly demands automated synthesis for the preparation of PET radiopharmaceuticals in a safe and reproducible manner. The aim of this study was to develop automated synthesis methods for these six 18F-labeled radiopharmaceuticals produced on a routine basis at the University of Pennsylvania using the AllinOne synthesis module. Results The development of automated syntheses with varying complexity was accomplished including HPLC purification, SPE procedures and final formulation with sterile filtration. The six radiopharmaceuticals were obtained in high yield and high specific activity with full automation on the AllinOne synthesis module under current good manufacturing practice (cGMP) guidelines. Conclusion The study demonstrates the versatility of this synthesis module for the preparation of a wide variety of 18F-labeled radiopharmaceuticals for PET imaging studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shihong Li
- Department of Radiology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA USA
| | - Alexander Schmitz
- Department of Radiology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA USA
| | - Hsiaoju Lee
- Department of Radiology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA USA
| | - Robert H Mach
- Department of Radiology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA USA
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36
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Mossine AV, Thompson S, Brooks AF, Sowa AR, Miller JM, Scott PJH. Fluorine-18 patents (2009-2015). Part 2: new radiochemistry. Pharm Pat Anal 2016; 5:319-49. [PMID: 27610753 PMCID: PMC5138992 DOI: 10.4155/ppa-2016-0028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2016] [Accepted: 08/01/2016] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Fluorine-18 ((18)F) is one of the most common positron-emitting radionuclides used in the synthesis of positron emission tomography radiotracers due to its ready availability, convenient half-life and outstanding imaging properties. In Part 1 of this review, we presented the first analysis of patents issued for novel radiotracers labeled with fluorine-18. In Part 2, we follow-up with a focus on patents issued for new radiochemistry methodology using fluorine-18 issued between January 2009 and December 2015.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew V Mossine
- Department of Radiology, University of Michigan Medical School, 1301 Catherine St., Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
| | - Stephen Thompson
- Department of Radiology, University of Michigan Medical School, 1301 Catherine St., Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
| | - Allen F Brooks
- Department of Radiology, University of Michigan Medical School, 1301 Catherine St., Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
| | - Alexandra R Sowa
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, University of Michigan, 428 Church St., Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
| | - Jason M Miller
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, University of Michigan, 428 Church St., Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
| | - Peter JH Scott
- Department of Radiology, University of Michigan Medical School, 1301 Catherine St., Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, University of Michigan, 428 Church St., Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
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38
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Preshlock S, Calderwood S, Verhoog S, Tredwell M, Huiban M, Hienzsch A, Gruber S, Wilson TC, Taylor NJ, Cailly T, Schedler M, Collier TL, Passchier J, Smits R, Mollitor J, Hoepping A, Mueller M, Genicot C, Mercier J, Gouverneur V. Enhanced copper-mediated (18)F-fluorination of aryl boronic esters provides eight radiotracers for PET applications. Chem Commun (Camb) 2016; 52:8361-4. [PMID: 27241832 DOI: 10.1039/c6cc03295h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 113] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
[(18)F]FMTEB, [(18)F]FPEB, [(18)F]flumazenil, [(18)F]DAA1106, [(18)F]MFBG, [(18)F]FDOPA, [(18)F]FMT and [(18)F]FDA are prepared from the corresponding arylboronic esters and [(18)F]KF/K222 in the presence of Cu(OTf)2py4. The method was successfully applied using three radiosynthetic platforms, and up to 26 GBq of non-carrier added starting activity of (18)F-fluoride.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sean Preshlock
- University of Oxford, Chemistry Research Laboratory, 12 Mansfield Road, OX1 3TA Oxford, UK.
| | - Samuel Calderwood
- University of Oxford, Chemistry Research Laboratory, 12 Mansfield Road, OX1 3TA Oxford, UK.
| | - Stefan Verhoog
- University of Oxford, Chemistry Research Laboratory, 12 Mansfield Road, OX1 3TA Oxford, UK.
