Cyclic-AMP mediated regulation of ABCB mRNA expression in mussel haemocytes

Neuroendocrine functions of monoamines in invertebrates: Focus on bivalve molluscs

Monoamines (MA) such as serotonin, catecholamines (dopamine, norepinephrine, epinephrine), and trace amines (octopamine, tyramine), are neurotransmitters and neuroendocrine modulators in vertebrates, that contribute to adaptation to the environment. Although MA are conserved in evolution, information is still fragmentary in invertebrates, given the diversity of phyla and species. However, MA are crucial in homeostatic processes in these organisms, where the absence of canonical endocrine glands in many groups implies that the modulation of physiological functions is essentially neuroendocrine. In this review, we summarize available information on MA systems in invertebrates, with focus on bivalve molluscs, that are widespread in different aquatic environments, where they are subjected to a variety of environmental stimuli. Available data are reviewed on the presence of the different MA in bivalve tissues, their metabolism, target cells, signaling pathways, and the physiological functions modulated in larval and adult stages. Research gaps and perspectives are highlighted, in order to enrich the framework of knowledge on MA neuroendocrine functions, and on their role in adaptation to ongoing and future environmental changes.

Glyphosate and its breakdown product AMPA elicit cytoprotective responses in haemocytes of the Mediterranean mussel (Mytilus galloprovincialis)

This study investigates the effects of glyphosate (GLY) and its metabolite AMPA on cytoprotective and detoxification mechanisms in haemocytes of Mytilus galloprovincialis. Cells were treated in vitro with 0.1 and 1.0 µg/L GLY, 0.1 µg/L, 0.1 and 1.0 µg/L AMPA, or two mixtures GLY+AMPA (0.1 µg/L GLY + 0.1 µg/L AMPA, 1.0 µg/L GLY + 1.0 µg/L AMPA). GLY and AMPA increased MXR efflux activity and modulated expression of the ABCB transcript encoding a MXR related ABC transporter P-glycoprotein. The mixtures GLY+AMPA reduced efflux activity with ABCB down-regulation (at 1 µg/L GLY/AMPA). Modulation of lysosomal and immune related transcripts generally agree with known effects of the chemicals on these physiological functions. Given their cumulative action as chemosensitizers of the MXR system, and their interactive effects on haemocyte parameters, glyphosate and AMPA at environmental concentrations should be addressed as a concern factor for the biological vulnerability of marine habitats.

Physiological Roles of Serotonin in Bivalves: Possible Interference by Environmental Chemicals Resulting in Neuroendocrine Disruption

Contaminants of Emerging Concerns (CECs) are defined as chemicals not commonly monitored in aquatic ecosystems, but with the potential to cause adverse effects on biota. CECs include Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals (EDCs) and Neuro-Endocrine disruptors (NEDs) of vertebrates. However, most invertebrates only rely on neuroendocrine systems to maintain homeostatic processes. Although conserved neuroendocrine components have been characterized in ecologically relevant groups, limited knowledge on invertebrate neuroendocrinology makes it difficult to define EDCs and NEDs in most species. The monoamine serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine, 5-HT) acts both as a neurotransmitter and as a peripheral hormone in mammals. In molluscs, 5-HT is involved in multiple physiological roles and molecular components of the serotonergic system have been identified. This review is focused on the effects of CECs on the serotonergic system of bivalve molluscs. Bivalves are widespread in all aquatic environments, estuarine and coastal areas in particular, where they are exposed to a variety of chemicals. In bivalves, 5-HT is involved in gametogenesis and spawning, oocyte maturation and sperm motility, regulates heart function, gill ciliary beating, mantle/siphon function, the ''catch'' state of smooth muscle and immune responses. Components of 5-HT transduction (receptors and signaling pathways) are being identified in several bivalve species. Different CECs have been shown to affect bivalve serotonergic system. This particularly applies to antidepressants, among the most commonly detected human pharmaceuticals in the aquatic environment. In particular, selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) are frequently detected in seawater and in bivalve tissues. Information available on the effects and mechanisms of action of SSRIs on the serotonergic system of adult bivalves is summarized. Data are also reported on the effects of CECs on development of neuroendocrine pathways of early larval stages, in particular on the effects of model EDCs in the marine mussel Mytilus galloprovincialis. Overall, available data point at the serotonergic system as a sensitive target for neuroendocrine disruption in bivalves. The results contribute drawing Adverse Outcome Pathways (AOPs) for model EDCs and SSRIs in larvae and adults. However, basic research on neuroendocrine signaling is still needed to evaluate the potential impact of neuroendocrine disruptors in key invertebrate groups of aquatic ecosystems.