| | - Matthew Tredwell
- University of Oxford, Chemistry Research Laboratory, 12 Mansfield Road, OX1 3TA Oxford, UK.
| | - Mickael Huiban
- Imanova, Burlington Danes building Imperial College, London Hammersmith Hospital, Du Cane Road, London W12 0NN, UK
| | - Antje Hienzsch
- ABX GmbH Heinrich-Glaeser-Strasse 10-14, D-01454 Radeberg, Germany
| | - Stefan Gruber
- University of Oxford, Chemistry Research Laboratory, 12 Mansfield Road, OX1 3TA Oxford, UK.
| | - Thomas C Wilson
- University of Oxford, Chemistry Research Laboratory, 12 Mansfield Road, OX1 3TA Oxford, UK.
| | - Nicholas J Taylor
- University of Oxford, Chemistry Research Laboratory, 12 Mansfield Road, OX1 3TA Oxford, UK.
| | - Thomas Cailly
- University of Oxford, Chemistry Research Laboratory, 12 Mansfield Road, OX1 3TA Oxford, UK. and Normandie University, UNICAEN, CERMN, F-14032 Caen, France
| | - Michael Schedler
- University of Oxford, Chemistry Research Laboratory, 12 Mansfield Road, OX1 3TA Oxford, UK.
| | | | - Jan Passchier
- Imanova, Burlington Danes building Imperial College, London Hammersmith Hospital, Du Cane Road, London W12 0NN, UK
| | - René Smits
- ABX GmbH Heinrich-Glaeser-Strasse 10-14, D-01454 Radeberg, Germany
| | - Jan Mollitor
- ABX GmbH Heinrich-Glaeser-Strasse 10-14, D-01454 Radeberg, Germany
| | | | - Marco Mueller
- ABX GmbH Heinrich-Glaeser-Strasse 10-14, D-01454 Radeberg, Germany
| | - Christophe Genicot
- Global Chemistry, UCB New Medicines, UCB Biopharma sprl, 1420 Braine-L'Alleud, Belgium
| | - Joël Mercier
- Global Chemistry, UCB New Medicines, UCB Biopharma sprl, 1420 Braine-L'Alleud, Belgium
| | - Véronique Gouverneur
- University of Oxford, Chemistry Research Laboratory, 12 Mansfield Road, OX1 3TA Oxford, UK.
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Methods for the synthesis of fluorine-18-labeled aromatic amino acids, radiotracers for positron emission tomography (PET). Russ Chem Bull 2016. [DOI: 10.1007/s11172-015-1037-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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Sanford MS, Scott PJH. Moving Metal-Mediated (18)F-Fluorination from Concept to Clinic. ACS CENTRAL SCIENCE 2016; 2:128-130. [PMID: 27163039 PMCID: PMC4827458 DOI: 10.1021/acscentsci.6b00061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
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41
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Hoover AJ, Lazari M, Ren H, Narayanam MK, Murphy JM, van Dam RM, Hooker JM, Ritter T. A Transmetalation Reaction Enables the Synthesis of [ 18F]5-Fluorouracil from [ 18F]Fluoride for Human PET Imaging. Organometallics 2016; 35:1008-1014. [PMID: 27087736 PMCID: PMC4829938 DOI: 10.1021/acs.organomet.6b00059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2016] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Translation of new 18F-fluorination reactions to produce radiotracers for human positron emission tomography (PET) imaging is rare because the chemistry must have useful scope and the process for 18F-labeled tracer production must be robust and simple to execute. The application of transition metal mediators has enabled impactful 18F-fluorination methods, but to date none of these reactions have been applied to produce a human-injectable PET tracer. In this article we present chemistry and process innovations that culminate in the first production from [18F]fluoride of human doses of [18F]5-fluorouracil, a PET tracer for cancer imaging in humans. The first preparation of nickel σ-aryl complexes by transmetalation from arylboronic acids or esters was developed and enabled the synthesis of the [18F]5-fluorouracil precursor. Routine production of >10 mCi doses of [18F]5-fluorouracil was accomplished with a new instrument for azeotrope-free [18F]fluoride concentration in a process that leverages the tolerance of water in nickel-mediated 18F-fluorination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew J Hoover
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Harvard University , 12 Oxford Street, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, United States
| | - Mark Lazari
- Department of Molecular and Medical Pharmacology and Crump Institute for Molecular Imaging, David Geffen School of Medicine at University of California, Los Angeles , 570 Westwood Plaza, Los Angeles, California 90095, United States
| | - Hong Ren
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Harvard University, 12 Oxford Street, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, United States; Athinoula A. Martinos Center for Biomedical Imaging, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Charlestown, Massachusetts 02129, United States; Division of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging, Department of Radiology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts 02114, United States
| | - Maruthi Kumar Narayanam
- Department of Molecular and Medical Pharmacology and Crump Institute for Molecular Imaging, David Geffen School of Medicine at University of California, Los Angeles , 570 Westwood Plaza, Los Angeles, California 90095, United States
| | - Jennifer M Murphy
- Department of Molecular and Medical Pharmacology and Crump Institute for Molecular Imaging, David Geffen School of Medicine at University of California, Los Angeles , 570 Westwood Plaza, Los Angeles, California 90095, United States
| | - R Michael van Dam
- Department of Molecular and Medical Pharmacology and Crump Institute for Molecular Imaging, David Geffen School of Medicine at University of California, Los Angeles , 570 Westwood Plaza, Los Angeles, California 90095, United States
| | - Jacob M Hooker
- Athinoula A. Martinos Center for Biomedical Imaging, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Charlestown, Massachusetts 02129, United States; Division of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging, Department of Radiology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts 02114, United States
| | - Tobias Ritter
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Harvard University, 12 Oxford Street, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, United States; Division of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging, Department of Radiology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts 02114, United States; Max-Planck-Institut für Kohlenforschung, Kaiser-Wilhelm-Platz 1, D-45470 Mülheim an der Ruhr, Germany
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Preshlock S, Tredwell M, Gouverneur V. (18)F-Labeling of Arenes and Heteroarenes for Applications in Positron Emission Tomography. Chem Rev 2016; 116:719-66. [PMID: 26751274 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.5b00493] [Citation(s) in RCA: 477] [Impact Index Per Article: 59.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Diverse radiochemistry is an essential component of nuclear medicine; this includes imaging techniques such as positron emission tomography (PET). As such, PET can track diseases at an early stage of development, help patient care planning through personalized medicine and support drug discovery programs. Fluorine-18 is the most frequently used radioisotope in PET radiopharmaceuticals for both clinical and preclinical research. Its physical and nuclear characteristics (97% β(+) decay, 109.8 min half-life, 635 keV positron energy) and high specific activity make it an attractive nuclide for labeling and molecular imaging. Arenes and heteroarenes are privileged candidates for (18)F-incorporation as they are metabolically robust and therefore widely used by medicinal chemists and radiochemists alike. For many years, the range of (hetero)arenes amenable to (18)F-fluorination was limited by the lack of chemically diverse precursors, and of radiochemical methods allowing (18)F-incorporation in high selectivity and efficiency (radiochemical yield and purity, specific activity, and radio-scalability). The appearance of late-stage fluorination reactions catalyzed by transition metal or small organic molecules (organocatalysis) has encouraged much research on the use of these activation manifolds for (18)F-fluorination. In this piece, we review all of the reactions known to date to install the (18)F substituent and other key (18)F-motifs (e.g., CF3, CHF2, OCF3, SCF3, OCHF2) of medicinal relevance onto (hetero)arenes. The field has changed significantly in the past five years, and the current trend suggests that the radiochemical space available for PET applications will expand rapidly in the near future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sean Preshlock
- Chemistry Research Laboratory, University of Oxford , Oxford OX1 3TA, United Kingdom
| | - Matthew Tredwell
- Chemistry Research Laboratory, University of Oxford , Oxford OX1 3TA, United Kingdom
| | - Véronique Gouverneur