Upregulation of Chemoresistance by Mg2+ Deficiency through Elevation of ATP Binding Cassette Subfamily B Member 1 Expression in Human Lung Adenocarcinoma A549 Cells

Several anticancer drugs including cisplatin (CDDP) induce hypomagnesemia. However, it remains fully uncertain whether Mg²⁺ deficiency affects chemosensitivity of cancer cells. Here, we investigated the effect of low Mg²⁺ concentration (LM) on proliferation and chemosensitivity using human lung adenocarcinoma A549 cells. Cell proliferation was reduced by continuous culture with LM accompanied with the elevation of G1 phase proportion. The amounts of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and stress makers such as phosphorylated-ataxia telangiectasia mutated and phosphorylated-p53 were increased by LM. Cell injury was dose-dependently increased by anticancer drugs such as CDDP and doxorubicin (DXR), which were suppressed by LM. Similar results were obtained by roscovitine, a cell cycle inhibitor. These results suggest that LM induces chemoresistance mediated by ROS production and G1 arrest. The mRNA and protein levels of ATP binding cassette subfamily B member 1 (ABCB1) were increased by LM and roscovitine. The LM-induced elevation of ABCB1 and nuclear p38 expression was suppressed by SB203580, a p38 MAPK inhibitor. PSC833, an ABCB1 inhibitor, and SB203580 rescued the sensitivity to anticancer drugs. In addition, cancer stemness properties were suppressed by SB203580. We suggest that Mg²⁺ deficiency reduces the chemotherapy sensitivity of A549 cells, although it suppresses cell proliferation.

MicroRNA-mediated stress response in bivalve species

Bivalve mollusks are important aquatic organisms, which are used for biological monitoring because of their abundance, ubiquitous nature, and abilities to adapt to different environments. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are small noncoding RNAs, which typically silence the expression of target genes; however, certain miRNAs directly or indirectly upregulate their target genes. They are rapidly modulated and play an essential role in shaping the response of organisms to stresses. Based on the regulatory function and rapid alteration of miRNAs, they could act as biomarkers for biotic and abiotic stress, including environmental stresses and contaminations. Moreover, mollusk, particularly hemocytes, rapidly respond to environmental changes, such as pollution, salinity changes, and desiccation, which makes them an attractive model for this purpose. Thus, bivalve mollusks could be considered a good animal model to examine a system's response to different environmental conditions and stressors. miRNAs have been reported to adjust the adaptation and physiological functions of bivalves during endogenous and environmental stressors. In this review, we aimed to discuss the potential mechanisms underlying the response of bivalves to stressors and how miRNAs orchestrate this process; however, if necessary, other organisms' response is included to explain specific processes.

Evaluating bivalve cytoprotective responses and their regulatory pathways in a climate change scenario

Temperature is a relevant abiotic factor affecting physiological performance and distribution of marine animals in natural environments. The changes in global seawater temperatures make it necessary to understand how molecular mechanisms operate under the cumulative effects of global climate change and chemical pollution to promote/hamper environmental acclimatization. Marine mussels are excellent model organisms to infer the impacts of those anthropogenic threats on coastal ecosystems. In this study, Mediterranean mussels (Mytilus galloprovincialis) were exposed to different concentrations of the metal copper (Cu as CuCl₂: 2.5, 5, 10, 20, 40 μg/L) or the antibiotic oxytetracycline (OTC: 0.1, 1, 10, 100, 1000 μg/L) at increasing seawater temperatures (16 °C, 20 °C, 24 °C). Transcriptional modulation of a 70-kDa heat shock protein (HSP70) and of the ABC transporter P-glycoprotein (P-gp, encoded by the ABCB gene) was assessed along with the cAMP/PKA signaling pathway regulating both gene expressions. At the physiological temperature of mussels (16 °C), Cu and OTC induced bimodal changes of cAMP levels and PKA activities in gills of exposed animals. A correlation between OTC- or Cu- induced changes of PKA activity and expression of hsp70 and ABCB was observed. Temperature increases (up to 24 °C) altered ABCB and hsp70 responses to the pollutants and disrupted their relationship with cAMP/PKA modulation, leading to loss of correlation between the biological endpoints. On the whole, the results indicate that temperature may impair the effects of inorganic and organic chemicals on the cAMP/PKA signaling pathway of mussels, in turn altering key molecular mediators of physiological plasticity and cytoprotection.