- Chemistry Research Laboratory, University of Oxford , Oxford OX1 3TA, United Kingdom
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Mossine AV, Brooks AF, Makaravage KJ, Miller JM, Ichiishi N, Sanford MS, Scott PJH. Synthesis of [18F]Arenes via the Copper-Mediated [18F]Fluorination of Boronic Acids. Org Lett 2015; 17:5780-3. [PMID: 26568457 PMCID: PMC4672358 DOI: 10.1021/acs.orglett.5b02875] [Citation(s) in RCA: 177] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
![]()
A copper-mediated
radiofluorination of aryl- and vinylboronic acids
with K18F is described. This method exhibits high functional
group tolerance and is effective for the radiofluorination of a range
of electron-deficient, -neutral, and -rich aryl-, heteroaryl-, and
vinylboronic acids. This method has been applied to the synthesis
of [18F]FPEB, a PET radiotracer for quantifying metabotropic
glutamate 5 receptors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew V Mossine
- Department of Radiology, University of Michigan Medical School , 1301 Catherine Street, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
| | - Allen F Brooks
- Department of Radiology, University of Michigan Medical School , 1301 Catherine Street, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
| | - Katarina J Makaravage
- Department of Chemistry, University of Michigan , 930 North University Avenue, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
| | - Jason M Miller
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, University of Michigan , 428 Church Street, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
| | - Naoko Ichiishi
- Department of Chemistry, University of Michigan , 930 North University Avenue, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
| | - Melanie S Sanford
- Department of Chemistry, University of Michigan , 930 North University Avenue, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
| | - Peter J H Scott
- Department of Radiology, University of Michigan Medical School , 1301 Catherine Street, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States.,Department of Medicinal Chemistry, University of Michigan , 428 Church Street, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
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Vaidyanathan G, McDougald D, Koumarianou E, Choi J, Hens M, Zalutsky MR. Synthesis and evaluation of 4-[18F]fluoropropoxy-3-iodobenzylguanidine ([18F]FPOIBG): A novel 18F-labeled analogue of MIBG. Nucl Med Biol 2015; 42:673-84. [PMID: 25956997 PMCID: PMC4481138 DOI: 10.1016/j.nucmedbio.2015.04.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2014] [Revised: 04/10/2015] [Accepted: 04/13/2015] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Radioiodinated meta-iodobenzylguanidine (MIBG), a norepinephrine transporter (NET) substrate, has been extensively used as an imaging agent to study the pathophysiology of the heart and for the diagnosis and treatment of neuroendocrine tumors. The goal of this study was to develop an (18)F-labeled analogue of MIBG that like MIBG itself could be synthesized in a single radiochemical step. Towards this end, we designed 4-fluoropropoxy-3-iodobenzylguanidine (FPOIBG). METHODS Standards of FPOIBG and 4-fluoropropoxy-3-bromobenzylguanidine (FPOBBG) as well as their tosylate precursors for labeling with (18)F, and a tin precursor for the preparation of radioiodinated FPOIBG were synthesized. Radiolabeled derivatives were synthesized by nucleophilic substitution and electrophilic iododestannylation from the corresponding precursors. Labeled compounds were evaluated for NET transporter recognition in in vitro assays using three NET-expressing cell lines and in biodistribution experiments in normal mice, with all studies performed in a paired-label format. Competitive inhibition of [(125)I]MIBG uptake by unlabeled benzylguanidine compounds was performed in UVW-NAT cell line to determine IC50 values. RESULTS [(18)F]FPOIBG was synthesized from the corresponding tosylate precursor in 5.2 ± 0.5% (n = 6) overall radiochemical yields starting with aqueous fluoride in about 105 min. In a paired-label in vitro assay, the uptake of [(18)F]FPOIBG at 2h was 10.2 ± 1.5%, 39.6 ± 13.4%, and 13.3 ± 2.5%, in NET-expressing SK-N-SH, UVW-NAT, and SK-N-BE(2c) cells, respectively, while these values for [(125)I]MIBG were 57.3 ± 8.1%, 82.7 ± 8.9%, and 66.3 ± 3.6%. The specificity of uptake of both tracers was demonstrated by blocking with desipramine. The (125)I-labeled congener of FPOIBG gave similar results. On the other hand, [(18)F]FPOBBG, a compound recently reported in the literature, demonstrated much higher uptake, albeit less than that of co-incubated [(125)I]MIBG. IC50 values for FPOIBG were higher than those obtained for MIBG and FPOBBG. Unlike the case with [(18)F]FPOBBG, the heart uptake [(18)F]FPOIBG in normal mice was significantly lower than that of MIBG. CONCLUSION Although [(18)F]FPOIBG does not appear to warrant further consideration as an (18)F-labeled MIBG analogue, analogues wherein the iodine in it is replaced with a chlorine, fluorine or hydrogen might be worth pursuing. ADVANCES IN KNOWLEDGE AND IMPLICATIONS FOR PATIENT CARE An (18)F-labeled analogue of the well-known radiopharmaceutical MIBG could have significant impact, potentially improving imaging of NET related disease in cardiology and in the imaging of neuroendocrine tumors. Although (18)F-labeled analogues of MIBG have been reported including LMI1195, we undertook this work hypothesizing that based on its greater structural similarity to MIBG, FPOIBG might be a better analogue than LMI1195.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ganesan Vaidyanathan
- Department of Radiology, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina 27710.
| | - Darryl McDougald
- Department of Radiology, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina 27710
| | - Eftychia Koumarianou
- Department of Radiology, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina 27710
| | - Jaeyeon Choi
- Department of Radiology, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina 27710
| | - Marc Hens
- Department of Radiology, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina 27710
| | - Michael R Zalutsky
- Department of Radiology, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina 27710
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Abstract
The role of fluorine in drug design and development is expanding rapidly as we learn more about the unique properties associated with this unusual element and how to deploy it with greater sophistication. The judicious introduction of fluorine into a molecule can productively influence conformation, pKa, intrinsic potency, membrane permeability, metabolic pathways, and pharmacokinetic properties. In addition, (18)F has been established as a useful positron emitting isotope for use with in vivo imaging technology that potentially has extensive application in drug discovery and development, often limited only by convenient synthetic accessibility to labeled compounds. The wide ranging applications of fluorine in drug design are providing a strong stimulus for the development of new synthetic methodologies that allow more facile access to a wide range of fluorinated compounds. In this review, we provide an update on the effects of the strategic incorporation of fluorine in drug molecules and applications in positron emission tomography.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric P Gillis
- Department of Discovery Chemistry, Bristol-Myers Squibb Research and Development , 5 Research Parkway, Wallingford, Connecticut 06492, United States
| | - Kyle J Eastman
- Department of Discovery Chemistry, Bristol-Myers Squibb Research and Development , 5 Research Parkway, Wallingford, Connecticut 06492, United States
| | - Matthew D Hill
- Department of Discovery Chemistry, Bristol-Myers Squibb Research and Development , 5 Research Parkway, Wallingford, Connecticut 06492, United States
| | - David J Donnelly
- Discovery Chemistry Platforms, PET Radiochemical Synthesis, Bristol-Myers Squibb Research and Development , P.O. Box 4000, Princeton, New Jersey 08543, United States
| | - Nicholas A Meanwell
- Department of Discovery Chemistry, Bristol-Myers Squibb Research and Development , 5 Research Parkway, Wallingford, Connecticut 06492, United States
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Herth MM, Knudsen GM. Current radiosynthesis strategies for 5-HT2Areceptor PET tracers. J Labelled Comp Radiopharm 2015; 58:265-73. [DOI: 10.1002/jlcr.3288] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2014] [Revised: 03/10/2015] [Accepted: 03/16/2015] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Matthias M. Herth
- Center for Integrated Molecular Brain Imaging; Rigshospitalet and University of Copenhagen; Blegdamsvej 9 Copenhagen DK-2100 Denmark