Glucagon‑like peptide‑1 analogue exendin‑4 modulates serotonin transporter expression in intestinal epithelial cells

Serotonin-selective reuptake transporter (SERT) regulates extracellular availability of serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine; 5-HT) and participates in the pathogenesis of functional disorders. Colonic SERT expression is decreased in colonic sensitized rats, and the glucagon-like peptide-1 analogue, exendin-4, reduces visceral hypersensitivity by decreasing 5-HT levels and increasing SERT expression. The present in vitro study aimed to further investigate the effects of exendin-4 on SERT expression, and to examine the role of GLP-1 and its receptor in the regulation of 5-HT. SERT mRNA and protein expression levels were detected by reverse transcription-quantitative PCR and western blotting. A ^[3H]−5-HT reuptake experiment was performed in IEC-6 rat intestinal epithelial cells treated with exendin-4. Effects on the adenosine cyclophosphate (AC)/PKA pathway were examined by variously treating cells with the AC activator forskolin, the protein kinase A (PKA) inhibitor H89 and the AC inhibitor SQ22536. Exendin-4 treatment upregulated SERT expression and enhanced 5-HT reuptake in IEC-6 cells. Also, PKA activity in IEC-6 cells was increased by both exendin-4 and forskolin, whereas these effects were abolished by the pre-treatment of exendin-9, which is a GLP-1R inhibitor, SQ22536 and H89. In conclusion, exendin-4 may be associated with the upregulation of SERT expression via the AC/PKA signaling pathway.

Phenotypical and molecular changes induced by carbamazepine and propranolol on larval stages of Mytilus galloprovincialis

The possible impact of carbamazepine (CBZ) and propranolol (PROP), two widespread pharmaceuticals in the aquatic environment, were investigated on morphology and gene transcription of early larvae of Mytilus galloprovincialis. Pharmaceuticals were first tested in a wide concentration range (from 0.01 to 1000 μg/L) through the 48-hpf embryotoxicity assay. The results showed that both compounds significantly affected embryo development from environmental concentrations. Although similar EC₅₀ were obtained, (≅ 1 μg/L) CBZ induced a progressive increase in embryo malformations, whereas PROP apparently showed greater impacts in terms of arrested development and embryo mortality at higher concentrations (>10 μg/L). Transcriptional analyses of 17 genes involved in different physiological functions in mussels and/or in their response to environmental contaminants, were performed at 24 and 48 h pf at two selected concentrations of CBZ and PROP (0.01 and 1 μg/L). Both compounds induced down-regulation of shell-specific and neuroendocrine related transcripts, while distinct effects were observed on antioxidant, lysosomal, and immune-related transcripts, also depending on the larval stage investigated. The results demonstrate that CBZ and PROP can affect development and gene transcription in mussel early larvae at environmental concentrations.

The Multixenobiotic resistance system as a possible protective response triggered by microplastic ingestion in Mediterranean mussels (Mytilus galloprovincialis): Larvae and adult stages

The emerging paradigm on plastic pollution in marine environments is that microsize particles (MPs) have far more subtle effects than bigger fragments, given their size range overlapping with that of particles ingested by filter-feeders. The impacts include gut blockage, altered feeding and energy allocation, with knock-on effects on widespread physiological processes. This study investigated whether ingestion of polystyrene MPs (PS-MPs) triggers protective processes in marine mussels. The Multixenobiotic resistance (MXR) system is a cytoprotective mechanism acting as an active barrier against harmful xenobiotics and a route of metabolite detoxification. Both larvae and adults were employed in laboratory experiments with different concentrations of 3-μm PS-MPs (larvae), and 3-μm and 45-μm PS-MPs (adults) matching size range of planktonic food through the mussel lifecycle. Embryos grown in the presence of 3-μm PS-MPs showed significant reduction of MXR activity and down-regulation of ABCB and ABCC transcripts encoding the two main MXR-related transporters P-glycoprotein and the Multidrug resistance-related protein, respectively. In adults, effects of PS-MPs were assessed in haemocytes and gills, which showed different modulation of MXR activity and ABCB/ABCC expression according to MP size (haemocyte and gills) or particle concentration (haemocyte). These data showed that modulation of MXR activity is part of a generalized response triggered by particle ingestion.