- Department of Drug Design and Pharmacology; University of Copenhagen; Jagtvej 160 Copenhagen DK-2100 Denmark
| | - Gitte M. Knudsen
- Center for Integrated Molecular Brain Imaging; Rigshospitalet and University of Copenhagen; Blegdamsvej 9 Copenhagen DK-2100 Denmark
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Sergeev ME, Morgia F, Lazari M, Wang C, van Dam RM. Titania-catalyzed radiofluorination of tosylated precursors in highly aqueous medium. J Am Chem Soc 2015; 137:5686-94. [PMID: 25860121 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.5b02659] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Nucleophilic radiofluorination is an efficient synthetic route to many positron-emission tomography (PET) probes, but removal of water to activate the cyclotron-produced [(18)F]fluoride has to be performed prior to reaction, which significantly increases overall radiolabeling time and causes radioactivity loss. In this report, we demonstrate the possibility of (18)F-radiofluorination in highly aqueous medium. The method utilizes titania nanoparticles, 1:1 (v/v) acetonitrile-thexyl alcohol solvent mixture, and tetra-n-butylammonium bicarbonate as a phase-transfer agent. Efficient radiolabeling is directly performed with aqueous [(18)F]fluoride without the need for a drying/azeotroping step to significantly reduce radiosynthesis time. High radiochemical purity of the target compound is also achieved. The substrate scope of the synthetic strategy is demonstrated with a range of aromatic, aliphatic, and cycloaliphatic tosylated precursors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maxim E Sergeev
- Department of Molecular and Medical Pharmacology and Crump Institute for Molecular Imaging, David Geffen School of Medicine at University of California, Los Angeles, 570 Westwood Plaza, Los Angeles, California 90095, United States
| | - Federica Morgia
- Department of Molecular and Medical Pharmacology and Crump Institute for Molecular Imaging, David Geffen School of Medicine at University of California, Los Angeles, 570 Westwood Plaza, Los Angeles, California 90095, United States
| | - Mark Lazari
- Department of Molecular and Medical Pharmacology and Crump Institute for Molecular Imaging, David Geffen School of Medicine at University of California, Los Angeles, 570 Westwood Plaza, Los Angeles, California 90095, United States
| | - Christopher Wang
- Department of Molecular and Medical Pharmacology and Crump Institute for Molecular Imaging, David Geffen School of Medicine at University of California, Los Angeles, 570 Westwood Plaza, Los Angeles, California 90095, United States
| | - R Michael van Dam
- Department of Molecular and Medical Pharmacology and Crump Institute for Molecular Imaging, David Geffen School of Medicine at University of California, Los Angeles, 570 Westwood Plaza, Los Angeles, California 90095, United States
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48
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Sander K, Gendron T, Yiannaki E, Cybulska K, Kalber TL, Lythgoe MF, Årstad E. Sulfonium salts as leaving groups for aromatic labelling of drug-like small molecules with fluorine-18. Sci Rep 2015; 5:9941. [PMID: 25898175 PMCID: PMC4404714 DOI: 10.1038/srep09941] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2014] [Accepted: 03/17/2015] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Positron emission tomography (PET) is unique in that it allows quantification of biochemical processes in vivo, but difficulties with preparing suitably labelled radiotracers limit its scientific and diagnostic applications. Aromatic [(18)F]fluorination of drug-like small molecules is particularly challenging as their functional group compositions often impair the labelling efficiency. Herein, we report a new strategy for incorporation of (18)F into highly functionalized aromatic compounds using sulfonium salts as leaving groups. The method is compatible with pharmacologically relevant functional groups, including aliphatic amines and basic heterocycles. Activated substrates react with [(18)F]fluoride at room temperature, and with heating the reaction proceeds in the presence of hydrogen bond donors. Furthermore, the use of electron rich spectator ligands allows efficient and regioselective [(18)F]fluorination of non-activated aromatic moieties. The method provides a broadly applicable route for (18)F labelling of biologically active small molecules, and offers immediate practical benefits for drug discovery and imaging with PET.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kerstin Sander