Investigating appearance and regulation of the MXR phenotype in early embryo stages of the Mediterranean mussel (Mytilus galloprovincialis)

Multixenobiotic resistance (MXR) efflux transporters constitute a broad-spectrum physiological defense system allowing marine bivalves to cope with environmental challenges. There is, however, scarce information on the type and role that different MXR transporters may have in embryos, which represent the most sensitive stages of bivalves to environmental stress. In this study regulation of MXR-related transporters was investigated in early developmental stages of the Mediterranean mussel (Mytilus galloprovincialis). In vitro fertilization experiments using gametes from naturally-spawning broodstocks were performed to follow embryo development from fertilized eggs (30min post fertilization, pf) to fully developed D-shape veligers (48hpf). Quantitative PCR analyses indicated that ABCB and ABCC transcripts encoding the MXR-related transporters P-glycoproteins (P-gp) and Multidrug resistance proteins (Mrp), respectively, were expressed soon after 30minpf, with ABCC being more expressed than ABCB. Copy numbers of both transcripts were increased in trochophorae and D-veligers. MXR efflux activity assessed using the fluorescent substrate rhodamine 123 and selective P-gp or Mrp inhibitors showed that the P-gp mediated efflux was detected only in D-veligers, while a significant Mrp mediated efflux was detected soon after 30minpf and remained almost unchanged in trochophorae and D-veligers. MXR modulation by propranolol and carbamazepine showed that the pharmaceuticals may act as transcriptional regulators and substrates. Results reported lead to hypothesize that while P-gp aids in xenobiotic efflux performing a prominent protective role, Mrp could be a dual-functioning transporter performing both protective and physiological functions in mussel development.

Impact of bisphenol A (BPA) on early embryo development in the marine mussel Mytilus galloprovincialis: Effects on gene transcription

Bisphenol A (BPA), a monomer used in plastic manufacturing, is weakly estrogenic and a potential endocrine disruptor in mammals. Although it degrades quickly, it is pseudo-persistent in the environment because of continual inputs, with reported concentrations in aquatic environments between 0.0005 and 12 μg/L. BPA represents a potential concern for aquatic ecosystems, as shown by its reproductive and developmental effects in aquatic vertebrates. In invertebrates, endocrine-related effects of BPA were observed in different species and experimental conditions, with often conflicting results, indicating that the sensitivity to this compound can vary considerably among related taxa. In the marine mussel Mytilus galloprovincialis BPA was recently shown to affect early development at environmental concentrations. In this work, the possible effects of BPA on mussel embryos were investigated at the molecular level by evaluating transcription of 13 genes, selected on the basis of their biological functions in adult mussels. Gene expression was first evaluated in trocophorae and D-veligers (24 and 48 h post fertilization) grown in physiological conditions, in comparison with unfertilized eggs. Basal expressions showed a general up-regulation during development, with distinct transcript levels in trocophorae and D-veligers. Exposure of fertilized eggs to BPA (10 μg/L) induced a general upregulation at 24 h pf, followed by down regulation at 48 h pf. Mytilus Estrogen Receptors, serotonin receptor and genes involved in biomineralization (Carbonic Anydrase and Extrapallial Protein) were the most affected by BPA exposure. At 48 h pf, changes in gene expression were associated with irregularities in shell formation, as shown by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), indicating that the formation of the first shelled embryo, a key step in mussel development, represents a sensitive target for BPA. Similar results were obtained with the natural estrogen 17β-estradiol. The results demonstrate that BPA and E₂ can affect Mytilus early development through dysregulation of gene transcription.

Insights into the regulation of the MXR response in haemocytes of the Mediterranean mussel (Mytilus galloprovincialis)

This study investigated functional and transcriptional modulation of the Multixenobiotic resistance (MXR) system as a cytoprotective mechanism contributing to the physiological chemoresistance of haemocytes in the Mediterranean mussel. Basal transport activity was assessed using the model substrate rhodamine 123 and specific inhibitors for the MXR-related transporters P-glycoprotein (ABCB mRNA) and Multidrug resistance-related protein (ABCC mRNA). Results showed that MXR activity in mussel haemocytes was mainly supported by the Mrp-mediated efflux. In agreement, ABCC was expressed at higher levels than ABCB. Activation of the cyclic-AMP (cAMP) dependent protein kinase A (PKA) resulted in increased rhodamine efflux, which was counteracted by the selective PKA inhibitor H89. Although serotonin, a physiological modulator of cAMP/PKA signaling and ABCB transcription in haemocytes, did not affect basal MXR transport, the environmental pharmaceuticals fluoxetine, propranolol, and carbamazepine, which interact in different ways with the adrenergic and serotoninergic pathways, were showed to act as modulators and substrates of MXR-related transporters and to affect cell viability. While the increased MXR activity may have lowered the cytotoxic effects of propranolol and carbamazepine, the lack of MXR efflux induction by fluoxetine may play a role in the observed cytotoxicity of the compound.

Human pharmaceuticals in the marine environment: Focus on exposure and biological effects in animal species

Marine waters have been poorly investigated for the occurrence of pharmaceutical contamination. Recent data confirm that pharmaceuticals occur widely in marine and coastal environments; therefore, assessment of potential risk to marine species needs further efforts. The present study represents the first extensive review of pharmaceutical contamination in marine environments addressing the effects on the marine biota analyzed at the molecular, cellular, and individual levels. Because pharmaceuticals differ from conventional pollutants, being designed to interact with specific physiological pathways at low doses, the most recent evidence on modes of action and physiological alterations on marine animal species are discussed. Data on spatial distributions of pharmaceuticals in waters and sediments, as well as bioaccumulation rates, are also presented. The present review also seeks to expand knowledge of how the quality of coastal and marine environments could be efficiently monitored to anticipate possible health and environmental risks.

Shotgun proteomics to unravel marine mussel (Mytilus edulis) response to long-term exposure to low salinity and propranolol in a Baltic Sea microcosm

Pharmaceuticals, among them the β-adrenoceptor blocker propranolol, are an important group of environmental contaminants reported in European waters. Laboratory exposure to pharmaceuticals on marine species has been performed without considering the input of the ecosystem flow. To unravel the ecosystem response to long-term exposure to propranolol we have performed long-term exposure to propranolol and low salinity in microcosms. We applied shotgun proteomic analysis to gills of Mytilus edulis from those Baltic Sea microcosms and identified 2071 proteins with a proteogenomic strategy. The proteome profiling patterns from the 587 highly reproductive proteins among groups define salinity as a key factor in the mussel's response to propranolol. Exposure at low salinity drives molecular mechanisms of adaptation based on a decrease in the abundance of several cytoskeletal proteins, signalling and intracellular membrane trafficking pathway combined with a response towards the maintenance of transcription and translation. The exposure to propranolol combined with low salinity modulates the expression of structural proteins including cilia functions and decreases the expression of membrane protein transporters. This study reinforces the environment concerns of the impact of low salinity in combination with anthropogenic pollutants and anticipates critical physiological conditions for the survival of the blue mussel in the northern areas.

BIOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE

Applying shotgun proteomic analysis to M. edulis gills samples from a long-term microcosm exposure to propranolol and following a proteogenomic identification strategy, we have identified 2071 proteins. The proteomic analysis unrevealed which molecular mechanisms drive the adaptation to low salinity stress and how salinity modulates the effects of exposure to propranolol. These results reinforce the idea of the impact of low salinity in combination with anthropogenic pollutants and anticipate critical physiological condition.

Adrenergic signaling in teleost fish liver, a challenging path

Adrenergic receptors or adrenoceptors (ARs) belong to the huge family of G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs) that have been well characterized in mammals primarily because of their importance as therapeutic drug targets. ARs are found across vertebrates and this review examines the path to identify and characterize these receptors in fish with emphasis on hepatic metabolism. The absence of reliable and specific pharmacological agents led investigators to define the fish hepatic AR system as relying solely on a β2-AR, cAMP-dependent signaling transduction pathway. The use of calcium-radiometric imaging, purified membranes for ligand-binding studies, and perifused rather than static cultured fish hepatocytes, unequivocally demonstrated that both α1- and β2-AR signaling systems existed in the fish liver consistent with studies in mammals. Additionally, the use of molecular tools and phylogenetic analysis clearly demonstrated the existence of multiple AR-types and -subtypes in hepatic and other tissues of a number of fish species. This review also examines the use of β-blockers as pharmaceuticals and how these drugs that are now in the aquatic environment may be impacting aquatic species including fish and some invertebrates. Clearly there is a large conservation of structure and function within the AR system of vertebrates but there remain a number of key questions that need to be addressed before a clear understanding of these systems can be resolved.

A multibiomarker approach to explore interactive effects of propranolol and fluoxetine in marine mussels

A multi-biomarker approach, including several lysosomal parameters, activity and mRNA expression of antioxidant enzymes, and DNA damage, was employed to investigate the nominal effects of 0.3 ng/L fluoxetine (FX) and 0.3 ng/L propranolol (PROP) alone or in combination (0.3 ng/L FX + 0.3 ng/L PROP) on Mediterranean mussels after a 7 day treatment. FX co-exposure appears to facilitate PROP bioaccumulation because PROP only accumulated in digestive gland of FX + PROP treated mussels. Lysosomal parameters were significantly impaired by FX + PROP treatment, while no clear antioxidant responses at the catalytic and transcriptional levels were observed. Biomarker responses led to a "medium stress level" diagnosis in FX + PROP treated mussels, according to the Expert System, whereas 0.3 ng/L PROP or FX alone did not induce consistent stress conditions. These findings suggest vulnerability of coastal marine mussels to FX and PROP contamination at environmentally relevant levels.