- Institute of Nuclear Medicine – Radiochemistry, University College London, 235 Euston Road (T-5), London NW1 2BU, UK
| | - Thibault Gendron
- Institute of Nuclear Medicine – Radiochemistry, University College London, 235 Euston Road (T-5), London NW1 2BU, UK
| | - Elena Yiannaki
- Department of Chemistry, University College London, 20 Gordon Street, London WC1H 0AJ, UK
| | - Klaudia Cybulska
- Division of Biosciences, University College London, Gower Street, London WC1E 6BT, UK
| | - Tammy L. Kalber
- Centre for Advanced Biomedical Imaging, University College London, 72 Huntley Street, London WC1E 6DD, UK
| | - Mark F. Lythgoe
- Centre for Advanced Biomedical Imaging, University College London, 72 Huntley Street, London WC1E 6DD, UK
| | - Erik Årstad
- Institute of Nuclear Medicine – Radiochemistry, University College London, 235 Euston Road (T-5), London NW1 2BU, UK
- Department of Chemistry, University College London, 20 Gordon Street, London WC1H 0AJ, UK
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49
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Zlatopolskiy BD, Zischler J, Krapf P, Zarrad F, Urusova EA, Kordys E, Endepols H, Neumaier B. Copper-mediated aromatic radiofluorination revisited: efficient production of PET tracers on a preparative scale. Chemistry 2015; 21:5972-9. [PMID: 25708748 DOI: 10.1002/chem.201405586] [Citation(s) in RCA: 101] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2014] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Two novel methods for copper-mediated aromatic nucleophilic radiofluorination were recently reported. Evaluation of these methods reveals that, although both are efficient in small-scale experiments, they are inoperative for the production of positron emission tomography (PET) tracers. Since high base content turned out to be responsible for low radiochemical conversions, a "low base" protocol has been developed which affords (18)F-labeled arenes from diaryliodonium salts and aryl pinacol boronates in reasonable yields. Furthermore, implementation of our "minimalist" approach to the copper-mediated [(18)F]-fluorination of (mesityl)(aryl)iodonium salts allows the preparation of (18)F-labeled arenes in excellent RCCs. The novel radiofluorination method circumvents time-consuming azeotropic drying and avoids the utilization of base and other additives, such as cryptands. Furthermore, this procedure enables the production of clinically relevant PET tracers; [(18)F]FDA, 4-[(18)F]FPhe, and [(18)F]DAA1106 are obtained in good isolated radiochemical yields. Additionally, [(18)F]DAA1106 has been evaluated in a rat stroke model and demonstrates excellent potential for visualization of translocator protein 18 kDa overexpression associated with neuroinflammation after ischemic stroke.
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Affiliation(s)
- Boris D Zlatopolskiy
- Institute of Radiochemistry and Experimental Molecular Imaging, University Clinic Cologne, Kerpener Str. 62, 50937 Cologne (Germany), Fax: (+49) 221-47886851; Max Planck Institute for Metabolism Research, Gleueler Str. 50, 50931 Cologne (Germany)
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50
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Neumann CN, Ritter T. Late-stage fluorination: fancy novelty or useful tool? Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2015; 54:3216-21. [PMID: 25653137 DOI: 10.1002/anie.201410288] [Citation(s) in RCA: 196] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2014] [Revised: 12/09/2014] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Charming fluorine: This Essay examines the recent surge in late-stage fluorination reactions and outlines challenges that need to be overcome to increase the impact of modern fluorination methods on the synthesis of complex organofluorine compounds. It is outlined how an improved understanding of the bonding interactions of fluoride could lead to a new class of mild fluorinating reagents and a range of functional-group-tolerant reactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Constanze N Neumann
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Harvard University, 12 Oxford Street, Cambridge, MA 02138 (USA) http://www.chem.harvard.edu/groups/ritter/
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