Molecular and Cellular Effects Induced in Mytilus galloprovincialis Treated with Oxytetracycline at Different Temperatures

The present study evaluated the interactive effects of temperature (16°C and 24°C) and a 4-day treatment with the antibiotic oxytetracycline (OTC) at 1 and 100 μg/L on cellular and molecular parameters in the mussel Mytilus galloprovincialis. Lysosomal membrane stability (LMS), a sensitive biomarker of impaired health status in this organism, was assessed in the digestive glands. In addition, oxidative stress markers and the expression of mRNAs encoding proteins involved in antioxidant defense (catalase (cat) and glutathione-S-transferase (gst)) and the heat shock response (hsp90, hsp70, and hsp27) were evaluated in the gills, the target tissue of soluble chemicals. Finally, cAMP levels, which represent an important cell signaling pathway related to oxidative stress and the response to temperature challenges, were also determined in the gills. Exposure to heat stress as well as to OTC rendered a decrease in LMS and an increase in malonedialdehyde accumulation (MDA). CAT activity was not significantly modified, whereas GST activity decreased at 24°C. Cat and gst expression levels were reduced in animals kept at 24°C compared to 16°C in the presence or absence of OTC. At 16°C, treatment with OTC caused a significant increase in cat and gst transcript levels. Hsp27 mRNA was significantly up-regulated at all conditions compared to controls at 16°C. cAMP levels were increased at 24°C independent of the presence of OTC. PCA analysis showed that 37.21% and 25.89% of the total variance was explained by temperature and OTC treatment, respectively. Interestingly, a clear interaction was observed in animals exposed to both stressors increasing LMS and MDA accumulation and reducing hsp27 gene expression regulation. These interactions may suggest a risk for the organisms due to temperature increases in contaminated seawaters.

Neurotoxicological effects on marine mussel Mytilus galloprovincialis caged at petrochemical contaminated areas (eastern Sicily, Italy): ¹H NMR and immunohistochemical assays

The neurotoxicological potential of environmental pollution, mainly related to petrochemical activities, was investigated in marine mussel Mytilus galloprovincialis. Bivalve mollusks, particularly mussels, are widely used as sentinel organisms in biomonitoring studies for assessing the impact of anthropogenic contaminants. The gills, mainly involved in nutrient uptake, digestion, gas exchange and neuronal signaling, are the first organ to be affected by pollutants present in the external environment, and therefore were selected as the target organ for this study. Mussels from an aquaculture farm were caged at a highly polluted petrochemical area and a reference site along the Augusta coastline (eastern Sicily, Italy) for one month. A battery of biomarkers indicative of neuronal perturbations was applied on gills in order to investigate on the serotonergic (i.e. serotonin, 5-HT, and its receptor, 5-HT3R), cholinergic (i.e. acetylcholine, acetylcholinesterase, AChE, and choline acetyltransferase, ChAT), and dopaminergic systems (i.e. tyrosine and tyrosine hydroxylase, TH). Overall, impairment in the normal ciliary motility was found in mussels caged at the polluted site. Alterations in serotoninergic and cholinergic systems were revealed, with enhancement of dopaminergic neurotransmission resulting in a cilio-inhibitory effect. However, the over-expression in 5-HT3R and ChAT at cellular level may indicate an adaptive response of mussels to recover a regular physiological activity in gills. To our knowledge, this is the first study that uses (1)H NMR and immunohistochemical assays. Their concurrent use demonstrated to be sensitive and effective for assessing environmental influences on the health status of aquatic organisms, and thus suitable to be applied in ecotoxicological studies.

Renal nerve stimulation leads to the activation of the Na+/H+ exchanger isoform 3 via angiotensin II type I receptor

Renal nerve stimulation at a low frequency (below 2 Hz) causes water and sodium reabsorption via α1-adrenoreceptor tubular activation, a process independent of changes in systemic blood pressure, renal blood flow, or glomerular filtration rate. However, the underlying mechanism of the reabsorption of sodium is not fully understood. Since the sympathetic nervous system and intrarenal ANG II appear to act synergistically to mediate the process of sodium reabsorption, we hypothesized that low-frequency acute electrical stimulation of the renal nerve (ESRN) activates NHE3-mediated sodium reabsorption via ANG II AT1 receptor activation in Wistar rats. We found that ESRN significantly increased urinary angiotensinogen excretion and renal cortical ANG II content, but not the circulating angiotensinogen levels, and also decreased urinary flow and pH and sodium excretion via mechanisms independent of alterations in creatinine clearance. Urinary cAMP excretion was reduced, as was renal cortical PKA activity. ESRN significantly increased NHE3 activity and abundance in the apical microvillar domain of the proximal tubule, decreased the ratio of phosphorylated NHE3 at serine 552/total NHE3, but did not alter total cortical NHE3 abundance. All responses mediated by ESRN were completely abolished by a losartan-mediated AT1 receptor blockade. Taken together, our results demonstrate that higher NHE3-mediated proximal tubular sodium reabsorption induced by ESRN occurs via intrarenal renin angiotensin system activation and triggering of the AT1 receptor/inhibitory G-protein signaling pathway, which leads to inhibition of cAMP formation and reduction of PKA activity.

Molecular cloning and characterization of a MXR-related P-glycoprotein cDNA in scallop Chlamys farreri: transcriptional response to benzo(a)pyrene, tetrabromobisphenol A and endosulfan

ATP-binding cassette transmembrane transporters (ABC transporters) have a potential role in xenobiotic resistance. In this study, we cloned full-length cDNA encoding an important ABC transporter, P-glycoprotein (Pgp) homologue from scallop Chlamys farreri (designated Cf-Pgp). The Cf-Pgp sequence is constituted by an ORF of 4152bp encoding for 1383 amino acids (GenBank accession no. ACL80139). The predicted molecular weight is 150.7kDa. The comparison of the deduced amino acid sequences with the Pgps from vertebrates showed high conservation of the residues and domains essential to the function of Pgp, including the ATP-binding cassettes and transmembrane domains. The mRNA expression of Cf-Pgp was detected in gill, digestive gland, mantle, hemocyte, adductor muscle and mature male and female gonad. We then utilized the real-time PCR to study expression levels of the Cf-Pgp gene in response to exposure of benzo(a)pyrene (BaP), tetrabromobisphenol A (TBBPA) and endosulfan (ES) (0.05, 0.5μg/L and 5μg/L) for 96 hours. The results showed that Cf-Pgp was significantly upregulated in the gill upon exposure to TBBPA and ES, but downregulated in the gill after exposure to BaP. These results suggested that the Cf-Pgp was a constitutive and inducible acute-phase protein that perhaps involved in the xenobiotic resistance of scallop C. farreri.

Effects of active pharmaceutical ingredients mixtures in mussel Mytilus galloprovincialis

Active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) are emergent environmental contaminants widely detected in surface waters as result of incomplete waste water treatment plant (WWTP) removal processes and improper disposal. The assessment of potential effects of APIs on non-target organisms is still scarce since besides presenting multiple chemical structures, properties and modes of action, these compounds occur as complex mixtures. This study comprises a 15-day exposure of mussels Mytilus galloprovincialis to mixtures (at environmentally relevant nominal concentrations) of non-steroidal inflammatory drugs ibuprofen (IBU) and diclofenac (DCF) (250 ng L(-1) each) and selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) fluoxetine (FLX) (75 ng L(-1)) (MIX 1) along with the addition of classical pro-oxidant copper (Cu) (5 μg L(-1)) (MIX 2). The goals included the assessment of oxidative stress, neurotoxic and endocrine effects on this sentinel species applying both a multibiomarker and gene expression (here and later gene expression is taken as synonym to gene transcription, although it is acknowledged that it is also affected by, e.g. translation, and mRNA and protein stability) analysis approaches. The results revealed a swifter antioxidant response in digestive glands than in gills induced by MIX 1, nevertheless the presence of Cu in MIX 2 promoted a higher lipid peroxidation (LPO) induction. Neither mixture altered acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity, while both triggered the formation of vitellogenin-like proteins in females confirming the xenoestrogenic effect of mixtures. All these results varied with respect to those obtained in previous single exposure essays. Moreover, RT-PCR analysis revealed a catalase (CAT) and CYP4Y1 gene expression down- and upregulation, respectively, with no significant changes in mRNA levels of genes encoding superoxide dismutase (SOD) and glutathione-S-transferase (GST). Finally, this study highlights variable tissue and time-specific biomarker responses and gene expression alterations, which along with several interactions between each mixture component on each biomarker confirm the susceptibility of mussels to API mixtures.

An exploratory investigation of various modes of action and potential adverse outcomes of fluoxetine in marine mussels

The present study investigated possible adverse outcome pathways (AOPs) of the antidepressant fluoxetine (FX) in the marine mussel Mytilus galloprovincialis. An evaluation of molecular endpoints involved in modes of action (MOAs) of FX and biomarkers for sub-lethal toxicity were explored in mussels after a 7-day administration of nominal FX concentrations encompassing a range of environmentally relevant values (0.03-300ng/L). FX bioaccumulated in mussel tissues after treatment with 30 and 300ng/L FX, resulting in bioconcentration factor (BCF) values ranging from 200 to 800, which were higher than expected based solely on hydrophobic partitioning models. Because FX acts as a selective serotonin (5-HT) re-uptake inhibitor increasing serotonergic neurotransmission at mammalian synapses, cell signaling alterations triggered by 5-HT receptor occupations were assessed. cAMP levels and PKA activities were decreased in digestive gland and mantle/gonads of FX-treated mussels, consistent with an increased occupation of 5-HT1 receptors negatively coupled to the cAMP/PKA pathway. mRNA levels of a ABCB gene encoding the P-glycoprotein were also significantly down-regulated. This membrane transporter acts in detoxification towards xenobiotics and in altering pharmacokinetics of antidepressants; moreover, it is under a cAMP/PKA transcriptional regulation in mussels. Potential stress effects of FX were investigated using a battery of biomarkers for mussel health status that included lysosomal parameters, antioxidant enzyme activities, lipid peroxidation, and acetylcholinesterase activity. FX reduced the health status of mussels and induced lysosomal alterations, as suggested by reduction of lysosomal membrane stability in haemocytes and by lysosomal accumulation of neutral lipids in digestive gland. No clear antioxidant responses to FX were detected in digestive gland, while gills displayed significant increases of catalase and glutathione-s-transferase activities and a significant decrease of acetylcholinesterase activity. Though AOPs associated with mammalian therapeutic MOAs remain important during assessments of pharmaceutical hazards in the environment, this study highlights the importance of considering additional MOAs and AOPs for FX, particularly in marine mussels.

The mode of action (MOA) approach reveals interactive effects of environmental pharmaceuticals on Mytilus galloprovincialis

Aquatic organisms are unintentionally exposed to a large number of pharmaceutical residues in their natural habitats. Ecotoxicological studies have agreed that these compounds are not harmful to aquatic organisms, as their environmental concentrations are typically too low. However, recent reports have shown biological effects at such low concentrations when biological endpoints related to the therapeutic effects are assessed. Therefore, conservation of molecular targets is now addressed as a key aspect for the development of more efficient test strategies for pharmaceutical environmental risk assessment, providing the rationale for the mode of action (MOA) approach. In the present study the MOA approach was used to investigate the interactive effects of fluoxetine (FX) and propranolol (PROP) on the Mediterranean mussels (Mytilus galloprovincialis). Indeed, organisms in the environment are exposed to pharmaceutical mixtures throughout their lifetime, and particular combinations may be of concern. The antidepressant FX increases serotonin (5-HT) levels in the synaptic cleft by inhibiting 5-HT reuptake. PROP, a prototypical β-adrenoceptor antagonist, also blocks 5-HT1 receptors, which are negatively coupled to cAMP-mediated signaling. Cell signaling alterations potentially triggered by 5-HT1 receptor occupation were therefore assessed after a 7-day mussel exposure to FX or PROP, alone or in combination, each at 0.3 ng/L concentration. FX decreased cAMP levels and PKA activities in digestive gland and mantle/gonads, in agreement with an increased occupation of 5-HT1 receptors. PROP caused a decrease in cAMP levels and PKA activities in digestive gland and an increase in cAMP levels in mantle/gonads, consistent with a differential expression of adrenergic and 5-HT receptors in the two tissues. Co-exposure to FX and PROP provides significant indications for antagonistic effects of the pharmaceuticals, consistent with a direct (PROP) and indirect (FX) action on the same molecular target. Interestingly, FX induced over-expression of a 5-HT1 gene product, and PROP counteracted such increase when the mixture was administered, while having per se no effect. Finally, mRNA expression of the ABCB gene encoding the MXR-related transporter P-glycoprotein was reduced by both pharmaceuticals in the digestive gland, while decreased by FX, increased by PROP, and not affected by the mixture in mantle/gonads. Since transcription of this gene product is under cAMP/PKA modulation, the impairment of regulatory pathways triggered by low concentrations of pharmaceuticals have the potential to affect the ability of animals to elaborate strategies of defense or adaptation toward further stress factors. In this specific case, the pharmaceutical mixture limits the detrimental effects of the single compounds.